Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Miko Anderson P. Yjares

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 Table of Contents

Module 4: Bending 55
Introduction 55
Learning Objectives 55
Lesson 1. Shear and Moment Diagrams and Normal Stress 56
Assessment Task 73
Summary 74
Reference 75

Module 5: Stress Concentration 76

Introduction 76
Learning Objectives 76
Lesson 1. Stress Transformation 76
Assessment Task 89
Summary 90
Reference 90

Module 6: Strain Transformation 91

Introduction 91
Learning Objectives 91
Lesson 1. Strain Transformation 91
Assessment Task 104
Summary 105
Reference 106

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 List of Figures

Figure 4.1. Beam Sign Convention 56

Figure 4.2. Plotting of Shear and Moment Diagrams 57
Figure 4.3. Straight Beam 58
Figure 4.4. Beam 59
Figure 4.5. Beams made from Composite Materials 59
Figure 4.6. Curved Beam 60
Figure 4.7. Stress Concentration caused by Hole 60
Figure 4.8. Beam 61
Figure 4.9. Residual Stresses in the Beam 61
Figure 4.10. Saint-Venant’s Principle 62
Figure 4.11. Beam 62
Figure 4.12. Free-Body Diagram 62
Figure 4.13. Shear and Moment Diagrams 63
Figure 4.14. Beam with Rectangular Cross Section 65
Figure 4.15. Example 3 67
Figure 4.16. Steel Bar 69
Figure 4.17. Steel Wide-Flange Beam 71
Figure 5.1. Plane Stress 77
Figure 5.2. Plane Stress 78
Figure 5.3. Mohr’s Circle 79
Figure 5.4. x – y Plane Stress 80
Figure 5.5. State of Plane Stress at a Point 81
Figure 5.6. State of Plane Stress 83
Figure 5.7. Solid Shaft 85
Figure 5.8. Cylindrical Pressure Vessel 87
Figure 6.1. Strain Transformation Problem Solved Using Mohr’s Circle 92
Figure 6.2. Differential Element of a Material 95
Figure 6.3. Example 2 97
Figure 6.4. Example 3 99
Figure 6.5. Example 4 100
Figure 6.6. Copper Bar 102

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 MODULE 4

BENDING

Introduction

Beams and shafts are important structural and mechanical elements in engineering.
In this module we will determine the stress in these members caused by bending. The module
begins with a discussion of how to establish the shear and moment diagrams for a beam or
shaft. Like the normal-force and torque diagrams, the shear and moment diagrams provide a
useful means for determining the largest shear and moment in a member, and they specify
where these maximums occur. Once the internal moment at a section is determined, the
bending stress can then be calculated. First, we will consider members that are straight, have
a symmetric cross section, and are made of homogeneous linear elastic material. Afterward
we will discuss special cases involving unsymmetric bending and members made of
composite materials. Consideration will also be given to curved members, stress
concentrations, inelastic bending, and residual stresses (Hibbeler, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Determine the support reactions.

2. Learn about the shear and moment functions and diagrams.

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Lesson 1. Shear and Moment Diagrams and Normal Stress

Shear and moment diagrams are graphical representations of the internal shear and
moment within a beam. They can be constructed by sectioning the beam an arbitrary distance
x from the left end, using the equilibrium equations to find V and M as functions of x, and then
plotting the results. A sign convention for positive distributed load, shear, and moment must
be followed (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.1. Beam Sign Convention

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 Figure 4.2. Plotting of Shear and Moment Diagrams

It is also possible to plot the shear and moment diagrams by realizing that at each
point the slope of the shear diagram is equal to the intensity of the distributed loading at the
point (Hibbeler, 2014).

Likewise, the slope of the moment diagram is equal to the shear at the point (Hibbeler,
2014).

The area under the distributed loading diagram between the points represents the
change in shear (Hibbeler, 2014).

The area under the shear diagram represents the change in moment (Hibbeler, 2014).

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 The shear and moment at any point can be obtained using the method of sections.
The maximum (or minimum) moment occurs where the shear is zero (Hibbeler, 2014).

A bending moment tends to produce a linear variation of normal strain within a straight
beam. Provided the material is homogeneous, and linear elastic, then equilibrium can be used
to relate the internal moment in the beam to the stress distribution. The result is the flexure
formula,

where I and c are determined from the neutral axis that passes through the centroid of the
cross section (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.3. Straight Beam

If the cross-sectional area of the beam is not symmetric about an axis that is
perpendicular to the neutral axis, then unsymmetrical bending will occur. The maximum stress
can be determined from formulas, or the problem can be solved by considering the
superposition of bending caused by the moment components My and Mz about the
principal axes of inertia for the area (Hibbeler, 2014).

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 Figure 4.4. Beam

Beams made from composite materials can be “transformed” so their cross section is
considered as if it were made from a single material. To do this, the transformation factor n,
which is a ratio of the moduli of elasticity of the materials, is used to change the width b of the
beam (Hibbeler, 2014).
Once the cross section is transformed, then the stress in the transformed material is
determined using the flexure formula multiplied by n (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.5. Beams made from Composite Materials

Curved beams deform such that the normal strain does not vary linearly from the
neutral axis. Provided the material is homogeneous and linear elastic and the cross section

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has an axis of symmetry, then the curved beam formula can be used to determine the bending
stress (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.6. Curved Beam

Stress concentrations occur in members having a sudden change in their cross

section, caused, for example, by holes and notches. The maximum bending stress at these
locations is determined using a stress concentration factor K that is found from graphs
determined from experiment (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.7. Stress Concentration caused by Hole

If the bending moment causes the stress in the material to exceed its elastic limit, then
the normal strain will remain linear; however, the stress distribution will vary in accordance

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with the stress–strain diagram. The plastic and ultimate moments supported by the beam can
be determined by requiring the resultant force to be zero and the resultant moment to be
equivalent to the moment of the stress distribution (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.8. Beam

If an applied plastic or ultimate moment is released, it will cause the material to

respond elastically, thereby inducing residual stresses in the beam (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 4.9. Residual Stresses in the Beam

Recall:
When a loading is applied at a point on a body, it tends to create a stress distribution
within the body that becomes more uniformly distributed at regions removed from the point of
application of the load (Hibbeler, 2014).

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 Figure 4.10. Saint-Venant’s Principle

Example 1
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown below.

Figure 4.11. Beam

Solution:
Support Reactions. The support reactions are shown in Fig. 4.12.

Figure 4.12. Free-Body Diagram

Shear and Moment Functions. A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 4.11. The
distributed loading on this segment, wx, is represented by its resultant force only after the
segment is isolated as a free-body diagram. This force acts through the centroid of the area
comprising the distributed loading, a distance of x/2 from the right end. Applying the two
equations of equilibrium yields

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 Figure 4.13. Shear and Moment Diagrams

The shear and moment diagrams shown in Fig. 4.12 are obtained by plotting Eqs. 1 and 2.
The point of zero shear can be found from Eq. 1:

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NOTE: From the moment diagram, this value of x represents the point on the beam where the
maximum moment occurs, since the slope V = dM/dx = 0. From Eq. 2, we have

Example 2
A beam has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to the stress distribution shown in
Fig. 4.13. Determine the internal moment M at the section caused by the stress distribution
(a) using the flexure formula, (b) by finding the resultant of the stress distribution using basic
principles.

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 Figure 4.14. Beam with Rectangular Cross Section
Solution:
Part (a). The flexure formula is 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝑐/𝐼. From Fig. 4.13a, c = 6 in. and 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑘𝑠𝑖. The
neutral axis is defined as line NA, because the stress is zero along this line. Since the cross
section has a rectangular shape, the moment of inertia for the area about NA is determined
from the formula for a rectangle given on the inside front cover, i.e.,

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Part (b). The resultant force for each of the two triangular stress distributions in Fig. 4.13 is
graphically equivalent to the volume contained within each stress distribution. Thus, each
volume is

These forces, which form a couple, act in the same direction as the stresses within each
distribution, Fig. 4.13b. Furthermore, they act through the centroid of each volume, i.e., 2/3(6
in.) = 4 in. from the neutral axis of the beam. Hence the distance between them is 8 in. as
shown. The moment of the couple is therefore

Example 3
The rectangular cross section shown in Fig. 4.14a is subjected to a bending moment of M =
12 kN-m. Determine the normal stress developed at each corner of the section and specify
the orientation of the neutral axis.

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 Figure 4.15. Example 3
Solution:
Internal Moment Components. By inspection it is seen that the y and z axes represent the
principal axes of inertia since they are axes of symmetry for the cross section. As required,
we have established the z-axis as the principal axis for maximum moment of inertia. The
moment is resolved into its y and z components, where

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Section Properties. The moments of inertia about the y and z axes are

Bending Stress. Thus,

The resultant normal-stress distribution has been sketched using these values, Fig. 4.14b.
Since superposition applies, the distribution is linear as shown.

Orientation of Neutral Axis. The location z of the neutral axis (NA), Fig. 4.14b, can be
established by proportion. Along the edge BC, we require

In the same manner this is also the distance from D to the neutral axis in Fig. 4.14b. We can
also establish the orientation of the NA, which is used to specify the angle a that the axis
makes with the z or maximum principal axis. According to our sign convention, u must be

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 14
measured from the +z axis toward the +y axis. By comparison, in Fig. 4.14c, 𝜃 = − tan 3
=
−53.1° (𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = +306.9°). Thus,

This result is shown in Fig. 4.14c. Using the value of z calculated above, verify, using the
geometry of the cross section, that one obtains the same answer.

Example 4
The transition in the cross-sectional area of the steel bar is achieved using shoulder fillets as
shown in Fig. 4.15a. If the bar is subjected to a bending moment of 5 kN-m, determine the
maximum normal stress developed in the steel. The yield stress is 𝜎𝑌 = 500𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Figure 4.16. Steel Bar

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Solution:
The moment creates the largest stress in the bar at the base of the fillet, where the cross-
sectional area is smallest. From the geometry of the bar, we have r = 16 mm, h = 80 mm, w
= 120 mm. Thus,

𝑀𝑐
These values give K = 1.45. Applying 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾 , we have,
𝐼

This result indicates that the steel remains elastic since the stress is below the yield stress
(500 MPa).

Example 5
The steel wide-flange beam has the dimensions shown in Fig. 4.17a. If it is made of an elastic
perfectly plastic material having a tensile and compressive yield stress of 𝜎𝑌 = 36𝑘𝑠𝑖,
determine the shape factor for the beam.

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 Figure 4.17. Steel Wide-Flange Beam
Solution:
In order to determine the shape factor, it is first necessary to calculate the maximum elastic
moment MY and the plastic moment Mp.
Maximum Elastic Moment. The normal-stress distribution for the maximum elastic moment is
shown in Fig. 4.17b. The moment of inertia about the neutral axis is

Applying the flexure formula, we have

Plastic Moment. The plastic moment causes the steel over the entire cross section of the
beam to yield, so that the normal-stress distribution looks like that shown in Fig. 4.17c. Due
to symmetry of the cross-sectional area and since the tension and compression stress-strain
diagrams are the same, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section. In
order to determine the plastic moment, the stress distribution is divided into four composite
rectangular “blocks,” and the force produced by each “block” is equal to the volume of the
block. Therefore, we have

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These forces act through the centroid of the volume for each block. Calculating the moments
of these forces about the neutral axis, we obtain the plastic moment:

Shape Factor.

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Assessment Task 4

1. The simply supported beam in (a) has the cross-sectional area shown in (b). Determine the
absolute maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress distribution over the cross
section at this location.

2. The composite beam is made of steel (A) bonded to brass (B) and has the cross section
shown. If it is subjected to a moment of M = 6.5 kN-m, determine the maximum bending stress
in the brass and steel. Also, what is the stress in each material at the seam where they are
bonded together? Ebr = 100 GPa, Est = 200 GPa.

3. The reinforced concrete beam has the cross-sectional area shown in (a). If it is subjected to
a bending moment of M = 60 kip-ft, determine the normal stress in each of the steel reinforcing
rods and the maximum normal stress in the concrete. Take Est = 29(103) ksi and Econc = 3.6(103)
ksi.

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 Summary

The shear and moment diagrams for a beam can be constructed using the following
procedure (Hibbeler, 2014).

Support Reactions

 Determine all the reactive forces and couple moments acting on the beam and resolve
all the forces into components acting perpendicular and parallel to the beam’s axis
(Hibbeler, 2014).

Shear and Moment Functions

 Specify separate coordinates x having an origin at the beam’s left end and extending
to regions of the beam between concentrated forces and/or couple moments, or where
there is no discontinuity of distributed loading (Hibbeler, 2014).
 Section the beam at each distance x and draw the free-body diagram of one of the
segments. Be sure V and M are shown acting in their positive sense, in accordance
with the sign convention given (Hibbeler, 2014).
 The shear is obtained by summing forces perpendicular to the beam’s axis (Hibbeler,
2014).
 To eliminate V, the moment is obtained directly by summing moments about the
sectioned end of the segment (Hibbeler, 2014).

Shear and Moment Diagrams

 Plot the shear diagram (V versus x) and the moment diagram (M versus x). If numerical
values of the functions describing V and M are positive, the values are plotted above
the x axis, whereas negative values are plotted below the axis (Hibbeler, 2014).
 Generally, it is convenient to show the shear and moment diagrams below the free-
body diagram of the beam (Hibbeler, 2014).

Reference

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Hibbeler R. (2014). Mechanics of Materials, Pearson Prentice Hall, United States of America.
9th Ed.

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 MODULE 5
STRESS TRANSFORMATION

Introduction

In this module, we will show how to transform the stress components that are
associated with a particular coordinate system into components associated with a coordinate
system having a different orientation. Once the necessary transformation equations are
established, we will then be able to obtain the maximum normal and maximum shear stress
at a point and find the orientation of elements upon which they act. Plane-stress
transformation will be discussed in the first part of the module, since this condition is most
common in engineering practice. At the end of this module we will discuss a method for finding
the absolute maximum shear stress at a point when the material is subjected to both plane
and three-dimensional states of stress (Hibbeler, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Learn about the stress transformation.

2. Compute for the state of stress, principal stress, and maximum shear stress.

Lesson 1. Stress Transformation

Plane stress occurs when the material at a point is subjected to two normal stress
components 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 and a shear stress 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Provided these components are known, then

76
the stress components acting on an element having a different orientation u can be
determined using the two force equations of equilibrium or the equations of stress
transformation (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 5.1. Plane Stress

For design, it is important to determine the orientation of the element that produces
the maximum principal normal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stress. Using the
stress transformation equations, it is found that no shear stress acts on the planes of principal
stress. The principal stresses are

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 , (Hibbeler, 2014).
The planes of maximum in-plane shear stress are oriented 45 degrees from this
orientation, and on these shear planes there is an associated average normal stress (Hibbeler,
2014).

Figure 5.2. Plane Stress

Mohr’s circle provides a semi-graphical method for finding the stresses on any plane,
the principal normal stresses, and the maximum in-plane shear stress. To draw the circle, the
𝜎 and 𝜏 axes are established, the center of the circle C[(𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑥 )/2 ,0] and the reference point

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𝐴(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦 ) are plotted. The radius R of the circle extends between these two points and is
determined from trigonometry (Hibbeler, 2014).

Figure 5.3. Mohr’s Circle

If 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are of the same sign, then the absolute maximum shear stress will lie out
of plane (Hibbeler, 2014).

In the case of plane stress, the absolute maximum shear stress will be equal to the
maximum in-plane shear provided the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 have the opposite sign
(Hibbeler, 2014).

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 Figure 5.4. x – y Plane Stress

Example 1
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the element shown in Fig. 5.5a.
Determine the state of stress at the point on another element oriented 30° clockwise from the
position shown.

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 Figure 5.5. State of Plane Stress at a Point

Solution:
Equations 5-1 and 5-2:

This problem was solved in Example 9.1 using basic principles. Here we will apply Eqs.
5–1 and 5–2. From the established sign convention, Fig. 5.5, it is seen that

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Plane CD. To obtain the stress components on plane CD, Fig. 5.5b, the positive x’ axis must
be directed outward, perpendicular to CD, and the associated y’ axis is directed along CD.
The angle measured from the x to the x’ axis is 𝜃 = −30° (clockwise). Applying Eqs. 6-1 and
6-2 yields

The negative signs indicate that 𝜎𝑥′ and 𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ act in the negative x’ and y’ directions,
respectively. The results are shown acting on the element in Fig. 5.5d.
Plane BC. Establishing the x’ axis outward from plan BC, Fig. 5.5c, then between the x and x’
axes, 𝜃 = 60° (counterclockwise). Applying Eqs. 5–1 and 5–2, we get

Here 𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ has been calculated twice in order to provide a check. The negative sign for 𝜎𝑥′
indicates that this stress acts in the negative x’ direction, Fig. 5.5c. The results are shown on
the element in Fig. 5.5d.

Example 2
The state of plane stress at a failure point on the shaft is shown on the element in Fig. 5.6a.
Represent this stress state in terms of the principal stresses.

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 Figure 5.6. State of Plane Stress
Solution:
From the established sign convention, we have

Recall:
In-Plane Principal Stresses (Eq. 5-3)

Orientation of Element. Applying Eq. 5-3,

Solving, and referring to this root as 𝜃𝑃2 , as will be shown below, yields

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Since the difference between 𝜃𝑃1 and 𝜃𝑃2 is 180°, we have

Recall that 𝜃 must be measured positive counterclockwise from the x axis to the outward
normal (x’ axis) on the face of the element, and so the results are shown in Fig. 5.6b.
Principal Stress. We have

Recall:
Equation 5-4,

The principal plane on which each normal stress acts can be determined by applying Eq. 5-4

with, say, . We have

Example 3
Due to the applied loading, the element at point A on the solid shaft in Fig. 5.7a is subjected
to the state of stress shown. Determine the principal stresses acting at this point.

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 Figure 5.7. Solid Shaft
Solution:
Construction of the Circle. From Fig. 5.7a,

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The center of the circle is at

The reference point A (-12, -6) and the center C (-6, 0) are plotted in Fig. 5.7b. The circle is
constructed having a radius

Principal Stress. The principal stresses are indicated by the coordinates of points B and D.
We have, for 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 ,

The orientation of the element can be determined by calculating the angle 2𝜎𝑃2 in Fig. 5.7b,
which here is measured counterclockwise from CA to CD. It defines the direction 𝜎𝑃2 of 𝜎2
and its associated principal plane. We have

The element is oriented such that the x’ axis or 𝜎2 is directed 22.5° counterclockwise from the
horizontal (x axis) as shown in Fig. 5.7c.

Example 4
The point on the surface of the cylindrical pressure vessel in Fig. 5.8a is subjected to the state
of plane stress. Determine the absolute maximum shear stress at this point.

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 Figure 5.8. Cylindrical Pressure Vessel

Solution:
The principal stresses are 𝜎1 = 32𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎2 = 16𝑀𝑃𝑎. If these stresses are plotted along the s
axis, the three Mohr’s circles can be constructed that describe the stress state viewed in each
of the three perpendicular planes, Fig. 5.8b. The largest circle has a radius of 16 MPa and
describes the state of stress in the plane only containing𝜎1 = 32𝑀𝑃𝑎, shown shaded in Fig.
5.8a. An orientation of an element 45° within this plane yields the state of absolute maximum
shear stress and the associated average normal stress, namely,

This same result for can be obtained from direct application of

By comparison, the maximum in-plane shear stress can be determined

87
from the Mohr’s circle drawn between 𝜎1 = 32𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜎2 = 16𝑀𝑃𝑎, Fig. 5.8b. This gives a
value of

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Assessment Task 5

1. The state of plane stress at a point on a body is represented on the element shown
in (a). Represent this stress state in terms of the maximum in-plane shear stress and
associated average normal stress.

2. The state of plane stress at a point is shown on the element in (a). Determine the
maximum in-plane shear stress at this point.

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 Summary

According to Hibbeler (2014),

 The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at the
point.

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  When the state of stress is represented by the principal stresses, no shear stress will
act on the element.
 The state of stress at the point can also be represented in terms of the maximum in-
plane shear stress. In this case an average normal stress will also act on the element.
 The element representing the maximum in-plane shear stress with the associated
average normal stresses is oriented 45° from the element representing the principal
stresses.
 The general three-dimensional state of stress at a point can be represented by an
element oriented so that only three principal stresses 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡 , 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 act on it.
 In the case of plane stress, if the in-plane principal stresses both have the same sign
, the absolute maximum shear stress will occur out of the plane and has a value of
𝜏𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2. This value is greater than the in-plane shear stress.
 If the in-plane principal stresses are of opposite signs, then the absolute maximum
shear stress will equal the maximum in-plane shear stress ; that is, 𝜏𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 )/2.

Reference

Hibbeler R. (2014). Mechanics of Materials, Pearson Prentice Hall, United States of America.
9th Ed.

MODULE 6
STRAIN TRANSFORMATION

Introduction

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 The transformation of strain at a point is similar to the transformation of stress, and as
a result the methods of Module 5 will be applied in this module. Here we will also discuss
various ways for measuring strain and develop some important material-property
relationships, including a generalized form of Hooke’s law. At the end of the module, a few of
the theories used to predict the failure of a material will be discussed (Hibbeler, 2014).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Learn about strain transformation.

2. Determine the maximum in-plane shear strain, absolute maximum shear strain, and
principal strain (in-plane).

Lesson 1. Strain Transformation

When an element of material is subjected to deformations that only occur in a single
plane, then it undergoes plane strain. If the strain components 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are known for a
specified orientation of the element, then the strains acting for some other orientation of the
element can be determined using the plane-strain transformation equations. Likewise, the
principal normal strains and maximum in-plane shear strain can be determined using
transformation equations (Hibbeler, 2014).

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 Strain transformation problems can also be solved in a semi-graphical manner using
Mohr’s circle. To draw the circle, the 𝜖 and 𝛾/2 axes are established and the center of the
circle 𝐶[(𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 )/2, 0 and the “reference point” 𝐴(𝜖𝑥 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 /2 are plotted. The radius of the
circle extends between these two points and is determined from trigonometry (Hibbeler,
2014).

Figure 6.1. Strain Transformation Problem Solved Using Mohr’s Circle

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 𝜖1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖2 have the same sign then the absolute maximum shear strain will be out of
plane (Hibbeler, 2014).
In the case of plane strain, the absolute maximum shear strain will be equal to the
maximum in-plane shear strain provided the principal strains 𝜖1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖2 have opposite signs
(Hibbeler, 2014).

If the material is subjected to triaxial stress, then the strain in each direction is
influenced by the strain produced by all three stresses. Hooke’s law then involves the material
properties E and v (Hibbeler, 2014).

If E and v are known, then G can be determined (Hibbeler, 2014).

The dilatation is a measure of volumetric strain. The bulk modulus is used to measure
the stiffness of a volume of material (Hibbeler, 2014).

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 If the principal stresses at a critical point in the material are known, then a theory of
failure can be used as a basis for design (Hibbeler, 2014).
Ductile materials fail in shear, and here the maximum-shear-stress theory or the
maximum-distortion-energy theory can be used to predict failure. Both of these theories make
comparison to the yield stress of a specimen subjected to a uniaxial tensile stress.
Brittle materials fail in tension, and so the maximum-normal-stress theory or Mohr’s failure
criterion can be used to predict failure. Here comparisons are made with the ultimate tensile
stress developed in a specimen (Hibbeler, 2014).

Example 1
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane strain 𝜖𝑥 =
500(10−6 ), 𝜖𝑦 = −300(10−6 ), 𝜖𝑧 = 200(10−6 ),which tends to distort the element as shown in
Fig. 6.2a. Determine the equivalent strains acting on an element of the material oriented at
the point, clockwise 30° from the original position.

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 Figure 6.2. Differential Element of a Material
Solution:
Equations 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3:


The strain-transformation Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2 will be used to solve the problem. Since 𝜃 is
positive counterclockwise, then for this problem 𝜃 = 30°. Thus,

96
The strain in the y’ direction can be obtained from Eq. 6.3 with 𝜃 = −30°. However, we can
also obtain 𝜖𝑦′ using Eq. 6.2 with 𝜃 = 60°(𝜃 = −30° + 90°), Fig. 6.2b. We have with 𝜖𝑦′
replacing 𝜖𝑥′ ,

Example 2
The state of plane strain at a point is represented by the components 𝜖𝑥 = 250 (10−6 ), 𝜖𝑦 =
−150(10−6 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 120(10−6 ). Determine the principal strains and the orientation of the
element.

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 Figure 6.3. Example 2
Solution:
Construction of the Circle. The 𝜖 and 𝛾/2 axes are established in Fig. 6.3a. Remember that
the positive 𝛾/2 axis must be directed downward so that counterclockwise rotations of the

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element correspond to counterclockwise rotation around the circle, and vice versa. The center
of the circle C is located on the 𝜖 axis a

𝛾𝑥𝑦
Since 2
= 60(10−6 ), the reference point 𝐴(𝜃 = 0°) has coordinates 𝐴(250(10−6 ), 60(10−6 )).
From the shaded triangle in Fig. 6.3a, the radius of the circle is CA; that is,

Principal Strains. The 𝜖 coordinates of points B and D represent the principal strains. They
are

The direction of the positive principal strain 𝜖1 is defined by the counterclockwise angle 2𝜃𝑃1 ,
measured from the radial reference line CA (𝜃 = 0°) to the line CB. We have

Hence, the side dx’ of the element is oriented counterclockwise 8.35° as shown in Fig. 6.3b.
This also defines the direction of 𝜖1 . The deformation of the element is also shown in the
figure.

Example 3
The state of plane strain at a point is represented by the strain components 𝜖𝑥 =
−400(10−6 ), 𝜖𝑦 = 200(10−6 ), 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 150(10−6 ). Determine the maximum in-plane shear
strain and the absolute maximum shear strain.

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 Figure 6.4. Example 3
Solution:
Maximum In-Plane Shear Strain. We will solve this problem using Mohr’s circle. From the
strain components, the center of the circle is on the 𝜖 axis at

Since 𝛾𝑥𝑦 /2 = 75(10−6 ), the reference point A has coordinates (400(10−6 ), 75(10−6 ). As
shown in Fig. 6.4, the radius of the circle is therefore

Calculating the in-plane principal strains from the circle, we have

Also, the maximum in-plane shear strain is

Absolute Maximum Shear Strain. From the above results, we have 𝜖1 = 209 (10−6 ), 𝜖2 =
−409(10−6 ). The three Mohr’s circles, plotted for element orientations about each of the x, y,
z axes, are also shown in Fig. 6.4. It is seen that since the principal in-plane strains have
opposite signs, the maximum in-plane shear strain is also the absolute maximum shear strain,
i.e.,

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Example 4
The state of strain at point A on the bracket in Fig. 6.5a is measured using the strain rosette
shown in Fig. 6.5b. Due to the loadings, the readings from the gauges give 𝜖𝑎 =
60(10−6 ), 𝜖𝑏 = 135(10−6 ), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖𝑐 = 264(10−6 ). Determine the in-plane principal strains at the
point and the directions in which they act.

Figure 6.5. Example 4

Solution:
Equations 6.1:

We will use Eqs. 6.1 for the solution. Establishing an x axis as shown in Fig. 6.5b and
measuring the angles counterclockwise from the +x axis to the centerlines of each gauge, we
have 𝜃𝑎 = 0°, 𝜃𝑏 = 60°, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑐 = 120°. Substituting these results, along with the problem data,
into the equations gives

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Using Eq. 1 and solving Eqs. 2 and 3 simultaneously, we get

Equation 6.2:

These same results can also be obtained in a more direct manner from Eq. 6.2. The in-plane
principal strains can be determined using Mohr’s circle. The reference point on the circle is at
𝐴[60(10−6 ), −74.5(10−6 ) and the center of the circle, C, is on the 𝜖 axis at 𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 153(10−6 ),
Fig. 6.5c. From the shaded triangle, the radius is

The in-plane principal strains are thus

Note: The deformed element is shown in the dashed position in Fig. 6.5d. Realize that, due
to the Poisson effect, the element is also subjected to an out-of-plane strain, i.e., in the z
direction, although this value will not influence the calculated results.

Example 5
The copper bar in Fig. 6.6 is subjected to a uniform loading along its edges as shown. If it has
a length a = 300 mm, width b = 50 mm, and thickness t = 20 mm before the load is applied,

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determine its new length, width, and thickness after application of the load. Take 𝐸𝑐𝑢 =
120𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝑣𝑐𝑢 = 0.34.

Figure 6.6. Copper Bar

Solution:
By inspection, the bar is subjected to a state of plane stress. From the loading we have

Equation 6.3:

The associated normal strains are determined from the generalized Hooke’s law, Eq. 6.3; that
is,

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The new bar length, width, and thickness are therefore

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Assessment Task 6

1. A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane strain

defined by 𝜖𝑥 = −350(10−6 ), 𝜖𝑦 = 200(10−6 ), 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 80(10−6 ), which tends to distort
the element as shown in (a). Determine the principal strains at the point and the
associated orientation of the element.

2. If the rectangular block shown in figure below is subjected to a uniform pressure of

p = 20 psi, determine the dilatation and the change in length of each side. Take E =
600 psi, v = 0.45.

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 SSummary

According to Hibbeler (2014),

 In the case of plane stress, plane-strain analysis may be used within the plane of the
stresses to analyze the data from strain gauges. Remember, though, there will be a
normal strain that is perpendicular to the gauges due to the Poisson effect.

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 When the state of strain is represented by the principal strains, no shear strain will act
on the element.
 The state of strain at a point can also be represented in terms of the maximum in-
plane shear strain. In this case an average normal strain will also act on the element.
 The element representing the maximum in-plane shear strain and its associated
average normal strains is 45° from the orientation of an element representing the
principal strains.
 The absolute maximum shear strain will be larger than the maximum in-plane shear
strain whenever the in-plane principal strains have the same sign. When this occurs
the absolute maximum shear strain will act out of the plane.
 If the in-plane principal strains are of opposite signs, then the absolute maximum shear
strain will equal the maximum in-plane shear strain.
 When a homogeneous isotropic material is subjected to a state of triaxial stress, the
strain in each direction is influenced by the strains produced by all the stresses. This
is the result of the Poisson effect, and results in the form of a generalized Hooke’s law.
 Unlike normal stress, a shear stress applied to homogeneous isotropic material will
only produce shear strain in the same plane.
 The material constants E, G, and v are related mathematically.
 Dilatation, or volumetric strain, is caused only by normal strain, not shear strain.
 The bulk modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a volume of material. This material
property provides an upper limit to Poisson’s ratio of v = 0.5, which remains at this
value while plastic yielding occurs.
 If a material is ductile, failure is specified by the initiation of yielding, whereas if it is
brittle, it is specified by fracture.
 Ductile failure can be defined when slipping occurs between the crystals that compose
the material. This slipping is due to shear stress and the maximum-shear-stress theory
is based on this idea.
 Strain energy is stored in a material when it is subjected to normal stress. The
maximum-distortion-energy theory depends on the strain energy that distorts the
material, and not the part that increases its volume.
 The fracture of a brittle material is caused only by the maximum tensile stress in the
material, and not the compressive stress. This is the basis of the maximum-normal-

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 stress theory, and it is applicable if the stress-strain diagram is similar in tension and
compression.
 If a brittle material has a stress-strain diagram that is different in tension and
compression, then Mohr’s failure criterion may be used to predict failure.
 Due to material imperfections, tensile fracture of a brittle material is difficult to predict,
and so theories of failure for brittle materials should be used with caution.

Reference

Hibbeler R. (2014). Mechanics of Materials, Pearson Prentice Hall, United States of America.
9th Ed.

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