ALTERNATIVE

ENERGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
 TYPES OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY
5.1.1 THE WOLRD’S GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
5.2.1 WHY USE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
5.2 SOLAR ENERGY
 5.2.1 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SOLAR ENERGY
Passive solar energy uses heating and cooling strategies that have been used historically such
as natural ventilation, solar heat gain, solar shading and efficient insulation. Passive solar
space heating happens when the sun shines through the windows of a building and warms
the interior.

Active solar energy systems require the input of some energy to pump a heat-absorbing fluid
medium through a collector to store and distribute the energy. Fans or pumps circulate air or
heat-absorbing liquids through collectors and then transfer the heated fluid directly to a
room or to a heat storage system. The solar collectors are either concentrating or non-
concentrating. In the non-concentrating collectors, the surface area that intercepts the solar
radiation is the same as the area absorbing the radiation. Flat-plate collectors are the most
common type of non-concentrating collectors and are used when temperatures lower than
200°F are sufficient. The collectors absorb and transfer heat to a fluid (water or air) which is
then circulated to provide heating to a building. In concentrating collectors the surface area
intercepting the solar radiation is greater, sometimes hundreds of times greater, than the
absorber area. The collector focuses or concentrates solar energy onto an absorber. The
collector usually moves so that it maintains a high degree of concentration on the absorber.
Photovoltaic (PV) Cells convert sunlight
directly into electricity using semiconducting
materials like silicon. Small PV cells power
devices like calculators, while larger PV panels
and arrays can supply electricity to homes and
even entire communities. Covering 4% of the
world’s deserts with PV panels could meet
global electricity demands.

Solar Thermal Power Plants use mirrors to

concentrate sunlight, heating a fluid to
produce steam that drives a turbine to
generate electricity. These systems track the
sun’s movement to maximize energy capture.
 5.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar power has minimal impact on the environment, depending on where it is placed. In
2009, one percent of the renewable energy generated in the United States was from solar
power (1646 MW ) out of the eight percent of the total electricity generation that was
from renewable sources. The manufacturing of photovoltaic (PV ) cells generates some
hazardous waste from the chemicals and solvents used in processing. Often solar arrays
are placed on roofs of buildings or over parking lots or integrated into construction in
other ways. However, large systems may be placed on land and particularly in deserts
where those fragile ecosystems could be damaged if care is not taken. Some solar
thermal systems use potentially hazardous fluids (to transfer heat) that require proper
handling and disposal. Concentrated solar systems may need to be cleaned regularly with
water, which is also needed for cooling the turbine-generator. Using water from
underground wells may affect the ecosystem in some arid locations.
 5.3 BIOMAS ENERGY
Biomass energy is from the energy stored in materials of biological origin such as plants and animals.
Biomass energy is the oldest energy source used by humans. Until the Industrial Revolution prompted a shift
to fossil fuels in the mid-18th century, biomass energy was the world's dominant fuel source. It includes
direct combustion of solid biomass to provide energy for heating, cooking, and even generating electricity.
The most common source for direct combustion is wood, but energy can also be generated by burning
animal manure (dung), herbaceous plant material (non-wood), peat (partially decomposed plant and animal
tissues), or converted biomass such as charcoal (wood that has been partially burned to produce a coal-like
substance). Biomass can also be converted into a liquid biofuels used to power vehicles such as ethanol from
corn, sugarcane residue and soybeans or even used cooking oil for biodiesel. Biomass energy can also be in
gaseous form such as methane. Currently, about 12 percent of the world's energy comes from biomass
(Figure 5.2). Biomass is most frequently used as a fuel source in many developing nations, but with the
decline of fossil fuel availability and the increase in fossil fuel prices, biomass is increasingly being used as a
fuel source even in developed nations

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 5.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar power has minimal impact on the environment, depending on where it is placed. In
2009, one percent of the renewable energy generated in the United States was from solar
power (1646 MW ) out of the eight percent of the total electricity generation that was
from renewable sources. The manufacturing of photovoltaic (PV ) cells generates some
hazardous waste from the chemicals and solvents used in processing. Often solar arrays
are placed on roofs of buildings or over parking lots or integrated into construction in
other ways. However, large systems may be placed on land and particularly in deserts
where those fragile ecosystems could be damaged if care is not taken. Some solar
thermal systems use potentially hazardous fluids (to transfer heat) that require proper
handling and disposal. Concentrated solar systems may need to be cleaned regularly with
water, which is also needed for cooling the turbine-generator. Using water from
underground wells may affect the ecosystem in some arid locations.
 5.3.1 DIRECT COMBUSTION OF SOLID BIOMAS
Using wood and charcoal for heating and
cooking can replace fossil fuels and reduce CO₂
emissions, especially when sourced from
naturally fallen or necessary tree removals.
However, wood smoke contains harmful
pollutants, and in regions heavily dependent on
wood, overharvesting can lead to deforestation.
Modern wood stoves minimize pollution.
Biomass is also used in power plants, such as
Colgate University’s wood-burning boiler, which
processes 20,000 tons of wood chips annually,
reducing emissions and saving costs while
covering 75% of campus heating needs.
 5.3.1 DIRECT COMBUSTION OF SOLID BIOMAS
Waste-to-energy processes use industrial byproducts and organic waste, such as
sawdust, crop residue, and municipal solid waste (MSW), to generate energy while
reducing landfill waste. These processes address two major issues: waste disposal and
renewable energy production. Several U.S. plants burn urban biomass waste for
electricity, but environmental concerns include air pollution and ash generation,
similar to coal plants.

Since MSW contains hazardous materials, incinerators and waste-to-energy plants

must filter harmful emissions, following strict U.S. EPA regulations requiring pollution
controls. Uncontained waste can impact ecosystems, and ash from combustion may
contain concentrated metals. However, if ash is clean, it can be repurposed for landfill
cover, road construction, cement blocks, or artificial reefs. High-temperature
incineration can also break down toxic chemicals into less harmful compounds,
making waste-to-energy a potentially sustainable solution when managed properly.
 5.3.2 GASEOUS BIOMASS
Organic material can be converted to methane, the main component of natural gas, by anaerobic
decomposition or fermentation, a process that utilizes anaerobic bacteria. Methane is a relatively
clean fuel that burns efficiently. It can be generated from any kind of organic waste such as
municipal sewage and garbage, livestock manure, kitchen, and garden scraps. In fact, municipal
landfills are active sites of methane production contributing annually to methane in the atmosphere
and to global warming. This gas can and is currently being captured by numerous landfills around
the United States that burn it to generate electricity at power plants or supply it to homes for
heating. The electricity may replace electricity produced by burning fossil fuels and result in a net
reduction in CO2 emissions. Burning methane produced from manure provides more heat than
burning the dung itself, and the sludge left over from bacterial digestion is a rich fertilizer,
containing healthy bacteria as well as most of the nutrients originally in the dung. The main
environmental impacts are from the construction of the plant itself. Burning methane releases CO2
and although CO2 is a greenhouse gas, its global warming potential is much lower than that of
methane (see chapter 7). Also, since this methane if from organic waste resulting from ongoing
photosynthetic processes, it is considered carbon-neutral, unlike CO2 from fossil fuels.
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 5.3.3LIQUID BIOFUELS
Biofuels, including ethanol and biodiesel, are plant-based transportation fuels that
reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Ethanol is produced by fermenting crops like corn and
sugarcane and is often blended with gasoline to improve combustion efficiency and
lower emissions. However, ethanol-gasoline blends increase evaporative emissions,
contributing to smog. Brazil leads in ethanol use, with 25% ethanol in gasoline and
many vehicles running on either fuel.

Biodiesel, made from vegetable oils like soybeans, rapeseed, and used cooking oil, can
power conventional diesel engines. It burns cleaner than petroleum diesel, reducing
pollutants like sulfur oxides and particulate matter, but increases nitrogen oxide
emissions. Biofuels can be produced from non-food plant parts (cellulosic biomass),
such as grasses, sawdust, and waste paper, reducing competition with food crops.

While biofuels are considered carbon-neutral since plants absorb CO₂ as they grow,
large-scale biofuel production has led to deforestation in some regions, making land
use unsustainable. Unlike fossil fuels, which introduce new carbon into the atmosphere,
burning biomass simply returns carbon that was already part of the natural cycle.
 5.3.4ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass energy's sustainability is debated due to several challenges. Its energy
content is often lower than fossil fuels, requiring more biomass to generate the same
energy. Producing biofuels can consume significant fossil fuels for farming, processing,
and transportation, sometimes resulting in more CO₂ emissions than it offsets. The
competition between growing crops for fuel versus food can drive up food prices and
contribute to global hunger. Additionally, excessive biomass harvesting, such as cutting
trees for firewood without replanting, reduces ecosystem services like CO₂ absorption.
Burning biomass also causes air pollution and depletes soil nutrients. Each biomass
source must be assessed for its full environmental, economic, and social impact to
determine its true sustainability.
 5.4 WIND POWER
Wind energy is a renewable power source that uses wind turbines to convert the
kinetic energy of moving air into electricity. The turbine blades generate lift,
causing rotation that drives an electric generator. Wind power is expanding across
the U.S., even in low-wind areas, and does not produce air or water pollution. By
2010, the U.S. had 40,181 MW of wind power capacity, accounting for over 20% of
global installed wind power. Since 2006, wind has contributed over 35% of new U.S.
electricity generation, second only to natural gas. While small windmills (about 1
kW) are useful for decentralized power, large-scale wind farms are more efficient
and often placed on farmland, coastal areas, or forests. California leads with 17,000
windmills generating 1,400 MW, about 80% of the U.S. total. Wind farms provide
economic benefits to landowners and offer a cleaner alternative to coal mining in
regions like the Appalachian Mountains.
 5.5 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Off shore wind turbines on lakes or the ocean may have smaller
environmental impacts than turbines on land. Wind turbines do have a few
environmental challenges. There are aesthetic concerns to some people when
they see them on the landscape. A few wind turbines have caught on fire, and
some have leaked lubricating fluids, though this is relatively rare. Some
people do not like the sound that wind turbine blades make. Turbines have
been found to cause bird and bat deaths particularly if they are located along
their migratory path. This is of particular concern if these are threatened or
endangered species. There are ways to mitigate that impact and it is currently
being researched. There are some small impacts from the construction of
wind projects or farms, such as the construction of service roads, the
production of the turbines themselves, and the concrete for the foundations.
However, overall life cycle analysis has found that turbines make much more
energy than the amount used to make and install them.
 5.6 HYDROELECTRIC POWER (HYDROPOWER)
This is the second largest source of renewable energy used, next to biomass
energy. Majority of hydropower currently comes from dams built across a river
to block the flow of river water. The water stored behind the dam contains
potential energy (see chapter 4) and when released, the potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy as the water rushes down. This energy is used to
turn blades of turbines and causing a generator to generate electricity.
Electricity generated in the powerhouse of a dam is transmitted to the electric
grid by transmission lines while the water flows into the riverbed below the dam
and continues down river. An alternative approach considered less disruptive
involves diverting a portion of the river's water through a pipe or channel and
passed through a powerhouse to generate electricity and returned to the river.
Another approach involves pumping water from a lower reservoir to a higher
reservoir and then allowed to flow downhill through a turbine, generating
electricity. This approach, however, requires energy input to pump the water.
 5.6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
HYDROELECTRICPOWER
Hydropower is a clean and renewable energy source that does not
directly produce air pollution, but it can have significant environmental
impacts. Dams and reservoirs can disrupt fish migration, particularly for
species like salmon in the Columbia River, though fish ladders help
mitigate this issue. Hydropower can also alter water temperature,
chemistry, and flow, affecting river ecosystems. Reservoir construction
may flood natural areas, farms, and archaeological sites, forcing
relocation. Additionally, stagnant water in reservoirs can produce
methane and carbon dioxide, potentially contributing to greenhouse
gas emissions at levels comparable to fossil fuels, especially in tropical
and temperate regions.
 5.6.2POTENTIAL OF TIDAL POWER
Tidal power involves placing turbines in zones of the ocean with significant
tides and currents, and using the power of flowing water to turn the blades of a
turbine to generate electricity. Ocean power systems are still being researched
and currently still experimental. For example, the Bay of Fundy, which has a 15
m tide, a dam constructed across the estuary would let water enter on the
incoming tide, then release the water through turbines at low tide. The energy
potential is great http://www.ialtenergy.com/tidal-power-news.html
, and so is the environmental cost. Tapping tidal energy resources involves
building major dams on inlets and estuaries that are prized for other purposes,
so few tidal energy facilities have been developed. Harnessing waves and
currents on a significant scale will involve designing turbine structures that are
large, inexpensive, and can operate for long periods under the physical stresses
and corrosive forces of ocean environments. Though proposed, a tidal power
plant has not been constructed at Fundy. There is a 240,000 kW tidal plant at
La Rance, France.
5.7 OTHER ALTERNATIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
5.7.1 HYDROGEN
Hydrogen gas may be an important clean fuel of the future. Hydrogen is considered an energy carrier,
like electricity and batteries, it carries energy that can be converted for use later. Hydrogen gas does not
tend to exist freely but rather hydrogen atoms bind to other atoms and molecules becoming
incorporated in everything from water to organic compounds. Therefore, to obtain hydrogen gas for
fuel, energy is needed to force these substances to release their hydrogen atoms. One such procedure is
known as electrolysis in which an electric current is passed through water to decompose the water
molecule into oxygen and hydrogen (Figure 5.13). Hydrogen can also be produced from hydrocarbons
such as natural gas and coal, fermentation of plant waste material, and using algae. The nation of
Iceland is attempting to become the first hydrogen based energy economy using its abundant
geothermal energy resources. Some energy experts believe that combining hydrogen fuel and electricity
could serve as a basis for a clean, safe, and energy efficient energy system. Electricity generated from
intermittent renewable sources such as wind and solar can be used to produce hydrogen fuel for fuel
cells that would then generate electricity to power vehicles, computers, heat homes and many other
uses. An energy system based on hydrogen would alleviate dependence on foreign fuels and help fight
climate change. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and we will never run out of it.
5.7.2 ELECTRIC CARS

Hydropower is a clean and renewable energy source that does not

directly produce air pollution, but it can have significant environmental
impacts. Dams and reservoirs can disrupt fish migration, particularly for
species like salmon in the Columbia River, though fish ladders help
mitigate this issue. Hydropower can also alter water temperature,
chemistry, and flow, affecting river ecosystems. Reservoir construction
may flood natural areas, farms, and archaeological sites, forcing
relocation. Additionally, stagnant water in reservoirs can produce
methane and carbon dioxide, potentially contributing to greenhouse
gas emissions at levels comparable to fossil fuels, especially in tropical
and temperate regions.
 5.8 POLICY AND CONVERSATION
As we finish this chapter on energy and work, it is relevant to draw some distinctions between two sometimes
misunderstood terms in the area of energy use. As has been mentioned elsewhere, the "law of the
conservation of energy'" is a very useful principle in analyzing physical processes. It is a statement that cannot
be proven from basic principles, but is a very good bookkeeping device, and no exceptions have ever been
found. It states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system will always remain constant. Related to
this principle, but remarkably different from it, is the important philosophy of energy conservation.
Conservation has to do with seeking to decrease the amount of energy used by an individual or a group
through (1) reduced consumption (e.g., turning down thermostats, driving fewer kilometers) and/or (2)
increasing conversion efficiencies in the performance of a particular task—such as developing and using more
efficient room heaters, cars that have greater miles-per-gallon ratings, energy efficient compact fluorescent
lights, energy efficient appliances, etc. Since energy in an isolated system is not destroyed or created, one
might wonder why we need to be concerned about our energy resources, since energy is a conserved quantity.
The problem is that the final result of most energy transformations is waste heat transfer to the environment
and conversion to energy forms no longer useful for doing work. To state it in another way, the potential for
energy to produce useful work has been "degraded" in the energy transformation. A rational energy policy
should encourage research by private industry and should provide funding for basic research, ensure fair
access to alternative energy sources, encourage the internalization of external cost of fossil fuel energy, and
promote the dissemination of information about the costs and benefits of alternative energy sources.
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