RADIO WAVE

PROPAGATION
 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
INTRODUCTION : RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

2
 What is Electromagnetic Wave?

• Electromagnetic Waves also called Electro-

magnetic Radiations are basically defined
as superimposed oscillations of an Electric
and a Magnetic Field in space with
their direction of propagation
perpendicular to both of them.
• In simple words, electromagnetic waves
are oscillations produced due to crossing
over of an electric and a magnetic field.
The direction of the propagation of such waves is
perpendicular to the direction of the force of either of
these fields as seen in the above figure.
3
 Properties of Electromagnetic(EM) Wave Propagation

• EM waves travel at the speed of light.

• EM waves do not require any medium for propagation.
• EM waves travel in a transverse form.
• EM waves are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
• EM waves can be polarized.
• EM waves undergo interference and diffraction.

4
Wavelength & Frequency of the EM waves

• The wavelength(λ) and frequency (f) of the EM waves can be related

as:
c = f.λ
where c = velocity of the wave.

Now let us study some MODES of propagation of EM waves:

Mesosphere, Troposphere, Ionosphere are the different layers.

5
 Classification : Radio Wave Propagation
• These layers are used for propagation of EM waves and that EM
waves travel basically in any one of the three methods given below:
• Ground Wave
• Space Wave
• Sky Wave

6
What is Ground Wave /Surface Wave Propagation ?
• To radiate signals with high efficiency, the
antennas should have a size comparable to the
wavelength λ of the signal (at least ~ λ/4).
• At longer wavelengths (i.e., at lower frequencies),
the antennas have large physical size and they
are located on or very near to the ground.
• In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical
towers are generally used as transmitting
antennas. For such antennas, ground has a strong
influence on the propagation of the signal.
• The mode of propagation is called surface wave
propagation and the wave glides over the surface
of the earth.
7
Properties of Ground Wave Propagation
▪ Used for a low-frequency range transmission, mostly less than 2MHz.
▪ Employs the use of large antennas order of which is equivalent to the
wavelength of the EM waves and uses the ground or Troposphere for
its propagation.
▪ Signals over large distances are not sent using this method.
▪ It causes severe attenuation which increases with increased
frequency of the waves. The maximum range of coverage depends on
the transmitted power and frequency (less than a few MHz).

8
2. Sky Wave Propagation

9
 What is Sky Wave Propagation?
• In the Frequency range 300KHz–30MHz, long
distance communication can be achieved by
ionospheric reflection of radio waves back
towards the earth.
• The sky wave, often called the ionospheric
wave, is radiated in an upward direction and
returned to Earth at some distant location
because of refraction from the ionosphere.
• This form of propagation is relatively
unaffected by the Earth's surface and can
propagate signals over great distances.

11
 Properties of Sky Wave Propagation

• Used for the propagation of EM waves with a frequency range of

300KHz – 30MHz.
• Make use of the ionosphere so called due to the presence of charged
ions in the region of about 60 to 300 km from the Earth surface.
These ions provide a reflecting medium to the radio or
communication waves within a particular frequency range.
• Use of the property of the ionosphere for long-distance transmission
of the waves without much attenuation and loss of signal strength.
• Examples
• o Amateur radio , Citizens Band (CB) radio , International broadcasts

11
 3. Space Wave Propagation
• Another mode of radio wave propagation is by space waves.
• The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna :
▪ one through the air directly to the receiving antenna,
▪ the other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna.

12
 Direct Wave Propagation

▪ The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna
to the receiving antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be located within
the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
▪ Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated through
the troposphere, the radio horizon is actually about one-third farther than the
LOS or natural horizon.

13
 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
• At frequencies above 40 MHz, communication is essentially limited to
LOS paths. At these frequencies, the antennas are relatively smaller
and can be placed at heights of many wavelengths above the ground.
Because of LOS nature of propagation, direct waves get blocked at
some point by the curvature of the earth as illustrated in Fig.
• If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon then the receiving
antenna must be high enough to intercept the LOS waves.

15
 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
• If the transmitting antenna is at a height hT, then the distance to the
horizon dT is given as
dT = 2RhT
where R is the radius of the Earth (approximately 6400 km).
dT is also called the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
• The maximum LOS distance dM between the two antennas having
heights hT and hR above the earth is given by
dM = 2RhT + 2RhR
where hR is the height of receiving antenna.

15
 Space wave propagation (Satellite)
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use
this propagation method.
• For very large distances, the height of the tower used for transmission
is high enough to prevent waves from touching the earth curvature
thus preventing attenuation and loss of signal strength.

16
 Properties of Space Wave Propagation
• Space waves are used for LOS communication as well as satellite
communication.
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use
this propagation method.

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Ionisation in the Ionospheric Layers

▪ The ionosphere is further RADIATION CAUSING IONISATION IN THE IONOSPHERIC

subdivided into several layers, LAYERS
the details of which are given LAYERS PRIMARY IONISING
RADIATION FORMS
in Table.
C Cosmic
▪ Ionospheric Layers: C, D, E,
D Lyman alpha, Hard X-Rays
F1, F2, Regions
E Soft X-Rays and some
Extreme Ultra-Violet
F1 Extreme Ultra-violet, and
some Ultra-Violet
F2 Ultra-Violet

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 Frequency Selection Considerations
Selection of a suitable operating frequency (within the bounds of
frequency allocations and availability) is of prime importance for
successful communications between any two specified locations at any
given time of the day:

➢ Critical frequency (CF)

➢ Maximum usable frequency(MUF),
➢ Lowest usable frequency(LUF),
➢ Optimum working frequency(OWF) that can be used.

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Critical frequency
▪ The critical frequency is an important figure that gives an indication of the state
of the ionosphere and the resulting HF propagation.
▪ It is obtained by sending a signal pulse directly upwards.
▪ Critical frequency is defined as the maximum frequency at which the total
internal reflection(TIR) takes place from the ionosphere.
The mathematical representation is given as:
fc =9 Nmax
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
Nmax is the maximum electron density /ionization density
(electrons per cubic meter)

Critical frequency varies depending upon atmospheric conditions, time of the day and the angle of
incidence of the radio waves by the antenna.

20
Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
• When a signal is transmitted using HF propagation, over a given path
there is a maximum frequency that can be used.
• A maximum frequency that can be used for communications
between two given locations. This frequency is known as the MUF.
• Waves at frequencies above the MUF are normally refracted so slowly
that they return to Earth beyond the desired location, or pass on
through the ionosphere and are lost.
• However, that use of an established MUF certainly does not
guarantee successful communications between a transmitting site
and a receiving site. Variations in the ionosphere may occur at any
time and consequently raise or lower the predetermined MUF.

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Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
The mathematical representation of critical frequency as a function of
MUF is:
f c = f M UF / sec  ; f M U F = f C / cos 
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
fMUF is the maximum usable frequency (3 to 4 times of fc)
θ is the angle of incidence
The factor sec θ is called the MUF factor and it is a function of the path
length if the height layer is known.

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Lowest Usable frequency (LUF)
✓ As there is a maximum operating frequency that can
be used for communications between two points,
there is also a minimum operating frequency. This is
known as the LUF.
✓ As the frequency of a radio wave is lowered, the rate
of refraction increases. So the wave whose frequency
is below the established LUF is refracted back to Earth
at a shorter distance than desired, as shown in Figure.
✓ The LUF is defined as the frequency at below which
the signal falls below the minimum strength required
for satisfactory reception.
✓ The LUF is the practical limit below which
communication cannot be maintained between two Refraction of frequency below the LUF
particular radio communications stations.

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 Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
• Neither the MUF nor the LUF is a practical operating frequency.
• When the radio waves at the LUF can be refracted back to Earth at the desired
location, the signal-to-noise ratio is still much lower than at the higher
frequencies, and the probability of multipath propagation is much greater.
• Operating at or near the MUF can result in frequent signal fading and dropouts
when ionospheric variations alter the length of the transmission path.
• The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely on with the least
amount of problems. It should be high enough to avoid the problems of
multipath, absorption, and noise encountered at the lower frequencies; but not
so high as to result in the adverse effects of rapid changes in the ionosphere.
• A frequency that meets the above criteria has been established and is known as
the OWF

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OWF (Cont’d)
• The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular
transmission and which has been predicted to be used over a
particular period of time, over a path, is termed as OWF.
• Estimates the maximum frequency that must be used for a given
critical frequency and incident angle. It is the frequency chosen to
avoid the irregularities of the atmosphere.

OWF = 0.85 f MUF = 0.85 f C / cos 

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Virtual Height
• When a wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, but not sharply. However, the
path of incident wave and reflected wave are same if it is reflected from a surface
located at a greater height of this layer.
• Such a greater height is termed as virtual height.

26
Virtual Height(Cont’d)
• As shown in Figure, the curve path reaches an altitude of h1 before
being returned to the Earth.
• If the incident and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex, they
meet at a height h’, which is called the virtual reflection height of the
ionospheric layer.

Fig. The curved path of a refracted ray associated with frequency

fob.
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Virtual heights of various ionospheric layers
• The virtual height depends on conditions, the time of day, and the
layer, as shown in Table.

Ionospheric Daytime Night time

Layer virtual re. virtual ref.
height height

F2 250-400 km -
F1 200-250 km -
F - 300 km

E 110 km 110 km

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Skip distance, Sky zone
▪ The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a
radio signal is transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the
ionosphere, and been refracted back by the ionosphere.

 f 2
 MUF 
Dskip = 2h  fC 
−1

Where,
Dskip: skip distance
h: height at which reflection happens
fMUF: maximum usable frequency
fc: critical frequency

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 Skip distance, Sky zone (Cont’d)
• The size of the skip distance depends on
• the frequency of the wave,
• the angle of incidence, and
• the degree of ionization present.
• The SKIP ZONE is a zone of silence between the
point where the ground wave becomes too
weak for reception and the point where the sky
wave is first returned to Earth.
• The size of the skip zone depends on the extent
Relationship between skip zone, skip distance, and
of the ground wave coverage and the skip ground wave coverage
distance.
• When the ground wave coverage is great
enough or the skip distance is short enough
that no zone of silence occurs, there is no skip
zone.
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Refractive Index in the Ionosphere
▪ As the wave incident at angle of incidence, ithe wave is bent
towards the Earth. The bending of the wave produced by the
ionosphere follows optical laws.

▪ The direction of propagating the wave at a point in the

ionosphere is given by SNELL’S LAW

sini
n= (1)
sinr

Where,
i is the angle of incidence at lower edge of the ionosphere
r is the angle of refraction at point P
n is the refractive index
εr is the relative permittivity of the ionosphere
31
Relation between MUF & Skip distance for Flat Earth
The ionosphere has many tiny layers , for atmospheric refraction

n0 sini = n1 sin1 = n2 sin2 nk sink (2)

• The condition for the wave to return to earth is to have total internal reflection(TIR), which
begins when the refracted angle ,θr is 900.
• If this happens at the kth layer,
(3)
n0 sin i= n k sin 900 = nk
and since n0 = 1,
sin i= n sin 2  = n 2 =  nk = r (4)
k i k r

32
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• For a given angle of incidence θi and frequency f, the minimum electron density required
to achieve TIR is

NQe2 (5)
 r= sin  =1−
2

m
i 2
0 w
e

Where, N is the electron density (m-3)

me is the mass of electron at rest , me = 9.10910 −31 kg
w is the angular frequency of the wave , w = 2f
Qe is the magnitude of electron charge Qe = 1.602110−19 C
εo is the permittivity of free space  = 8.85410−12 F / m
o

33
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• If the maximium electron density present is Nmax, refraction of the wave at
normal incidence (θi=0 & sinθi = 0), the only possible way for the wave to be
totally internally reflected is if ε= 0.
• This requires the frequency to be less than the critical frequency fc, given by

NQe2 81N
 r= sin  =i 1 −
2
= 1 − (5)
m
0 w
e
2
f2

81N m a x
if εr= 0,
2
=1
fC

fC =9 Nmax
(6)

34
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
• Refractive Index as the function of frequency

n = 1−
2
w2p
= 1−
(2f ) p
2


= 1− 
fp 

2
(7)
w2 (2f )2  f 
 fp 
2
f 
2 2

n =1−   n = 1−  p  sini f 
n = = 1−  p 
2

 f   f  sinr (8)
 f 

• For MUF,  fp 
 
2

 r= 90 o , sini= 1− sin90o =1
 fMUF  (9)
2
 f p  2
=
fC2
= fC2 sec2 i
=1−sin 2i=cos 2 i
f MUF
cos2i (10) f p = fc
 fMUF 
fMUF = fC sec i (11)
Where, wp is the angular plasma frequ46ency
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
MUF,

fMUF = fc sec i = 9 Nmax seci

➢ This value of fMUF is called the maximum usable frequency, and is less than 40 MHz, and can be
as low as 25-30 MHz in period of low solar activity.

➢ Equation (11) is called the Secant Law.

➢ Secant law is applicable for flat earth and ionospheric layer.

36
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
cos i= (12)
 2 d2 
h + 
 4 

2h
cos i=
d 2 + 4h 2

f C2
Eqn(10) f 2
=
cos 2  i
MUF

2
 d 2 + 4h 2 
 = d + 4h
2 2 2
f MUF 1 
h is the height of the layer = =
f C2 cos 2  i  2h 
 4h 2
d is the skip distance on the flat
Earth’s surface d2
+1
2 2
f d
MUF
= +1 fMUF = fC 2 (13)
fC
2
4h 2 4h
37
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
tan C= (14)
d /2

d
h= tan C
2

2h
d=
tanC
1/ 2
 f 
2

d skip = 2h  M UF  −1 (15)
 C 
f 

38
Critical Angle

The wave will NOT be reflected when C

The wave will be reflected when C

39
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance
Considering the ionospheric layer is thin with sharp ionization density gradient so as to obtain mirror like
reflections.
In this figure, 2θ is the angle subtended by the skip distance d’ at the center of the earth.
From the geometry of Fig., the following relations are obtained:
d'
Arc d = 2R;
'
Angle 2=
R
OE = R; EB = h
AD = Rsin; OD = Rcos; BD = OE + EB −OD
BD = R + h − R cos 

AB = (AD )2 + (BD )2
AB = (R sin)2 + (R + h − R cos)2
Fig. The ionized layer and the curved earth
40
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between the MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
BD R + h − Rcos
cosi= = (1)
AB (Rsin)2 + (R + h − Rcos)2

(R + h − R cos)2
(cos i )
2
= Since
f C2
= (cos i2)
(R sin)2 + (R + h − R cos)2 2
f MUF

f C2 (R + h − R cos)2
(cosi ) 2
= = (2)
f 2
(R sin)2 + (R + h − R cos)2 −1

= 1+ 
MUF OA R R h
cos= = =
OB R + h  h
R1+  
R
When the skip distance d’ is maximum. OAB = 90O  R
The curvature of the earth limits both the MUF and the skip distance. h
This limit is obtained when a wave leaves the transmitter at a grazing cos 1− h
R cos= 1− + ...
angle OAB = 90o◦. R
h
Under this condition, 1− sin 2  =1−
R
41
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
Since the actual value of θ is very small, this relation can be expanded as

h
cos 1−
R
h 
1− sin 2  =1− 2h
2

R
1− = 1− h
2 1− = 1− h  2= 2h 2 =
R 2 R R R (3)

From Fig., Arc d ' = 2R

2h
d ' = 4 R 22 = 4 R 2 . = 8hR
2

R  d '2 
d '2
d' = 8hR (or) h =
d '2
cos 1−
h
=1−  
8R cos= 1− (4)
8R R R 8R2

42
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

2h 2h
Eqn (3) 2 = sin=
R R

sin=
2d ( 8R )=
'2
d '2
=
d '
sin=
d' (5)

R 4R 2
2R 2R

By substituting the values of sinand cos

f C2 (R + h − R cos)2
Eqn (2) (cos)i 2
= =
f 2
MUF (R sin)2 + (R + h − R cos)2
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Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

fC2
=
(h+d
'2
8R
) 2

(6)
2
f MUF
(d 4 )+ (h + d 8R)
'2 '2 2

d '2
2
f MUF 4 
'2 
d   f MUF
'2 
2
2  (7)
= 1+ d
fC 2
(h + d 8R )
'2 2
4
= h +

   −1
8R   f C  
The equations (8) and (9) give maximum usable frequency in terms of skip distance


1/2
 d '2  
1/ 2

2
 4   '2
d   f
(9)
fMUF = fC 1+ (8)
d = 2 h +  MUF  −1
( )
'
2
 h+d
'2
  8R  fC  
 8R 
44
The Relationship between MUF and skip distance
(a) Flat Earth case

1/ 2
d 2  f 
2

fMUF = fC +1 dskip = 2h MUF  −1
4h 2  C 
f 

(b) Curved Earth case


1/2
 d '2 
1/ 2
 
d   fMUF 
2
4   '2
fMUF = fC 1+
( )
2 d = 2 h +
'
  −1
 h+d
'2
  8R  fC  
 8R 
45
Conclusion
For shorter distances, the earth can be assumed to be flat. In the figure, h is the height of the ionospheric layer, d is the
skip distance, θi is the angle of incidence and θr is the angle of reflection.

• Critical Frequency and Maximum Usable Frequency

fC =9 Nmax fMUF = fC sec i

• The relationship between the skip distance and MUF,

d2
fMUF = fC +1 (13)
2
4h

1/ 2
 f 
2
 (15)
dskip = 2h MUF  −1
 C  
f Fig. illustrates the ionized layer which is assumed to be thin
with sharp ionization density gradient so as to obtain mirror like
reflections.
95
Conclusion
The Relationship between MUF and skip distance
(a) Flat Earth case

1/ 2
d 2  f 
2

fMUF = fC +1 dskip = 2h MUF  −1
4h 2  C 
f 

(b) Curved Earth case


1/2
 d '2 
1/ 2
 
d   fMUF 
2
4   '2
fMUF = fC 1+
( )
2 d = 2 h +
'
  −1
 h+d
'2
  8R  fC  
 8R 
47