I

IRICEN Journal
of
Civil Engineering
Volume 14, No. 2 www.iricen.indianrailways.gov.in December 2021

Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering, Pune

II

Mechanised Compendium of Compendium of Hand Book

Track Laying Judicial Verdicts Schedule on
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Rs. 50/- Rs. 80/- Rs. 80/- Rs. 70/-

 1

From
Director
General’s
Desk
Dear Readers,
In this edition of IRICEN journal, papers have been included on diverse
topics. There is a technical paper on Geographic Information System (GIS)
for assessment of catchment area properties. Another paper is on ‘TM
Connect’ software, to connect Track Machines operators to the higher
level of management on real time basis. The paper has been included
here for spreading the awareness amongst all Railway Engineers.
We have also included one paper dealing with the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Pier Caps by Strut-and-Tie Method. Another paper is on
Maintenance of Track on Bridge Approaches.
There is a paper on Prediction of Time Dependent Deflection, Camber
and Prestress Loss in PSC bridges including a paper on Assessment of
vehicle dynamics and its impact over track degradation.
I hope that the readers would find the papers and other articles contained
in this edition relevant and useful. The suggestions and contributions
of technical papers, news items, articles, etc. are welcome from field
engineers for inclusion in the forthcoming issues of this journal which
would lead to sharing of knowledge and experience amongst engineering
fraternity.

Pune (Ashok Kumar)

November 2021 Director General
2

INDEX
EDITORIAL BOARD
Shri Ashok Kumar I) Literature Digest......................................................................................... 03
Director General/IRICEN II) Technical Papers
Chairman 1 - Using Geographic Information System (GIS)
for Assessment of Catchment Area Properties.......................................... 08
R. K. Shekhawat, Senior Professor (Projects), IRICEN, Pune
EDITING TEAM 2 - “TM Connect” – A Software to connect Track Machines........................... 18
Shri R K Bajpai Abhijit Roy, Chief Engineer/TMC/SER
Sr. Professor (Track 1) Pashupati Nath Chatterjee, AXEN/TM/HQ/SER
Executive Editor
3 - Design of Reinforced Concrete Pier Caps
by Strut-and-Tie Method ........................................................................... 23
Avinash Kumar, Prof Track-II/IRICEN
Shri Avinash Kumar G.S Yadav, Prof Bridge-II/IRICEN
Professor (Track 2)
4 - Maintenance of Track on Bridge Approaches........................................... 29
Executive Editor
B. Rama Rao, Sr. DEN / Central / BZA,
Shashank Yadagiri, ADEN / BPP

Shri Shailendra Prakash 5 - Prediction of Time Dependent Deflection, Camber and Prestress
Loss in PSC Bridges ................................................................................ 34
Asst. Library & Inf. Officer
G S Yadav, Prof Bridge/IRICEN
Assistant Editor Avinash Kumar, Prof Track-II/IRICEN

6 - Assessment of Vehicle Dynamics and It’s Impact Over Track

Degradation - A Case Study for Gadag (GDG) – Ballari (BAY)
Shri Pravin Kotkar Section of South Western Railway .......................................................... 41
Sr. Instructor/Track-1 Nitish Kumar Ranjan, Dy.Chief Vigilance Officer (Engg.)/S.W.Rly, Hubballi
Editorial Assistant
III) Updates of Codes & Manuals................................................................. 48

IV) IRICEN Calendar of Courses - 2021........................................................ 51

V) SSTW Calendar of Courses - 2021.......................................................... 52

Suggestion for improvement of IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING are welcome from the readers. Suggestions
The papers & articles express
the opinions of the authors, may be sent to [email protected]
and do not necessarily Guidelines to contributors
reflect the views of IRICEN
editorial panel. The institute Articles on the Railway Civil Engineering are welcome from the authors. The authors who
are willing to contribute articles in the IRICEN Journal of Civil Engineering are requested to
is not responsible for the
please go through the following guidelines :
statements or opinions
published in its publication. 1. The paper may be a review of conventional technology, possibilities of improvement in
the technology or any other item which may be of interest to the readers. The paper
should be reasonably detailed so that it could help the reader to understand the topic.
The paper may contain analysis, design, construction, maintenance of railway civil
engineering assets. The paper should be concise.
2. The journal is likely to be printed in a paper of size 215 mm X 280 mm. While sending
the articles the author should write in 2 columns. Sketches, tables and figures should
be accommodated in a 2 column set up only.
3. Author should send the original printout of photograph along with the digital copy of the
photograph.
4. Soft copy as well as hard copy of article must be invariably sent to the editors of
concerned subject.
5. Only selected articles will be included in the IRICEN Journal of Civil Engineering.
 3

Literature Digest
Field Testing and Dynamic Response of gap region (ICG) of a high-speed train is proposed and
the aerodynamic performance of the high-speed train
Full-Scale GFRP-Reinforced Concrete
with an aerodynamic braking device is assessed by
Guideway under Monorail Train improved delayed detached eddy simulation (IDDES)
Abstract: In this study, field testing is conducted on two based on the j-x turbulence model. The results show
full-scale guideway reinforced concrete (RC) beams, that the opening of the plate significantly changes the
one reinforced entirely by glass fiber–reinforced aerodynamic performance of the train, thereby greatly
polymer (GFRP) and the other by conventional steel, increasing the aerodynamic forces of the train and their
under 450 passes of two-car monorail trains at various fluctuation degree. The effect of the opening of the
speeds and vehicle loads. The two beams were part of plate increases the turbulence of the downstream flow
a 1.86-km test track traveled by trains for 4.5 months. field around the tail car. The affected area is mainly
The objective of the study was to evaluate GFRP bars concentrated in the flow field around the location of
as a sustainable reinforcement for transit infrastructure, the plate for the pressure field and the whole flow field
particularly for monorail trains. The study showed that behind the plate for the velocity field. The effect of the
cracking and stiffness degradation in both beams plate mounted on the uniform-car body region (UCG)
occurred during train loading with one-loaded and on increasing the aerodynamic drag is better than that
one-empty cars, after 79–132 cumulative train passes. at the ICG, though the aerodynamic fluctuation and
Cracks stabilized after 149 accumulative passes. the influence on the surrounding flow field will also be
Deflection in the GFRP-RC beam, measured during great.
train passes at fully loaded cars, was 36%–47% higher
than that in the steel-RC beam. After 200 accumulative By : Jiqiang Niu, Yueming Wang, Rui Li
passes, stiffness was reduced to approximately 43% Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September
and 57% of the original uncracked value for GFRP- 2021
and steel-RC beams, respectively. By the end of 450
passes, stiffness in the same beams appeared to have ®®®
stabilized at 38%, and 50% of the uncracked value.
A Numerical Study of Aerodynamic
The GFRP-RC beam satisfied all serviceability limits
imposed in national codes. A twodimensional finite- Characteristics of a High-Speed Train
element analysis was also performed on the test with Different Rail Models under
beams, showing good correlations with test results of
Crosswind
deflections and cracking patterns. Of the six analytical
The CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) numerical
equations that were used to estimate the effective
simulation method with the DES (detached eddy
moment of inertia and subsequently beam’s deflection,
simulation) approach was adopted in this paper to
only those by Branson and Bischoff seemed to yield
investigate and compare the aerodynamic performance,
acceptable predictions.
pressure distributions of the train surface, and flow
By : Nikolaus Wootton; Amir Fam, F.ASCE; Mark fields near the train model placed above the subgrade
Green, M.ASCE; Akram Jawdhari, M.ASCE; with non-rail, realistic rail, and simplified rail models
and Salah Sarhat under crosswind. The numerical methods were verified
with the wind tunnel tests. Significant differences in
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit : September
aerodynamic performances of the train body and bogie
2021
were found in the cases with and without a rail model as
®®® the presence of the rail model had significant impacts
on the flow field underneath the vehicle. A larger yaw
Aerodynamic Behavior of a High-Speed angle can result in a more significant difference in
Train with a Braking Plate Mounted in aerodynamic coefficients. The deviations of the train
aerodynamic forces and the pressure distribution
the Region of Inter-Car Gap or Uniform-
on the train body with the realistic and simplified rail
Car Body: A Comparative Numerical models were not significant. It was concluded that a
Study rail model is necessary to get more realistic results,
The continuous increase in train speed has brought especially for large yaw angle conditions. Moreover,
serious challenges to train braking safety. Aerodynamic a simplified rectangular rail model is suggested to be
braking technology can effectively improve the braking employed instead of the realistic rail and is capable to
effect of trains at high speeds. In this study, an get accurate results.
aerodynamic braking device installed in the inter-car
4

By : Zhiwei, Jiang, Tanghong Liu, Houyu Gu, kN in Y-top direction and 13 kN in Y-bottom direction
Zijian Guo for a single sleeper. The LRF in STPTwas enhanced
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September by 90% on average compared to the conventional
2021 concrete sleeper. The LRF in LTPTwas also obtained
as 18 kN, and its increasing percentage was measured
®®® as 12.5%.
Optimal Track Geometry Maintenance By : Jabbar Ali Zakeri, Yaser Bahari and Kaveh
Limits Using Machine Learning: A Case Yousefian
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September
Study
2021
The aim of this study has been to determine the optimal
maintenance limits for one of the main railway lines in ®®®
Iran in such a way that the total maintenance costs are
minimized. For this purpose, a cost model has been The Structural Integrity of Flash-Butt
developed by considering costs related to preventive Welded Premium Rail Steel – Evaluation
maintenance activities, corrective maintenance
of Strength, Microstructure and Defects
activities, inspection, and a penalty costs associated
Experimental testing of flash-butt welded premium rail
with exceeding corrective maintenance limit. Standard
steel samples was undertaken to quantify the variation
deviation of longitudinal level was used to measure the
in strength through the cross-section of the weld, with
quality of track geometry. In order to reduce the level
results showing a general correlation between the
of uncertainty in the maintenance model, K-means
width of the heataffected-zone and the ultimate tensile
clustering algorithm was used to classify track
strength. Microstructural examination and fractography
sections with most similarity. Then, a linear function
revealed the presence of defects in some samples.
was used for each cluster to model the degradation
Large defects can be identified by non-destructive
of track sections. Monte Carlo technique was used to
testing methods as part of routine structural integrity
simulate track geometry behavior and determine the
assessment; however, small defects may escape
optimal maintenance limit which minimizes the total
detection but could propagate under cyclic loading
maintenance costs. The results of this paper show
in service leading to catastrophic failures. This work
that setting an optimal limit can affect total annual
demonstrates the requirement for stringent control of
maintenance cost about 27 to 57 percent.
heat input to prevent the development of defects in
By : Ahmad Kasraei, Jabbar Ali Zakeri and Arash premium rail steels with high alloying content.
Bakhtiary
By : Anthony Micheletto, John Cookson, Yong
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September Pang, Bernard Chen and Peter Mutton
2021
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September
®®® 2021

Experimental Investigation Into The ®®®

Lateral Resistance of Y-Shape Steel Analysis on the Track Quality Evolution
Sleepers on Ballasted Tracks Law of Polyurethane-Reinforced
Track lateral resistance ensures the track stability
Ballasted Track In High-Speed Railway
under operation and during its service life in lateral
Polyurethane-reinforced ballasted track (PRBT) can
and longitudinal directions. Numerous methods and
improve the integrity of ballasted track structures and
techniques have been considered to enhance track
satisfy the high-stability requirements of high-speed
lateral resistance. Since sleeper, as one of the railway
railways. In this study, the quality evolution law of PRBT
track superstructure components, has a significant
structures after being launched into train service was
contribution in providing the lateral resistance, using
analyzed, and a reference for structural optimization
different types of sleepers, like Y-shape one, would
and maintenance operation was provided. The track
alter the track lateral resistance. The utilization of
geometric state of the PRBT test section of a high-
Y-shape steel sleepers in railway tracks needs further
speed railway was measured and monitored for nearly
investigation to comprehend the structural behavior.
one year after it was launched into operation, and the
Hence, in this paper, the lateral resistance of the
ballastless track of the adjacent section was selected
Y-shape steel sleeper was experimentally investigated
as a reference. The geometric states of the tracks were
by performing the lateral track panel loading
evaluated and compared using various parameters,
test (LTPT) and single tie push test (STPT). The
including sliding standard deviation, average standard
longitudinal resistance force (LRF) in STPT depends
deviation, and track irregularity spectrum density.
on the loading direction. The LRF was specified as 16
 5

Results show that the track quality indexes of the test pier caps experimental test results. The cracking load,
section, which were in operation for nearly one year, failure load, deflection, crack pattern, crack width,
were slightly over the limit. Moreover, the fastener can steel reinforcement strains, concrete surface average
be finely adjusted for the high-value index sections to strains, and failure modes are observed, recorded,
further improve the ride comfort. The application effect and discussed. The experimental load capacities are
of PRBT in the subgrade fracture zone was good, compared with the theoretical load capacities of SF
which could satisfy the requirements of high-quality and STM. Experimental test results indicate that both
transportation as well as the normal operation and STM and SF are conservative approaches and STM
maintenance of high-speed railway. is more conservative than SF. The reason for this is
because they do not take secondary reinforcement into
By : Jie-Ling Xiao, Pu Jing, Si-Xin Yu and Ping
direct consideration. That is why, a model is proposed,
Wang
modifying STM, for estimating the ultimate capacity of
Ref. : Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit – September pier caps based on calculating the strength of concrete
2021 and secondary reinforcement separately that gave
®®® more realistic results.
By : Asala Asaad Dawood and Khattab Saleem
Repair & Management of Deteriorated Abdul-Razzaq
Concrete Structures: New Dmrb Ref. : ASCE Bridge – September 2021
Document & Specification
®®®
The repair and management of Britain’s concrete
highway structures has significantly improved since Half-Joint, Deck Hinge and Post-
the publication of specific guidance in 1990 in the UK
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) This Tensioned Concrete Bridges: Risk
guidance was updated in 2020 to include an improved Management and Assessment
approach to managing deteriorated structures. This The documents for risk management and assessment
paper focuses on the additional requirements or of concrete bridges with half-joints, concrete bridges
significant modifications in the updated guidance and with deck hinges and post-tensioned concrete bridges
explains their rationale. Key changes include the overall in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)
management strategy of deteriorated structures, repair have been rewritten and updated as part of a project
strategies and deterioration mitigation measures, to update the entire DMRB suite of documents; they
including control of the incipient anode effect and have also been given the new document codes CS
concrete injection to improve the safety and durability of 465, CS 466 and CS 467. In bringing these documents
a repaired structure. Internal deterioration of concrete up to date there have been significant technical
and thaumasite sulfate attack are also covered. changes introduced, including: a change to the risk
The related UK Manual of Contract Documents for management process for half-joints and deck hinges;
Highway Works also provides an updated specification an update of assessment methods for evaluating half-
for concrete repairs. Predominantly performance- joints and deck hinges; and improvements to the risk
based, it covers proprietary concrete repair products management of post-tensioned bridges. This technical
complying with British standards and other materials paper outlines the technical background to the key
and construction methods for maintenance, repair or changes and highlights some of the improvements
strengthening. and efficiencies that can be delivered using the new
documents.
By : Jessica Sandberg, Chris Mundell, Homayoon
Sadeghi Pouya and David Hickman By : Eleanor McDaid, Guan Sing Loh, Jon
Ref. : ICE Bridge Engineering – September 2021 Shave, Donald Pearson, John Bennetts and
Pierfrancesco Valerio
®®®
Ref. : ICE Bridge Engineering – September 2021
Shear Friction and Strut-and-Tie ®®®
Modeling Verification for Pier Caps
Abstract: This study reports on experimental test Using Community Data to Improve
results of reinforced concrete pier caps with different Rural Water Infrastructure in India
shear spans to effective depth ratios (a/d) of 0.5, India continues to struggle with the combined effects
1, and 1.5. Each test specimen is then designed of water stress alongside poor access to water and
theoretically using both shear friction (SF) and strut- sanitation. However, data-driven infrastructure planning
and-tie modeling (STM) approaches, according is helping to bring a more integrated, sustainable
to Section 16.5 and Chapter 23 of ACI 318-14, approach to water management and the provision of
respectively, and the results are compared with the water, sanitation and hygiene in rural areas. Working
6

with non-governmental organisations in Chhattisgarh Ref. : ICE Civil Engineering – September 2021
and Madhya Pradesh, a project was undertaken to
®®®
introduce consistent digital data collection, analysis
and sharing processes for water resources and water Design and Construction of Mumbai
demand data. Key outputs from the project included
a toolkit and mobile application, the wider adoption of Metro Line 3 in India
which could transform rural water access. Completion of the US$3.6 billion Mumbai Metro Line 3
in December 2021 will increase the system’s capacity
By : Hamish Hay and Philip Songa five-fold to 1.6 million passengers a day. With 26
Ref. : ICE Civil Engineering – September 2021 underground stations and one depot, the new 33.5 km
®®® line will significantly improve connectivity between the
northern and southern areas of India’s largest city. It
Procurement and Technological is being built directly under temples, residential areas
and an airport. Close collaboration with stakeholders
Innovations of India’s New Dedicated
contributed to successful delivery and launch of the
Freight Railways project’s 17 tunnel boring machines. For rail systems,
Indian Railways is investing INR 814.590 billion innovative technologies have been adopted to facilitate
(£8.15 billion) in two new dedicated freight corridors redundancy and ensure the safety and comfort of
to decongest its heavily used national railway network. passengers.
Due for completion in 2022, the new 1839 km eastern
corridor runs fro. DFCCIL, Delhi to Kolkata while the By : Mohana Killada, Raju V. R. Gottumukkala and
1499 km western corridor, capable of carrying double- Ankush Tikhe
stack containers, link. DFCCIL, Delhi to Mumbai. Ref. : ICE Civil Engineering – September 2021
This paper describes the procurement process and
the new technologies being adopted on the project. ®®®
These include the first use in India of 32.5 t axle
Vehicle-Based Cryogenic Rail Cleaning:
loads, continuous welded track, twin 25 kV overhead
electrification, and automatic signalling and centralised An Alternative Solution to ‘Leaves on
train control for 100 km/h line speeds. The project is The Line’
expected to shift a significant amount of freight transport Contamination of rail lines with leaves and other
from road to rail, saving an estimated 455 Mt of carbon organic matter and oxides can affect the traction of
dioxide emissions over 30 years of operation. train wheels and cause safety issues, delays and
By : Kamal Kishor Sharma and Veer Narayan schedule changes. The main solution in the UK is to
use specialist rail-head-treatment trains that clean rails
Ref. : ICE Civil Engineering – September 2021 with high-pressure water jets. But these trains cannot
®®® cover all UK mainline infrastructure due to limited
availability and gauging issues. As such, there is a
Making A Film to Share Traditional need for a rapid-response mobile solution to expand
this capability. This paper reports on successful field
Engineering Techniques to Tackle The
trials of a small road-to-rail vehicle fitted with dry-ice
Global Water Crisis blasting equipment, and the effect this has on both
Civil engineers in the UK have teamed up with a cleaning rails and improving train braking.
water charity to make an educational film that helps
communities in semi-arid climates manage their water. By : Peter Krier, Ben T. White, Paul Ferriday, Mike
The team learnt how to construct simple dams, known Watson, Luke Buckley-Johnstone, Roger
in India as ‘johads’, that harvest seasonal rainfall, Lewis and Joseph L. Lanigan
reducing flood and drought risk. They then built a Ref. : ICE Civil Engineering – September 2021
new dam and restored another in Rajasthan district,
recording the process to enable others to replicate the ®®®
work. A language-neutral educational film was then
Use of Dimension Limestone Sludge as
produced and tested with other communities in India
and Colombia to ensure applicability to a variety of Filler in Asphalt Mix
geographies, cultures and environments. Educating This study investigates the feasibility of using waste
communities on water management in this way dried sludge dust from the Indian dimension limestone
will help to achieve the United Nations sustainable (namely, Kota stone (KS)) industry in the place of
development goal 6: clean water and sanitation for all. conventional stone dust as filler in asphalt concrete
mix. First, physical, morphological and chemical
By : Louise Bingham and David Hetherington characteristics of both fillers were determined by
 7

relevant standards. Second, asphalt concrete concrete (RC) frames in which a middle column has been
mixes including both fillers were designed and their removed has been investigated by many researchers.
performance against primary occurrences of distress However, previous experimental and computational
(rutting, cracking, long-term ageing, ravelling and studies have focused mainly on the catenary action
moisture susceptibility) was evaluated. The KS mix provided by longitudinal reinforcement in the beams
had lower optimum asphalt content than conventional spanning the missing column. This study investigated
mixes, which was attributed to the lower porosity of the contribution of infill walls. Finite-element analysis
KS dust. KS mixes also displayed superior resistance was used after calibrating a reference model using test
against permanent deformation, cracking and results reported by other researchers. Models were
ravelling due to the finer nature of KS. Although the developed for a RC frame with and without infill walls.
KS had a relatively high active clay content, KS mixes An equivalent strut was used in the infill walls to allow
displayed good active and passive adhesion as well as the removed column load to be transferred through
satisfactory resistance against moisture permeation. the struts instead of developing catenary action in the
beams. A simplified model of the progressive collapse
By : Jayvant Choudhary, Ankit Gupta and Brind
resistance of frames with infill walls was then derived
Kumar
to estimate the peak strength provided by the infill wall
Ref. : ICE Construction Material – September 2021 under the scenario of middle-column removal.
®®® By : ICE Structures and Buildings – September
2021
Bonding Agents to Mitigate Interfacial
Ref. : Amer Alkloub and Rabab Allouzi
Strength Loss During Multi-Layer
®®®
Concrete Casting
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is very sensitive to Towards Efficient Structural and
interruptions or delays during the placement process.
Current literature converges that interfacial bond Serviceability Design of High-Strength
strength between successive casting lifts could drop Concrete T-Beams
by up to 60%, compared with monolithic casting. In this Ten high-strength concrete (HSC) T-beams of total
study, two series of SCC mixtures were tested to assess length 1700 mm, web breadth 100 mm, height 250 mm
the suitability of bonding agents to mitigate the drop and different flange dimensions were experimentally
in interfacial bond strength resulting from successive tested until failure. The beam parameters studied were
casting lifts. The slabs were cast in two layers separated the flange dimensions and transverse and longitudinal
by 60 or 120 min rest intervals; different bonding reinforcement ratios. A numerical model was developed
agents, including styrene– butadiene rubber (SBR), to predict the flexural behaviour of the tested beams.
waste latex paint and cement/water and cement/SBR The results indicated that increasing breadth, depth
slurries were compared. The results showed that the and flange reinforcement ratio led to a reduction in the
application of polymeric bonding agents on top of the overall deflection and an enhancement of the ultimate
first cast is efficient to improve tensile strength and load capacity. An empirical equation developed earlier
restore the integrity of the hardened member. This is by the authors for predicting the effective moment
attributed to the polymer particles that coalesce and of inertia of HSC T-beams was successfully used to
fuse to form continuous close-packed films between predict the load–deflection relationships of the studied
the first and second SCC layers. The cement/water beams. The load–deflection curves predicted by the
slurry did not lead to considerable improvement in numerical model, those predicted by this equation
pull-off strength between cast layers. Series of charts and those predicted by the Branson equation, which
enabling the prediction of the drop in bond for a given is currently used in design codes, were compared.
SCC composition and rest interval as a function of Close agreement was found between the experimental
the polymer dosage to the area of the cast slab are results, numerical results and those obtained by
presented. the authors’ equation. This research thus highlights
the need for updating the Branson equation used in
By : Joseph J. Assaad and Yehia Daou
design codes for deflection design of HSC T-beams by
Ref. : ICE Construction Material – September 2021 adopting the equation proposed by the authors.
®®® By :Ibrahim G. Shaaban and Tarek S. Mustafa

Interaction Between Infill Walls and Ref. : ICE Structures and Buildings– September
2021
Reinforced Concrete Frames After
®®®
Column Removal
The progressive collapse resistance of reinforced
8

Using Geographic Information System (GIS)

for Assessment of Catchment Area Properties
R. K. Shekhawat*

SYNOPSIS
The conventional method which was hitherto mostly being used in Indian Railway for assessing
Catchment Area Properties (i.e. using Topo Sheet, marking catchment area and water streams on
the topo sheet and then working out the Catchment Area Properties) suffer from many limitations
and disadvantages. This can be improved upon by using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
and other Information Technology (IT) tools, for assessing the Catchment Area Properties in a fast-
er and more accurate manner. This Technical Paper describes one such methodology/approach
which has been developed by the author using a GIS Software (QGIS) and other IT Tools/Software
platforms, available freely, for assessing Catchment Area Properties.

1 Need for Assessing Catchment Area mentioned in Para-1.2 are also not readily
Properties available. In such cases, there are various
1.1 As part of planning a bridge over any water approaches/ methodologies for estimating the
stream (for deciding width of waterway, span Design Discharge in a water stream at any given
arrangements, type & depth of foundation etc.), point. The Methodologies specified in Indian
one of the most relevant parameters is Design Railway “Bridge Substructures and Foundations
Discharge (for a specified Return/ Recurrence Code”, which are similar to the approach followed
Period) passing through the water stream. by other organizations also, is as under:
Sometimes, the Design Discharge may be (a) For small size catchment (less than 25 km2
required to be estimated for exiting bridges also, area): Design discharge is estimated based
if there are reports of water overflowing the bridge on methodology given in RDSO Report No.
or breaches etc. RBF-16, “Flood Estimation Methods for
1.2 The most preferred way for estimating design Catchments Less Than 25 Km2 in Area”,
discharge for a waterway shall be based on using “Modified Rational Formula”. The input
actual hydrological observations at the bridge parameters required for this formula are
location and meteorological observations in the Runoff Coefficient “C” (which depends on the
concerned catchment area. But, these hydro- type of catchment area and the values are
meteorological details, that too for the required given in RBF-16), Rainfall Intensity/Pattern
Recurrence Period (which is of the order of 50 Records (from the details given in RBF-16),
to 100 years), may be available only for very Catchment Area “A” and Length-Elevation
few important water streams and that too at Profile of the water stream from the bridge
very few locations. At other locations, if flow to the farthest point on the catchment.
records (yearly peak discharges) are available (b) For medium size catchment (25 km2
for less than the desired recurrence interval, but or more but less than 2500 km2 area):
of sufficient number of years to permit reliable Synthetic Unit Hydrograph (SUH) is
statistical analysis, the design discharge can be plotted using the equations given in
computed statistically for the desired recurrence “Flood Estimation Reports” published by
interval. Where flood records are not of sufficient Central Water Commission (CWC), for
number of yrears to permit reliable statistical the concerned hydro-meteorological sub-
analysis, but rainfall pattern & intensity records zone. Subsequently, design discharge is
are available for sufficient length of time and it is computed by imposing the design storms
possible to carry out at least limited observations (rainfall) on the concerned Synthetic Unit
of rainfall and discharge, Unit Hydrographs can Hydrograph. The input parameters required
be developed based on such observations and for this are Catchment Area “A”, Centroid
design discharge of the desired recurrence of the Catchment Area, Length-Elevation
interval can be computed by applying appropriate Profile of the water stream from the bridge
design rainfall on them. to the farthest point on the catchment and
1.3 But in a very large number of cases, the details Rainfall Intensity/Pattern Records (from the

* Senior Professor (Projects), IRICEN, Pune IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
 9

CWC’s Flood Estimation Reports). Various forms of data in GIS are stored in the form of
1.4 Therefore, in most of the cases, the properties layers as shown in Fig.02.
of the catchment area (i.e. Catchment Area “A”,
water stream profile, Centroid of the Catchment
Area and Length-Elevation Profile of the water
stream from the bridge to the farthest point on
the catchment) are required to be assessed for
estimating the design discharge. Hitherto this was
mostly being done by the conventional method
wherein the Topo Sheets in hard copy were used
for marking catchment area on them and then
working out various Catchment Area Properties.
This method suffers from many limitations and
disadvantages, as under:
(i) Extracting topographic features from Topo
Sheets is very cumbersome and time-
consuming process, especially when large
size catchments are involved.
(ii) Quantifying the flow in the water stream
is not possible. Thus, it is not possible to
delineate only those contributories (to the
water stream) which have significant flow.
(iii) Calculation of catchment area, length of
water stream, centroid of catchment and the Fig. 2 . Various layers of data in GIS
length- elevation profile of the water stream There are many software for analyzing, storing,
is cumbersome and not very accurate. processing, presenting and managing the data
(iv) It requires a very experienced person. in GIS environment (e.g. QGIS, ArcGIS and
RemoteView etc.). In the present methodology
(v) Visual representation of features being QGIS (Version 3.12.3 “Bucuresti” or later) can be
examined is not available. used which is a free and open-source software.
1.5 To overcome these limitations and bring further 3 Steps involved in the proposed methodology
improvements, a methodology/approach has been
developed by the author using GIS based Software The steps involved in the present methodology,
and other IT Tools/Software platforms, available which are elaborated in the subsequent paras,
freely, for assessing Catchment Area Properties. are as following:
2 Geographic Information System (GIS): (i) Identify/confirm the Bridge Location
Geographic Information System (GIS) can be (ii) Download DEM(s) for the Catchment Area
defined as a system designed to capture, analyze, (iii) Process the DEM(s)
1.5 To overcome these limitations and bring further improvements, a
store, manipulate,
methodology/approach has present and manage
been developed all types
by the author using GIS based (iv) Derive the Water Streams
Software and other IT Tools/Software platforms, available freely, for
of geographical
assessing Catchment Areadata. In the present time, with
Properties. (v) Delineate the Catchment
easy and cheap availability of very high data
2. Geographic Information System (GIS): (vi) Find the Area of Catchment (A)
processing
Geographic speeds
Information System and storage
(GIS) capacities,
can be defined GISdesigned to
as a system
capture, analyze, store, manipulate, present and manage all types of (vii) Mark the Centroid of the Catchment
based solutions are being used for multifarious
geographical data. In the present time, with easy and cheap availability of
very activities. The Geographical
high data processing speeds and storage data in a GIS
capacities, GISbased
is solutions (viii) Measure L (Length of Longest stream)
are being used for multifarious activities. The Geographical data in a GIS is
storedstored in various
in various formsinas
forms as shown shown in Fig.01.
Fig.01. (ix) Measure LC
Geographical Data (x) Plot Length-Elevation Profile of Longest
Stream
Non-spatial
The details elaborated in the subsequent paras,
Spatial
(Descriptive) as an example, pertain to the following bridge:
• Subzone - 2(A): North Brahmaputra Sub-
Vector Raster Descriptive
zone
(Cell) (Tables,
Boolean etc.) • Alipurduar - Bongaigaon Section, Alipurduar
Point Line Shape Image (Pixel) Division, N. F. Railway
• Name of Tributary: Gangia
Fig.01: Forms of data in GIS
Fig. 1 . Forms of data in GIS • Bridge Location given: Longitude – 900 07’
Various forms of data in GIS are stored in the form of layers as shown in
Fig.02.
10

10” E (90.11944444 E) (a) Cartosat-1 satellite data from Bhuvan Site

Latitude – 26 22’ 10”
0 [https://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in] of ISRO. In the
N (26.38611111 N) present case, the DEMs were downloaded
from this source.
4 Identify/confirm the Bridge Location
(b) Earth Explorer Site [https://earthexplorer.
4.1 The location of bridge is generally denoted in (e) LiDAR Survey
usgs.gov]
Longitude and Latitude (in Degrees, Minutes and (f) Satellite Images
Seconds). Convert them to real numbers with (c) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
decimals (up to 8th decimal place or so). By puttingdownloaded, free Downloader of NASA. Thisdistance
is available as a can be
5.2 DEMs of 1 Arc-second accuracy (about 30m at equator)
of cost, from any of the following sources:
this location, the location of bridge, railway track Plugin in QGIS Software also.
and other surrounding features can be seen in (a) Cartosat-1 (d) satellite
Advanced Spaceborne
data from Bhuvan SiteThermal Emission
[https://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in]
of ISRO. In the present case, the DEMs were downloaded from this source.
“Google Earth”. This gives a feel of bridge location (b) Earth Explorerand Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
Site [https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov] platform
which is not possible in conventional method. If (c) Shuttle Radardeveloped
Topographyjointly
Missionby JapanDownloader
(SRTM) and NASA. of NASA. This is
some refinement is required in bridge location, available as a Plugin in QGIS Software also.
5.3 Open the Bhuvan website. On the
(d) Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 2D Data Tab,
Reflection Radiometer
it can be done and the correct Longitude and (ASTER) platform the location
developed of jointly
Bridge by can
Japanagain be confirmed,
and NASA.
Latitude of the Bridge can be noted (Fig.03). For along with water stream (Fig.04). See the bigger
example, in the present case, the refined location5.3 Open the Bhuvan website. On the 2D Data Tab, the location of Bridge
Catchment
can again be confirmed,Areaalongfor thewater
with bridge location
stream (shown
(Fig.04). in bigger
See the
is Latitude: 26 23’ 19.27” (26.38868611 N) andCatchment Area
0
dark for
bluethecolour)
bridge and note
location downinthe
(shown coordinates
dark blue colour)ofand note
Longitude: 900 06’ 50.05” (90.11390278 E). down the coordinates
4 extremeofpoints
4 extreme points
of this of this catchment
catchment area, as area, as under:
under:
4.2 Convert these Geographic Coordinates to UTM 90.01E, 27.74N
(Universal Transverse Mercator) Coordinates 89.89E, 26.71N 90.22E, 26.45N
in WGS84 (World Geodetic System) datum. 90.12E, 26.32N

This can be done using “https://awsm-tools.

com” or another similar website. In the present
case, the UTM coordinates are- X Coordinate
(UTM E): 212049.06540, Y Coordinate (UTM N):
2921954.6790 and UTM Zone: 46N. Note them
for further reference.

Fig. 4 . Bridge and Water Stream locations on

Bhuvan Website
Fig.04: Bridge and Water Stream locations on Bhuvan Website
5.4 Open the Data Archive Tab on the Bhuvan
5.4 Open the Data Archive
website Tab on the
and select theBhuvan
DEM(s) website and select
covering the DEM(s)
bigger
covering bigger Catchment Area for the bridge location (shown in dark blue
Catchment
colour), in terms Area and
of Longitudes for Latitudes
the bridge
(26Nlocation
to 28N and (shown
89E to 91E in
this case). in dark blue
Download the colour),
DEM tile(s) in covering
terms ofthis
Longitudes and nos.
range (Toposheet
G45L, G46G, G45F and G46A in this case, Fig.05). Each DEM tile will be a Zip
Latitudes (26N to 28N and 89E to 91E in this
Fig. 3 . Bridge location on Google Earth file, from which GeoTiff (.tif) file may be extracted for further use.
case). Download the DEM tile(s) covering this
5 Download DEM(s) for the Catchment Area range (Toposheet nos. G45L, G46G, G45F and
6
5.1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a 3D G46A in this case, Fig.05). Each DEM tile will
representation of terrain’s surface. They are be a Zip file, from which GeoTiff (.tif) file may be
created from terrain’s elevation data and can be extracted for further use.
generated by any one of the following methods:
(a) Ground Survey of the terrain
(b) Differential Global Positioning System
(DGPS) Survey of the terrain
(c) Digitization of Contour Maps
(d) Stereo Photogrammetry
(e) LiDAR Survey
(f) Satellite Images
5.2 DEMs of 1 Arc-second accuracy (about 30m
distance at equator) can be downloaded, free of Fig. 5 . Downloading DEM tiles from Bhuvan Website
cost, from any of the following sources:
 11

6 Process the DEM(s)

6.1 Load DEMs: Open the QGIS software and load Raster
files of the concerned DEM Tiles (.tif files). Load “Open
Street map (OSM) Standard” also as a background,
from the “Quick Map Services” of QGIS (Fig.06).

Fig. 8 . “DEM_Reprojected” layer in QGIS

6.4 Subset (Clip) the DEM: In order to reduce the
processing time, the area of the reprojected
DEM (which is bigger than the catchment area
of the water stream) is clipped. The reprojected
Fig. 6 . DEMs loaded in QGIS DEM is also made a vertical rectangle in shape,
6.2 Mosaic DEMs: Mosaic (combine) the DEM tiles as shown in Fig.09, and the clipped raster file is
and save the file/layer (named “DEM_Mosaic” in saved (named as “DEM_Subset” in this case).
this case) as a virtual file (.vrt) as shown in Fig.07.

Fig. 9 . “DEM_Subset” layer in QGIS

Fig. 7 . “DEM_Mosaic” layer in QGIS 6.5 Fill Sinks/ Remove Spikes: The DEMs contain
6.3 Re-project DEMs: Every DEM is related to a some features like depressions (sinks) or spikes,
datum or projection level e.g. WGS84 datum in due to data acquisition or processing process.
this case. For every datum, there is an EPSG These features need to be removed before the
(European Petroleum Survey Group) code, which DEM can be used for any hydrological analysis.
is used to bring all the DEMs on a common In QGIS, this is done using one of the algorithms
global datum/projection platform. For WGS84, from the “Toolbox”. The algorithm developed by
the EPSG code is EPSG:4326. The DEMs are Wang and Liu (2006), which fills the localized
reprojected to the EPSG code of the UTM Zone depressions and preserves a downward slope
in which the bridge is located. The EPSG code for along the flow path, is found to be most useful.
any location can be found from the website “http:// The filled DEM raster layer is saved (named
www.spatialreference.org”. For the example in as “DEM_Filled” in this case) and then styled.
this case, the UTM Zone is 46N and the EPSG Styling is basically a process of coloring to add
code for this UTM zone is EPSG:32646. The 3D effects in a 2D picture. The styled DEM_Filled
DEMs loaded are in EPSG:4326 code (WGS84 raster layer will be as shown in Fig.10.
datum). Re-project these DEMs to EPSG:32646
(file named as “DEM_Reprojected” in this case)
as shown in Fig.08.
12

Fig. 10 . Styled “DEM_Filled” layer in QGIS Fig. 12 . “Strahler5” layer in QGIS

7 Derive the Water Streams 7.3 Derive Channels Network and Drainage Basins:
7.1 Strahler Order: As there are numerous The next step is to derive the Channels Network
tributaries/streams with water flow ranging from and Drainage Basins, based on the derived
trickle to heavy flow, it needs to be determined as threshold Strahler order (5 in this case). This is
to what shall be considered as a stream. For this done using “Channels Network and Drainage
purpose, the concept of “Strahler Order” is used. Basins” tool in the “Toolbox”. The Channels
The higher is this order, the bigger the stream. Network file (.shp shape file), containing all the
In QGIS, this is done using the “Strahler Order” flow channels (including outside the relevant
tool from the “Toolbox”. After suitable styling, the catchment area also) is saved after suitable
Strahler Oder raster layer (named as “Strahler” in styling (named as “Channels” in this example,
this example) will look like as shown in Fig.11. Fig.13). The thickness of the streams in this layer
correspond to the Strahler Order of that stream.
The Drainage Basin file (.shp shape file),
containing all catchment areas/drainage basins
(including the portion which is not contributing to
the flow at the bridge location also) is saved after
suitable styling (named as “Drainage Basins” in
this example, Fig.14). Different Drainage Basins
(or a part of them) are shown in different colours.

Fig. 11 . “Strahler” layer in QGIS

7.2 Threshold Strahler Order: The Strahler layer will
show numerous water streams, thereby filling the
complete area with blue colored water streams,
and it becomes very difficult to make anything
useful out of it. Therefore, the next step is to apply a
calibration procedure to determine which Strahler
Orders are to be considered as water streams. Fig. 13 . Styled “Channels” layer in QGIS
For this, using “Raster Calculator” command of
the QGIS, Boolean layers are created showing
water streams equal to or larger than a threshold
Strahler Order only. The threshold Strahler
order can be started from 2 or 3 and increased
till the water streams in the Strahler Order layer
correspond best with the water streams in “Open
Street Map” displayed in the background. This
Strahler Order layer is saved after suitable styling
(named as “Strahler5”, for threshold value of 5,
in this example). The Strahler5 layer shows only
those water streams which have Strahler Order of
Fig. 14 . Styled “Drainage Basins” layer in QGIS
5 or more (Fig.12).
 13

8 Delineate the Catchment shapefile layer is styled and saved (named as

8.1 Define Outflow Point: To delineate the Catchment “Channels_Clipped” in this example, Fig.17).
Area which is contributing the flow to the bridge The “DEM_Filled” layer is also clipped similarly
location, it is necessary to first define the (to contain the data for the relevant catchment
bridge location (Outgrow Point). Using the UTM area only), styled suitable and saved (named as
coordinates of the bridge as guide, zoom the “DEM_Clipped” in this example).
“Channels” layer to maximum extent and confirm
the location of Outflow Point on it (Fig.15). Using
“Coordinate Capture” plugin, capture the UTM
Coordinates of this location. The coordinates
of the bridge location should be captured from
“Channels” layer only and not from OSM Map
shown in background. There may be some minor
variation from the coordinates decided initially (in
this example X: 211779.779 and Y: 2922051.340).
8.2 Delineate the Catchment: The coordinates of the
bridge location are used to delineate the upstream
area (i.e. catchment) that contributes to the water
flow at this point. This is done using “Upslope Area” Fig. 17 . “Channels_Clipped” layer in QGIS
tool from the “Toolbox” and the derived shape file 9 Find the Area of Catchment (A)
(.shp file) is saved (named as ”Catchment” in this The area of “Catchpoly” shapefile can be
example). For overlaying the catchment boundary determined directly using the “Field Calculator”
with other data, this file is converted to vector of QGIS. This is Area of Catchment (A) for the
(polygon) format, styled suitably and saved as given bridge location. In present example, it
shape file (.shp file, named as “Catchpoly” in this comes out as 549000216.40 m2 C:\Users\cc1863\
example) as shown in Fig.16. Downloads\3B_Lower Narmada and Tapi\Screen
Shots\SS_20_Area.png or 549 km2.
10 Mark the Centroid of the Catchment
The Centroid of the Catchpoly shapefile can be
obtained directly in QGIS and the shape file layer
is saved (named as “Centroid” in this example,
Fig. 18).

Fig. 15 . Capturing “Outflow Point” in QGIS

Fig. 18 . “Centroid” layer in QGIS

11 Measure L (Length of Longest stream)
Using the “Selection Tool” of QGIS, the segments
forming longest stream are selected from the
“Channels_Clipped”, starting from the farthest
point of the catchment area and tracing it up to the
Fig. 16 . “Catchpoly” layer in QGIS bridge location. These segments are exported as
As the “Catchpoly” layer contains all the water ESRI shapefile, styled suitably and saved (named
streams, including those outside the catchment as “L Stream_Segments” in this example). Using
area contributing to flow at the bridge location, it is the “Dissolve” geoprocessing tool of QGIS, these
clipped to only show the water streams which are segments are merged in one layer, which is then
inside the relevant catchment area. The clipped suitable styled and saved (named as “L Stream_
14

Final” in this example). This is the longest stream 13 Plot Length-Elevation Profile of Longest
from the bridge location to the farthest point on the Stream
catchment area (Fig.19). The length of this water
13.1 Using the “Profile Tool” Plugin of QGIS along with
stream (L) can be determined directly using the
the “DEM_Clipped” layer and “L Stream Final”
“Field Calculator” in QGIS. In present example, it
layer, the Length_Elevation Profile of the longest
comes out as 76.559 km.
stream can be plotted. This can be saved also
as a picture file (.png) for reference (named as
“Elevation_Profile” in the present example) as
shown in Fig.21.

Fig. 19 . “L Stream_Final” layer in QGIS

12 Measure LC
12.1 LC is the length of longest stream from the bridge
location to the point nearest to the centroid of the
Fig. 21 . “Elevation_Profile” layer in QGIS
catchment area.
12.2 From the centroid of the catchment area, draw 13.2 The “Length of Stream from farthest point on the
a straight line in such a way that it intersects the catchment area to “any Point” & “Elevation at that
longest stream and length of this line between the Point” can be obtained by keeping the cursor at
centroid and the intersection point is least. This that point. These two parameters are noted down
line is saved as a shapefile layer (named as “CG for all the points on this plot where the value of
Line Layer” in the present example). slope of the stream is changing significantly, and
using this data, the “Equivalent Stream Slope (S)”
12.3 Split the longest water stream in two parts, on
can be calculated using the formula given in the
both sides of its’ intersection point with “CG Line
“Flood Estimation Reports” of CWC.
Layer”, using “Vector Overlay–Split with Lines”
tool of the “Toolbox” in QGIS. Delete the portion 14 Conclusion
from the intersection point to the farthest point
14.1 Using the above methodology, the Catchment
on the catchment area. The second portion,
Area properties (A, L, LC and S) are assessed
from intersection point to the bridge location, is
very quickly and more accurately as compared
“LC Stream”. Style this layer suitably and save it
to the conventional method. This was done for
(named as “LC Stream” in the present example,
the catchment areas of 20 nos. of examples
Fig.20).
given (out of total 21 nos.) of “Flood Estimation
12.4 The length of this water stream (LC) can be Reports” of CWC. Their comparison with the
determined directly using the “Field Calculator” corresponding values assessed conventionally in
in QGIS. In present example, it comes out as the CWC reports can be seen in the Annexure. The
40.507 km. calculations were not done for one subzone (No.
1F: Middle Ganga Plains) as no bridge could be
located at the location given in the CWC Report.
The values assessed are quite close to the values
assessed in CWC report and it is opined that the
differences are due to inaccuracies in the method
adopted in CWC report. This opinion is based on
the fact that in cases with large differences, even
location of bridges in the CWC reports are not
correct (as confirmed visually on “Google Earth”).
14.2 Using these properties of catchment areas, the
Design Discharge was calculated as per the
Fig. 20 . “LC Stream” layer in QGIS data/approach given in each of the CWC report.
For this, a separate MS-Excel based calculation
 15

software has been developed. The comparison of 2 Flood Estimation Methods for Catchments Less
the Design Discharge calculated, with the values Than 25 Km2 in Area (Report No. RBF-16).
arrived at in CWC Reports, is also given in the Issued by: Research Design and Standards
Annexure. The gap for the Design Discharge Organisation, Lucknow, India.
values further narrows down and becomes
3 “Flood Estimation Reports” for various hydro-
very less/inconsequential for use in the bridge
meteorological sub-zone in India (total 21
substructure/foundation planning.
nos. of reports). Published by: Central Water
15 Further developments Commission.
The methodology presented in this paper is 4 QGIS for Hydrological Applications. By: Hans van
based on use of SAGA (System for Automated der Kwast and Kurt Menke. Publisher: Locate
Geoscientific Analyses) Tools along with QGIS. Press LLC, USA.
There are other alternative methods also like using
5 Videos on this subject on the YouTube Channel
GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support
of Mr. Hans van der Kwast, IHE Delft University,
System) Tools along with QGIS, using WhiteBox
Netherlands.
Tools with QGIS and burning the Streams in
DEM and then using GRASS Tools along with 6 Mastering QGIS. By: Kurt Menke, Dr. Richard
QGIS. The author has assessed Catchment Area Smith Jr., Dr. Luigi Pirelli and Dr. John Van
Properties using these alternative methods also, Hoesen. Publisher: Packt Publishing Limited,
and they will be presented separately. Birmingham, UK.
16 References 7 QGIS and Open Data for Hydrological Applications
– Exercise Manual, Version 3.4.1b, November
1 Indian Railway Standard “Code of Practice for
2018. Published by: Dr. Hans van der Kwast, IHE
the Design of Sub-structures and Foundations of
Delft University, Netherlands.
Bridges” (Bridge Substructures and Foundations
Code). Issued by: Research Design and
Standards Organisation, Lucknow, India.

COLABA_STATION_1920
 16

ANNEXURE

Comparison of Calculations/Assessment as per CWC Report vis-à-vis using GIS System

Bridge Location Catchment Area Q50

SN Zone Method Longitude Latitude A L Lc S (Cumecs)
Deg Min Sec Deg Min Sec (sqm) (km) (km) (m/km)
CWC Report 73 27 20 25 45 15 414 52.8 3.178 1741.14
1 1a_Luni
GIS System 73 27 19.9 25 45 12.34 414.46 59.881 2.687 1893.72
CWC Report 77 10 8 24 31 0 361.05 38.62 3.005 2093.24
2 1b_Chambal
GIS System 77 9 54 24 30 59.88 357.95 40.281 2.33 1902.71
CWC Report 79 28 3 35 17 30 154.62 23.35 2.615 862.69
3 1c_Betwa
GIS System 79 27 53.1 25 17 22.15 162.12 22.442 2.157 841.56
CWC Report 80 51 53 24 44 12 340.64 34.94 3.702 1082.07
4 1d_Sone
GIS System 80 51 49.6 20 43 59.14 340.34 33.784 2.863 964.45
1e_Upper Indo CWC Report 76 44 0 30 24 0 1126 81.42 5.14 2715.28
5
Ganga Plains GIS System 76 43 44.1 30 24 0.71 1388.63 99.828 3.72 2636.19
1g_Lower Ganga CWC Report 79 26 0 19 39 0 389.86 38.29 18.5 9.371 1742.69
6
Plains GIS System 85 2 27.4 23 39 53.76 390.34 33.775 19.089 7.797 1799.22
2a_North CWC Report 90 7 10 26 23 10 595.7 75.62 47.14 1.701 1281.09
7
Brahamputra GIS System 90 6 50.1 26 23 19.27 549 76.559 40.507 2.375 1381.64
2b_South CWC Report 93 4 48 25 47 0 470 56.35 31.4 2.019 1136.44
8
Brahamputra GIS System 93 4 32.3 25 47 2.37 482.114 53.327 22.478 4.717 1178.83
3a_Mahi and CWC Report 74 22 0 22 52 0 136.36 33.5 3.263 1049.62
9
Sabarmati GIS System 74 21 49 22 51 51.7 139.829 36.018 3.16 1037.59
3b_Lower CWC Report 76 8 0 20 54 0 285 34.45 14.45 2.479 1225.84
10
Narmada and Tapi GIS System 76 7 38.2 20 54 18.8 288 35.6 15.347 2.473 1258.78
3c_Upper CWC Report 78 21 56 22 45 25 70.18 23.1 12.88 4.03 597.96
11
Narmada and Tapi GIS System 78 21 42.5 22 45 24.60 66.961 22.72 10.848 2.522 575.60
CWC Report 83 21 0 20 4 36 194 39.36 15.13 4.359 1077.58
12 3d_Mahanadi
GIS System 83 20 49.9 20 4 23.9 193.396 38.045 20.413 3.894 999.15

19
 Bridge Location Catchment Area Q50
SN Zone Method Longitude Latitude A L Lc S (Cumecs)
Deg Min Sec Deg Min Sec (sqm) (km) (km) (m/km)
3e_Upper CWC Report 70 0 4 90 40 0 2227.39 96.6 1.54 4125.8
13
Godavari GIS System 76 4 0.86 19 39 54.7 2243.36 113.45 1.177 3388.7
CWC Report 79 26 0 19 39 0 242 27.7 11.2 3.875 1592.76
14 3f_Lower Godavari
GIS System 79 26 2.19 19 39 6.13 242.959 29.453 12.656 3.222 1455.45
CWC Report 80 48 0 20 25 0 325 31.37 16.09 1.195 2029.05
15 3g_Indravati
GIS System 80 47 52.9 20 25 3.67 313.683 36.438 18.652 1.356 1726.88
3h_Krishna and CWC Report 75 18 0 15 13 0 270.6 35.4 13.84 1.276 889.43
16
Pennar GIS System 75 15 58.9 15 14 31 264.620 40.930 15.656 1.235 829.44
CWC Report 78 30 18 12 24 0 294 43.47 22.72 51.3 832.61
17 3i_Kaveri
GIS System 78 30 16 12 24 4.09 299.14 50.654 28.405 4.4 675.38
4a, 4b, 4c_Eastern CWC Report 79 27 30 13 25 0 785 52 24.71 4.12 2224.91
18
Coast GIS System 79 34 39.3 13 18 37.9 775.881 53.656 28.211 3.482 1970.73
5a, 5b_West CWC Report 75 34 40 11 52 25 176 38.48 4.21 964.03
19 Coast, Konkan and
Malabar GIS System 75 34 38.4 11 52 38.4 180.769 35.468 4.901 1114.98

7_Western CWC Report 76 28 15 32 4 55 103.6 21.32 11.58 69.004 1133.8

20
Himalayas GIS System 76 28 1.28 32 4 52.3 114.110 21.399 14.387 48.996 1129.99

20
17
18

“TM Connect” – A Software

to connect Track Machines
Abhijit Roy* and Pashupati Nath Chatterjee**

SYNOPSIS
Earlier there were small numbers of track machines due to which it was possible to manage
their details by collecting information over telephone and also by inspecting the machines at site.
However, with the number of machines increasing over the last couple of years, it has become very
difficult to remain updated about the machines. This has given rise to serious problems in planning
proper upkeep of the machines including safety issues. In view of this it was felt to develop a
mobile based application which can be updated by the machine operator himself and the details
will be visible to all concerned responsible to keep the machines in proper condition. This has led
to the development of the mobile application named “TM Connect”, which will connect the machine
operators to the higher level of management on real time basis.

This software has two parts, one is run through mobile which can help in swift identification and prompt
app, which can be easily downloaded from a single maintenance/ rectification/restoration of the Track
source to any smart phone. The App is basically Machines conveniently, thus augmenting the efficiency
for machine operators, who can directly post their manifold.
progress, breakdowns, support needed, machine
Main objectives of the software are:
details, etc. The second part is web based, which can
be operated through any web browser. This part is for • Get daily progress directly from track machines.
administrators, who can monitor progress, machine
• Get current location of track machines in Map
positions, staff position, details of machine, camping
View.
coach & staff, support needed by the machines and
details of safety items available with the machines in a • Obtain day to day update and analyse idle times,
tabulated statement. if any.
The App and its Web based software has been • Eliminate manual and non-standardized
developed and commissioned by the Track Machine processes.
Organisation of South Eastern Railway, with technical • Online support system for breakdown with image
support from M/s Intellio Services LLP, Kolkata to share proof.
ladder-less as well as real-time information about the
various aspects of Track Machines working in the zone • Monitor stock of safety items in Track Machines.
to all the Engineering officials simultaneously. • Notifications and reporting.
Salient technical features of the application are: • Avoid unproductive communications and e-mails,
 Application has been developed using three tier thus saving man-hours.
architecture: front end in ASP. Net using C#, back • Get critical information like POH/ IOH of the
end in MS SQL Server 2012 R2. machines.
 Service layer has been used for secured data • Get detailed staff allocation in each machine.
access.
The Mobile App and the Web part of the software are
 No usage of third party tool or application. discussed below –
Prevention of cross domain access.
 Mobile: Developed in IONIC deployable in Android
mobile.
The app can be accessed through the mobile phones
of field officials and the computers/mobile phone of
the Engg. Officials at the HQ, Divisions and Sections,

* Chief Engineer/TMC/SER IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

** AXEN/TM/HQ/SER Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
 19

A) Various aspects of “Mobile App” 2 Machine Master:

Fig. 5. Fig.6.
In Machine Master
section, there are 3
Fig.1. Fig. 2. sub-menus, namely
Machine Info (Fig.
5), Coach Info (Fig.
6) and Staff Info (Fig.
7). All related data
regarding machine,
coach and staff can
be edited/entered by
the machine in-charge
or Divisional SSE and
everyone using the
Fig. 7. software can see it.
To know these details
there is no need to call for registers and other
records. The date of last entry/edit is also visible
in all the sub-menu pages. In staff section there
is provision for uploading competency certificate
of operators issued by Dy. CE/TM, from which it
can be easily known which operator is to be sent
to which training next.
Fig.3. Fig. 4. 3 Locate Machine: In locate machine section,
location of the machine can be seen in Google
After putting credential in login page (Fig. 1), the index
Map. Location of the
page as shown in Fig. 2 shall appear which has five
machines is shown in
menu items.
two colours, Red and
1 Daily Progress : By tapping on Daily Progress Green. If the progress
menu, the administrator gets the list of all the of a particular
machines as shown in Fig. 3. He can choose machine has not
the desired machine and date to display the been uploaded in the
progress filled by the machine operator as shown last two days then
in Fig. 4. All the relevant data regarding progress its colour will be red
like major section, block section, block hours otherwise it will be
demanded, block hours allowed, actual working green. Position of the
time, progress, reasons for less progress etc are machine is displayed
available in this page. However, if any machine as the location from
operator logs in with his credential, he will only where its progress
find the details of the machine assigned to him. was uploaded. The
20

time & date of the last update is also displayed the machine operator. This will give a real time
when the particular location balloon is tapped. availability of the safety items and manuals in the
machine.
4 Support Details:
B) Monitoring through Web Browser:
When the software is opened in web browser, its
dashboard will show the machine positions in a
nutshell. From there, any section can be seen
and necessary editing can be done by the admin,
if required.

In support section, an operator can ask for support

for any breakdown, parts requirement, etc., with
relevant photographs. Photographs can be taken On the top of the screen all relevant data like total
either by using the mobile phone or sharing number of machines, active/inactive machines in
from photo gallery and the maximum number of the last 2 days, machines with less safety items,
photographs is limited to 4 nos. per ticket. total number of staff, total block hours availed,
total unresolved supports, etc. can be seen.
After viewing requirement of support the
Divisional SSE, AXEN/TM/Line, Officers at HQ On the bottom of the screen, activity status of
can take necessary actions immediately to solve machines is furnished date wise. Green is for
the problems. The action taken can also be machines active upto last two days and Red
recorded by the persons concerned which will colour is for machines inactive in the last two
remain logged into the system. days.
This section saves time in rectification of machine From this dashboard all sections can be visited.
related problems and reduce breakdown time. As an example, if progress is selected, the screen
This will also help in creating database of will show following details:
breakdown of the machines.
5 Safety Items: In this section the requirement
of safety items by each individual machine has
been provided which
can be changed by
the administrator as
per requirement. The
machine operator will
give input on the items
actually available in the
machine which can be
viewed by the higher
management. The list Apart from the dashboard items there are five
of safety items has other menu items in the opening page viz.
been gathered from Masters, Machine Current position, Machine
the IRTMM and as per Item Mapping, User Machine Mapping, Progress
requirement felt by the Details and Support Section. These are discussed
administration. The year below individually:
of publication of various a) Masters: It has seven sub-items viz. User,
Safety Manual/Books to Machine, Machine Type, Section, Base
be kept in the machine
can also be entered by
 21

d) User Machine Mapping : In this page,

machine can be assigned to users. In case
an operator is transferred from one machine
to other, necessary editing can be done
here.

Station, Safety Items and Staff. Here the

admin can add/ delete/edit all the relevant
details which will be reflected in the mobile e) Progress Details : This page displays the
app. progress related details of each machine,
b) Machine Current Position : which can be filtered across various criteria
such as date, division, machine, machine
type, etc. All data can be exported to Excel
for further analysis.

This is the Google Map view of the machines

at the time of last entry made for progress
of the machine. By clicking on the location
balloon, one can see the details of last f) Support : This page displays the list of
entered progress of the machine. support requested by the machine operators.
c) Machine Item Mapping : The information can be filtered across
machine, status of support (open/close) and
On this page the admin can add/delete/edit period of time. Its contents can be exported
the list of safety items for individual track to Excel also. The user will be able to know
machines. Its contents can be exported to all the open/close support items of all the
excel also. machines over any period of time and can
take required managerial decision.
22

Future Scope:
This software can further be developed in the
following ways:
• If GPS data of all assets in Railway Track like
Signals, Level Crossings, Points & Crossings
etc. are available, then this software can alert
operators of approaching track features.
• Oil contents of engine, Machine Temperatures
and other parameters can be monitored by
inserting sensors in the machines.
 23

Design of Reinforced Concrete Pier Caps

by Strut-and-Tie Method
Avinash Kumar* and G.S Yadav**

SYNOPSIS
Reinforced concrete Pier caps are like deep beams whose behaviour is dominated by shear
deformation. The Strut-and-Tie method (STM) can be used to design reinforced concrete pier caps
where the conventional method of design for shear and flexure cannot be used due to nonlinear
distribution of strains. The designers generally adopt either sectional method or design method
applicable to corbel for designing the pier cap, which is not rational. This paper presents the
applicability of STM for the analysis and design of reinforced concrete pier caps of Highway as well
as Railway bridges. The provisions for the use of STM is given in various international codes Like
ACI, AASTHO and fib but the Indian codes for Railways and Highways are silent over it. Because
of the lack of a well-ordered design process, many practitioners are reluctant to use STM. This
paper presents a proper method to analyse of pier caps by formulating an appropriate strut-and-tie
model.

1 Introduction-
The reinforced concrete pier caps of bridges support
the loads of the girders and transfer them to single
or multiple piers. In most of the cases, the pier caps
behave like deep beams as the shear span to the
depth ratio is relatively small. The Bernoulli’s theory of
bending, which assumes linear distribution of strain, is
not strictly valid and can’t capture the true behaviour
of deep beams and hence can’t be considered an
appropriate method of analysis and design of pier
caps.
The ultimate strength of the pier cap is primarily
influence by the shear-span to depth (a/d) ratio, where
Fig. 1 . Typical pier cap subjected to concentrated
a is the distance between the centre of bearing and
load from bridge girders
vertical face of pier and d is the effective depth just
below the centre of bearing as shown in figure 1. The The strut-tie-method is an effective tool to design such
pier cap is subjected to heavy concentrated loads from RC members where the whole section is disturbed
superstructure, hence the depth requirement is high, section and subjected to non-linear strain. STM is
resulting a/d ratio less than 2 and sometimes even formulated based on the actual flow of stress from
less than 1. When the pier cap has a/d less than 1, bearings to supports. It involves the idealisation of
it is treated as corbel and the designer typically apply the structure as combination of compression struts
a semi-empirical method based on concept of shear and tension ties, which meet at nodes to form a
friction developed between the cracks. When a/d is truss capable of transferring the load from bearings
greater than 1, the pier cap is designed conventionally to the supports. The compression struts are formed
as a cantilever beam using the sectional approach. within the concrete section and reinforcing bars act
This is not correct approach if a/d is less than 2 as the as tension ties. This method can be effectively used
strain distribution in disturbed region is nonlinear. for the analysis and design of any size and shape of
reinforced concrete pier cap.
2 Strut and Tie model
Strut and Tie modelling (STM) is a valuable tool for the
analysis and design of concrete structures, especially
for the regions where plane sections do not remain
plane after bending. It is based on the lower bound

* Prof Track-II/IRICEN IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

** Prof Bridge-II/IRICEN Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
24

theorem of plasticity, according to which a stress prestressing steel. The geometry of a tie is therefore much
field is in equilibrium with the applied loads, and not simpler. The tie is geometrically confined to elements that
violating the yield criteria at any point, provides a lower can carry high tensile forces, and the allowable force is
bound estimate of capacity for elastic-perfectly plastic generally given as a fraction of the yield force.
materials. In other words, the resistances everywhere (iii) Node
are greater than or equal to the internal forces. The
Nodes form where struts and ties intersect. Nodes
basis of load-carrying mechanisms consists of struts,
are described by the types of elements that intersect
ties and nodes and the basic principle of this method
at the node. For example, a CCT node is one which
is that compression is resisted by “concrete struts” and
is bounded by two struts (C) and one tie (T). Using
tension is resisted by “steel ties‟.
this nomenclature nodes are classified as CCC, CCT,
The Strut-and-Tie Model is a generalisation of the truss CTT, or TTT. A CCC node is expected to have a higher
analogy method, which is used to idealise the force strength than any of the other types due to the effect of
flow in a cracked concrete beam. During the past few confinement. Each of the other node types has some
decades, many experiments have been conducted tensile stresses acting upon it due to the presence of
to refine and develop the model. The following the ties. Tensile stresses can cause cracking within the
assumptions are made in STM: a) the reinforcement nodal zone and reduce the strength.
and concrete are adequately anchored, b) the concrete
is assumed to carry no tension after cracking, c) the
shear reinforcement yields before struts crush and d)
forces in struts and ties are uniaxial.
2.1 Elements of Strut and tie Model
(i) Strut
Struts are the elements within strut-and-tie models that
carry compressive stresses. The geometry of a strut
varies widely and depends upon the force path from
which each individual strut arises. There are mainly
three basic type struts that is prismatic, fan-shaped
and bottle shaped strut as shown in figure-2. Prismatic
struts have a uniform cross section over their length. Fig. 3 . Schematic depictions of nodes (Thompson et
Such a strut can occur in beam bending where the al. 2003)
compressive stresses are confined by the neutral axis. 2.2 Geometry and dimensioning of Strut and Nodes
A compression fan shaped strut can develop when
The geometry of the idealized truss should be
distributed loads flow into a support. A bottle shaped
consistent with the dimensions of the struts, ties, nodal
strut can form when the flow of compressive stresses
zones, bearing areas, and supports. The basic strut
is not confined. In this case, the force is applied to
and tie model of a deep beam for three-point loading
a small zone and the stresses disperse as they flow
is illustrated in figure-4. The width of strut, Ws, used to
through the member. As the compression disperses,
calculate the area of strut is the dimension perpendicular
it changes direction forming an angle to the axis of
to the axis of the strut at the ends of the strut. This
the strut. To maintain equilibrium a tensile force is
strut width is depicted in figure 5. If two-dimensional
developed to counteract the lateral component of the
strut-and-tie models are appropriate, such as for deep
angled compression forces. A bottle shaped strut can
beams, the thickness of the struts may be taken as the
be modelled by a collection of struts and ties to account
width of the member except at bearing supports where
adequately for the tensile force.
the thickness of the strut must be equal to the least
thickness of the member or supporting element.

Fig. 2 . Common types of struts

(ii) Tie
Ties are the elements within a strut-and-tie model that
carry tension and are generally confined to reinforcing or
Fig. 4 . Description of Strut-and-tie Model
 compression member. The width of the strut and dimension of node depend on the
width of bearing plate and the cover provided to tension reinforcement. The dimensions 25
Figure 5- Nodal zone and compression stru
of the node and width of compression strut shall be calculated at illustrated in figure 5.
In design, struts are usually idealized as prismatic the reinforcement within the strut. As the
compression members. If the area of a strut differs at its compression spreads out from the support, Figure 5- Nodal
compression member.
compression member. The The width
width of
of the
the strut
strut and
and dimension
dimension ofof node
node depend
depend on onthe the
3. Provisions of ACI 318R-14
two ends, due either to different nodal zone strengths tension is developed. When the induced tensile
bearing plate
plate and
and the
the cover
cover provided
provided toto tension
tensionreinforcement.
reinforcement.The Thedimensions
dimensions
at thewidth of bearing
two ends or to different bearing lengths, the strut stress exceeds the tensile strength of the
of the node
node and
and width
width of
of compression
compression strut
strut
can be idealized as a uniformly tapered compression shall
shallbebe calculated
calculated at
atillustrated
illustrated
concrete, a crack in
infigure
figure 5.5. ACI
The
parallel 318R-14
to strut axis provide
will form. estimations of
3. Provisio
member. The width
compression of the strut
member. and dimension
The width of the strutofand
node dimension ofWithout on themodel
any horizontal
node depend as a fraction of
reinforcement, thethestrut
specified compre
the compression spreads out from the support, tension is de
depend onofthe
width widthplate
bearing of bearing plate provided
and the cover and thetocover could split
tension reinforcement. causing a brittle failure. If sufficient
The dimensions The ACI 318R-
provided
of thetonode
tension reinforcement.
and width of compressionThe dimensions
strut
tensile
shall be calculated attransverse
stressfigure
exceeds
illustrated inreinforcement
the 0.85𝛽𝛽
tensile𝑓𝑓brittle
5. 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =exists, ′strength
failureof can
the concrete, a
𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 model as a frac
of the node and width of compression strut shall be will avoided,
the
be form. Without
compression andspreadsany
the horizontal
out
strut thereinforcement,
from continue
can support, carry the
to tension strut c
is develope
compression member. The width of the strut and dimension of node depend on the
calculated at illustrated in figure 5. failure.
tensile
load If sufficient
stress
beyond exceeds transverse
the crackingthe tensile
Where: load.
the reinforcement
strength
compression of the exists,
concrete,
spreads out brittle
a crack
from tf
width of bearing plate and the cover provided to tension reinforcement. The dimensions𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′
will
the form. can
strut Without any 𝛽𝛽horizontal
continue to carry reinforcement,
load
tensile beyond
stress the
exceedsthe strut
cracking
the could
load
tensile st
Table 1 . Strut Coefficient 𝑠𝑠 = the strut efficiency factor
of the node and width of compression strut shall be calculated at illustrated in figurethe 5. compression spr
failure. If sufficient transverse 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ = thewill reinforcement
form. compressive
concrete Without exists, anybrittle horizontal
strength failure(Cyre
the strut can continue to carry load beyond the tensile
crackingWhere: stress
load. exceed
Strut geometry and 𝑓𝑓Reinforcement
= failure. compressive
Effective If sufficient transverse strength reinf
will 𝛽𝛽 𝑠𝑠 = the strut efa
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
theastrut form. Without
Location crossing strutcan continue′ to carry load b
failure. 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 =Ifthe concret
sufficient
Struts Table with1uniformStrut Coefficient The 𝛽𝛽efficiency
𝑠𝑠 factor, 𝛽𝛽the 𝑠𝑠 , isstrut
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐based
=can on
Effective thec
continu
cross sectional
Strut geometry listed
and Location NA in ACI 318. The first
Reinforcement 1.0 category is as
cross
Table 1 Strut Coefficient 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠
areaStrutalong length and Location as would occur normally strut inThe theefficiency
compressf
geometry Table 1 Strut Reinforcement
Coefficient 𝛽𝛽crossing
𝑠𝑠
Struts with uniform cross the most
sectional prevalent and general
listed inofACI the31
Minimum Strut geometry strutNA and Location
Struts located in a varying cross-sectionalTable area. Typically,
area as1would Strut Coeffic occuri
regionStruts of along
awith
member length crossReinforcement
uniform sectional
concrete element, the stresses
NA 0.75
will dispers
area
Struts along
located length Strut the geometry
most and
preva
where the width of in the a region provided of Struts with uniform
that element.
Minimum cross Reinfor
sectional
Struts
compressed
a member located
concrete
where in a regionat width
the of area along Minimum varying
provided Reinforcemen
length cross-s
Figure 5- Nodal zone and compression strut at CCT midNode
a member
length of where
the
of the compressed concrete strut the width
No Struts
Reinforcement provided
located
Struts
in a region
with uniform
concrete of eleme
It is of note that there are
area 0.60 two efficiency f
Figure
Figure 5-
5- Nodal
Nodal zone
zone and
and compression
compression strut
strut at
at CCTCCT Node
Node can of
spreadthe compressed
laterally
at mid length of the strut concrete provided can a member where the width lengthpro
No Reinforcement along
that element.
Fig. 5 . Nodal zone and compression strut at CCT (bottle
at mid shaped length struts) shown
of the strut can of the compressed in table 1. These
No ReinforcementStrutstwo factors
located providedare
in a re b
spread laterally (bottle shaped concrete
Node spread laterally (bottle shaped at mid length of athe member
It is of where
note the
tha
strut can
Figure 3.5- Provisions
Nodal zone andof ACI 318R-14
compression strut at CCT Node Struts struts)
located in tension of the compressed
struts) shown in tablec
3.
3. Provisions
Provisions of of ACIACI 318R-14 318R-14 membersStruts or the tension
located in tension NA spread laterally NA
(bottle
at 0.40
mid
shaped
length of the
3 Provisions of ACI 318R-14 Struts located in tension struts) NA
zones of members
members or the tension zones spread laterally (bot
The3.
The ACI
ACI 318R-14
318R-14 provideprovide estimations
estimations of of the strength members of the ofof aastruts
or the tension ofzones a strut-and-tie
Struts located in tension
The ACI
The 318R-14 ACI Provisions
318R-14 provide of ACI
provide estimations
318R-14
estimations of the of thethe strength
strength strength of of the
the
of
All other
struts
struts
members
cases
strut-and-tie
strut-and-tie struts)
model
of themodel
strutsas
model as
asaaaafraction
of fraction
strut-and-tie
fraction of
of the
the
of
Figure
the
model
specifiedspecified
5- as
specified Nodalcompressivecompressive
acompressive
fraction
zone and of strength
the
strengthof
compression ofthe
of members
strength
the concrete
strut
of the Node
concrete
at CCT
concreteNA members or the tension 0.60 zones
All
All other
other cases
cases of members NA NA Struts located in ten
specified
The compressive
ACI 318R-14 provide strengthestimations of the concrete of the strength of the struts of a strut-and-tie
All other cases members or the tens
model
𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓 as
==0.85𝛽𝛽 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′′𝑓𝑓 ′ of the specified compressive strength
a 𝑠𝑠fraction
0.85𝛽𝛽 (1) of ACI 318 also places limits
the concrete
(1) on the allowable
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽 𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 (1) (1) ACI 318 also places limits on the allowable stresses of members
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ACI 318 also
stresses at the places faces limits of on thethe allowable
nodes. The stresses nodal atfaces
at the the of fa
3. Provisions of ACI 318R-14 efficiency factors are based on ACI the 318 elements
also places All
that otherintersect
limits cases
on theto fo
allo
Where:𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
Where:
′
(1) efficiency factors
factors are
are based
based onon thethe elements
elements that that intersect
Where:
Where: listed in Table
intersect to form 2. the node and are
efficiency listed in
factors Table are 2. based on the
𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 = the = thestrut strut efficiency
efficiency factor factor listed in Table 2.
𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 = the
𝛽𝛽 strut efficiency
′𝑠𝑠 = the strut efficiency factor
Where:
factor
The ACI 318R-14 provide estimationsThe
The
of the strength
Effective of the struts
Compressive
Effective Compressive Compressive listed
strength of in
strength
aofTableconcrete 2.ACIat318
strut-and-tie
of concrete
concrete
also places
a face
at
of nod
a facear
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′= the concrete compressive
𝑓𝑓 = the concrete compressive model strength
as a fraction
strength
(Cylinder
of
(Cylinder the strength)
specified
strength) The
compressive
calculated Effective strength
by of the concrete strength of efficiency factors
𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠′= = strutthe efficiency
concrete factorcompressive strength The Effective Compressive strength
=the
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ = the concrete
Effective compressive
compressive strengthstrength (Cylinder strength) calculated
at a face ofbynodal zone, f_ce shall be calculated
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =theEffective
(Cylinder
concrete compressive
strength)
compressive strength
strength (Cylinder strength) calculated by listed in Table 2.
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = Effective compressive strength
′ by ′ The Effective Comp
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = Effective compressive 𝑓𝑓 = 0.85𝛽𝛽
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 strength𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽(1) 𝑓𝑓
𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐 (2)
The Effective
efficiency compressive
factor,  𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 , is based strength
on the type of strut. There𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐are = five classes
0.85𝛽𝛽 𝑓𝑓 ′ of struts calculated by (2)
The efficiency factor, 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 , is based on the type of strut. There are five classes of struts 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐 (2) ′
listed in ACI 318. The first category is a strut with uniform cross 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛 shall section
be over its length
The
listed efficiency
The efficiency in ACI 318. factor,  𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠 ,Where:
factor,
The , is based
is 𝛽𝛽based
first 𝑠𝑠category on the on
is atypestrut the
ofwith type
strut. of strut.
uniform
There cross
are fiveThere
shall beininaccordance
section
classes are
over five
accordance
its length
of struts with
classes withtable of2.struts
table 2.
as would occur normally 𝛽𝛽 = in the
the compression
strut efficiency zone
factor of a beam. 𝛽𝛽 Bottle-shaped
shall be in struts are with table 2.
accordance 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽 ′
𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 table
as would
The
listed
listed efficiency
ininACI occur
ACI 318. normally
factor,
318.The The first𝑠𝑠, in is the
based
category
first compression
is on
category theistype
a strut with
a zone of of with
uniform
strut aTable
beam.
crossuniform
𝑛𝑛 .Bottle-shaped
2section Nodal over
crossZone struts are
Coefficient
its section
length over 𝛽𝛽 shall
𝑛𝑛its length be in accordance with
the most prevalent and =general of thecompressive
classes. A bottle-shaped Table 2strut
Nodal isZone one with a 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛
strut.
thewould
as There
most arenormally
prevalent
occur five classes
and 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′in theofcompression
general
the concrete
struts
of the listed in ACI
classes.
zone of Aa strength
bottle-shaped(Cylinder
beam. Bottle-shaped strut is oneCoefficient
strength)
struts with a
are
as would occur
varying cross-sectional 𝑓𝑓area. normally in the
Typically, compression
if a forcestrength zone of
Configuration
is applied a beam.
to a2 small
Configuration Bottle-shaped
of region
nodal
of nodal zone
of a Table struts are 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛 shall be𝜷𝜷in accord
318.
the
varying Thecross-sectional
most first
prevalentcategory and is a=strut
general
area.
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 with
Effective
of the
Typically, uniformif a cross
compressive
classes. A bottle-shaped
force is applied Table strut
to a Nodal
is
small oneZone with
region a ofzone
Coefficient a 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛 2 Nodal Zone Coefficient 𝒏𝒏 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛
the
concrete
section most prevalent
element, the stressesand general
will disperse of the
in the classes.
lateral A
directionbottle-shaped
Nodal as
zone theybounded flow strut
through
by struts,is one
bearing with a
areas, or both 1.0
concreteover
varying its length
cross-sectional
element, as would
area.
the stresses occur
Typically,
will ifnormally
disperse a forcein thein islateral Nodal
applied to
direction zone
Configuration
a smallasbounded region
they of
flow by struts,
nodal
ofthrough
a bearing
zone Configuration areas, 1.0 of nodal zone 𝜷𝜷𝒏𝒏
that
varying
the element.
compressioncross-sectional zone of a area.
beam. Typically,
Bottle-shaped if a force
or is
Nodal
both applied
zone to
anchoring a small
one tie region of a Table 2 Nodal 0.80Zone
concrete
that element. element, the stresses
The will
efficiencydisperse
factor, in  the
𝛽𝛽 𝑠𝑠 , lateral
is based direction
on Nodal zone bounded by struts, bearing areas, orbyboth
the as they
type offlowstrut. through
There are Nodal
five zone
classes bounded
of struts struts, beari
1.0
struts are the most prevalent and general of Nodal zone anchoring two or more ties Configuration 0.60 of n
concrete element, the
that element. listed stresses
in ACI 318. will Thedisperse in the
first category lateral
is
Nodal a zone
Nodal direction
strutzone with
anchoring uniform
anchoring asone they
cross tie flow
one tie through
Nodal
section zone anchoring
over its length 0.80 one tie 0.80
It is classes.
the of note that there are two efficiency
A bottle-shaped strut factors withassociated with bottle-shaped struts as Nodal zone anchoring two or more ti Nodal zone bounded
that
It is of note that there as
element. arewould occuris normally
two efficiency
one athe compression
factorsinassociated Nodal with
Nodal zone zone
bottle-shaped
zoneanchoring of a beam.
anchoring struts
two two or Bottle-shaped
asmore
or more ties tiesstruts0.60 are 0.60
varying
shown
It is of in cross-sectional
tablethat1.there These area.
two Typically,
factors arefactorsif a force
based on the reinforcement The within
strength the strut. As be Nodal zone anchorin
note
shown in table 1. These arethe twotwomost efficiency
prevalent
factors are based and on associated
general with
of the
the reinforcementbottle-shaped
classes. within Aofstrutsa strut asmust
bottle-shaped
the strut.
checked at its minimum
As strut is one with a
cross-secti
is applied to a 1. small region of a concrete element, especially athe bottle-shaped strut, the minimum of Nodal area zone anchorin
shown in table These two factors
varying are based
cross-sectional onarea.the reinforcement
Typically, if within
a force strut.
is As to
applied aThe strength
small region aof a will
strut must occurbe chec at
It isstresses
the of notewill thatdisperse
there are in the twolateral
efficiency direction factors associatedThe strength
The
where strength
it withofbottle-shaped
intersects ofa strut
a node.
a strut must must
Using be struts
checked
be
the
especially as
checked
efficiencyat its
a bottle-shaped
minimum
at
factors, the
strut, the
cross
stre
concrete element, the stresses will disperse in the lateral direction as they flow through
as
shown they flow in table through that
1. These element.
two factors are based on theits
control minimum
especially the astrength
reinforcement cross-sectional
bottle-shaped within the
of that interface strut,area.
strut.the For
minimum
As
except ainThe strut, area
theastrength
case will
of of occ
a aCTT stt
that element. where it intersects node. Using
It is of note that there are two efficiency factors especially
where
CTT nodeit that a
intersects bottle-shaped
the nodal a node.efficiency strut,
Using
control could the
the
the
minimum especially
efficiency
bestrength
less thanofthe a
factors,
that bottle-s
efficiency
interfac th
associated with bottle-shaped struts as shown area
control willthe occurstrength at theofends that of the strut
interface where
except where in itthe
it efficiency
intersects
case of
It is of note that there are two efficiency factors associated CTT
with bottle-shaped node thatstruts the nodal
as c
in table 1. These two factors are based on intersects a node. Using the efficiency factors,
control the strength
shown in table 1. These two factors are CTT basednodeonthat the the nodal efficiency
reinforcement within could the strut. be less As than the effi
CTT node that the n
 allowed the members researchers to
or the tension examine
struts) zones concret
allowed the researchers to examine concrete under complex stress states and develop mechanics-based of members models based located
Struts on thatindata. tensi
mechanics-based
26 models based on that data. The model, MCFT, was then converted into a design All tool. otherIncases members
order to apply the desN or the tensi
a design tool. In order to apply the design form of MCFT, one must choose an appropriate tensile concrete of members
strain (𝜖𝜖𝑐𝑐 ).
Alllimits
otheron cases
appropriate tensiletheconcrete strength of strain the strut(𝜖𝜖𝑐𝑐 ).will control the strength of tie is explicitly considered inACI the318 also places
AASHTO LRFD the allowa
that interface except in the case of a CTT node. STM provisions. Therefore, efficiency factors are based on the ele
The angle no between limit is the placed strut
ACI
onand any adjoini
318 also places li
It is the onlystrut in a and CTTany node that thetie nodal efficiency that angle listed
as in ACI. For the nodal stress limits, in Table 2.
The angle between that node. ACI 318-14 adjoining
also provides is explicitly
one moreconsidered restrictioninonthe theAASHTO
modeling LRFD STMThe
process. provisions.
The Therefore, no limit is
could be less than the efficiency of struts framing AASHTO, like ACI, simply specifies Effective Compressive efficiency
factors factors
strength of are
LRFD STM provisions. Therefore, no limit of isany placed on that angle as aincommon ACI. For themay
angle
that
into that between
node. node. ACIACI the318-14
318-14 axes also also provides strut one
provides and
onemore tie entering
more restriction based on the on the node typenodal
modeling not
ofprocess.
node stress
be(TableThe limits,
less
calculated AASHTO,
3). Itby should belike
listed ACI, simply
in Table 2.
nodal stress limits, AASHTO, like ACI, simply specifies factors based on the type of node (Table 3).
than node.
restriction
angle
that 25
between degrees.
onACIthe the
318-14This
modeling
axesalso provisions
of any process.
provides strut stems andfrom
The
one angle the
tie entering
more ideaanoted
restriction that on struts
common willAASHTO
thatmodeling
the the
node ′
lose
may capacity
not
process. be Itless
nodal The should
as
efficiency be factors
noted that the AASH
The Effective Compre
(Table 3). It should
between be noted
the axesthat ofthe any AASHTO strut and nodal tie efficiency
entering a factors are
are multiplied
multiplied 𝑓𝑓 directly rather
rather than ′ ′calculated
as specified by in AC
they
that
than
angle
that approach
node.
25between
node.
ACI
degrees.
ACI318-14 the
318-14
theThis
318-14 direction
axes also provisions
also of
provides
ofprovides
any a
provides tie.
strut one
stems Clearly
and
one
more from
more a strut
restriction
the
tierestriction
entering that
ideaon
restriction
on is
a that coincident
the
common modeling
struts
on modeling with
process.
𝑐𝑐
willprocess.
node
the modeling lose a tie
mayprocess. will
The
capacity
not
𝑓𝑓have
be less
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
The
=as 0.85𝛽𝛽 𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓
0.85𝑓𝑓
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 as
directly rather thanthat
common node.
0.85𝑓𝑓 ′
node ACIas specified
may not alsoin
be ACI
less 318.
than one
25 more
degrees. the
specified in ACI 318. The
angle
no between
compressive the axes
capacity. of any ofstrut
The angle and tie 25
of enteringdegrees athat
common nodeto may nota be less
aisis chosen eliminate potential
they approach 𝑐𝑐 the direction a strut
tie. Clearly a entering
strut coincident with tie will
than
angle
angleprovisions
This 25between
between degrees. thethe
stems This
axes
axes from ofprovisions
ofany
the any strut
idea stems
and
that and tiefrom
struts tie
entering
will the aidea common that
common struts
node node will
may losebe
may
not capacity
notless behave lessas 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.85𝛽𝛽
with𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓
′
than
problems 25 degrees.
with This
struts provisions
that form a stems
slight from
angle the
with ideaa Table
that
tie. 3 :
struts Nodal will Zone
lose Coefficient
capacity as 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛 shall as per beAASHTO
in accordance table
𝑐𝑐 2.
no
they
than
than capacity
lose compressive
approach
25 degrees.
25 degrees. as the capacity.
direction
This
This
they provisions
provisions
approach The
of the angle
astems
tie. stems
direction of
Clearly
from 25
from the
of degrees
a astrut
the
ideaidea that is
that that chosen
isstruts
coincident
struts to will
will lose eliminate
with lose a tie
capacity potential
will
as have
capacity as
they approach the direction of a tie. Clearly a strut that is coincident with a tie will have
problems
no
tie.
theyClearly
they compressive
approach
approach with a strut struts
thecapacity.
the that that
direction
direction form
is coincidentofThe a tie.
of a angle
slight
tie. with
Clearly angle
of
Clearlya tiea25 awith
will
strut degreesa tie.
that
strut isis chosen
is coincident
that
Configuration coincident to
with eliminate
of anodaltie will
with tiehave
a zone potential
will have 𝛽𝛽 shall be in accorda
no compressive capacity. The angle of 25 degrees is chosen to eliminate potential Table 2 Nodal Zone𝑛𝑛Coefficient 𝛽𝛽𝑛𝑛
have
no
problems
no that no node.
compressive
compressive compressive
withstrutsACI 318-14
capacity.
struts
capacity. capacity.
thatform also
The
form The provides
The
angle
a angle
slight angle
of one
25
angle
of with of more
25
degrees
25 with degreesrestriction
is
a tie. chosen
is chosen on to the modeling
eliminate
to eliminate process.
potential potential The
Configuration
problems with that a slight angle a tie. Nodal zone bounded by struts, bearing areas, of0.85 nodal zone
degrees
problems angle 4. AASHTO iswith
between chosenLRFD tothat
the eliminate
axes Bridge ofapotential
any Design strut Specifications
problems
and tie a entering a common node may not Nodal be less
problems withstruts struts that form form slight
a slight angle angle with with tie.
a tie.
or both zone bounded Table 2 Nodalbearing
by struts, Zone Ca
with than 4.struts 25 that
AASHTO degrees. form LRFD aThisslight angleDesign
provisions
Bridge withstems a tie. from the idea that struts will lose capacity
Specifications Nodalas zone anchoring Configuration
one tie of no
Nodal zone anchoring one tie 0.75
4 The
AASHTO they AASHTO
approach
4. AASHTO LRFD
AASHTOLRFD LRFD the
Bridge Bridge
direction
LRFDBridge Design
Bridge Design
of a Specifications,
tie.
Specifications
Design Clearly a
Specifications strut likethat ACI is 318-14,
coincident placewith limits
a tie on
will the
Nodal zone anchoring two or more ties b
have Nodal zone bounded
4. Design Specifications Nodal zone anchoring two or more ties 0.65
allowable
The no4. 4. AASHTO
compressive
AASHTO stress LRFD LRFD
at the Bridge
capacity.
Bridge faces Design
ofDesign
The
Design the angle Specifications
nodes
Specifications,of and struts.
25 degrees like ACI However,
is chosen
318-14, thetoplace
AASHTO
eliminatelimitsapproach potential
on the Nodal zone anchoring
The AASHTO AASHTO LRFD LRFD Bridge Bridge Design Specifications, Specifications
forproblems the allowable stress in on aformstrut isslight
based on Modified Compression Nodalmust zonebe anchoring
allowable
like
The ACIAASHTO
AASHTO 318-14, with
stress LRFD struts
at
place
LRFD the that
limits
Bridge
Bridge faces Designthe
Design aSpecifications,
of allowable
the nodes angle
Specifications, and
stress with
like aACI
struts.
like tie. However,
ACI
318-14, 318-14, theField
place AASHTO
place
limits Theoryon approach
limits the (MCFT)
on The strength of a strut
the checked
The
(Collins AASHTO and LRFD
Mitchell Bridge
1991) Design
rather Specifications,
than the like
reinforcement 5 ACI Finite
318-14, Element
place Analysis
limits on the especially a bottle-shaped strut, the m
at
for
allowable
allowable
The thethe faces
AASHTOallowable
stress
stress ofLRFD the
at stress
at thenodes
the faces
Bridge in
faces aand strut
of the
of
Design struts.
isnodes
the based However,
nodes and
Specifications, on and Modified
struts.struts.However,
like ACIratios
Compression
However, the used
318-14, theField
AASHTO by ACI.
AASHTO
place Theory
approach
limits The
approach
onMCFT
(MCFT) the it intersectsThe strength of a the
stru
allowable
the AASHTO stress approachat the faces
fora the of the
allowable nodes and
stress struts.
in However, Finite the AASHTO approach where a node. Using
based
for the
(Collins
for
allowable the equations
allowable
and
allowable
stress Mitchell are
stress
stress
at presented
the in
1991) in
faces strut
a rather
strut
of below:
is based
is
the thanbased
nodes on on
the Modified
reinforcement
and Modified Compression
struts. ratiosElement
Compression
However, Field
used
the Theory
by
Field
AASHTO analysis
ACI. (MCFT)
Theory The of
approachMCFT
(MCFT) a hammer head
especially a bottle-sh
aforstrut the allowable
is based stress
on LRFD in a strut
Modified is based on Modified
Compression Field Compressionreinforced Field Theory (MCFT) control the strength of that interface e
(Collins
based
(Collins
for the 4. and AASHTO
equations
and
allowable Mitchell
Mitchell are 1991)
stress presented
1991) in Bridge
rather
a rather
strut than
below: Design
isthan thethe
based Specifications
reinforcement
on reinforcement
Modified ratios used used
ratios
Compression byconcrete
ACI.by
Field The
ACI.
pier
Theory MCFT
The
cap subjected to heavy
MCFT
(MCFT) where it intersects a
Theory
(Collins (MCFT) and Mitchell (Collins 1991) and Mitchell
rather than1991) rather
the reinforcement ratios used by ACI.
concentrated loadThe as MCFT CTT node
shown in figure 1 is done. that the nodal efficiency could
based equations 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ are
based
(Collins
𝑓𝑓
than𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =the
based equations
and
equations Mitchell
reinforcement arepresented
≤
are presented
1991)
0.85𝑓𝑓
presented ratios𝑐𝑐
′ rather below:
used
below:below: than
by the The
ACI. reinforcement (3)
The ratios
stress usedpath byof ACI.principal The compressive
MCFT control the strength o
stresses
0.8+170𝜖𝜖
MCFT
based The AASHTO
based 𝑓𝑓
equations
′
𝑐𝑐
1 LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, like ACI 318-14, place limits on the
equationsare0.85𝑓𝑓 are′ presented
presented below:below: is shown in figure 6. The load is directly going toCTT thenode that the no
𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.8+170𝜖𝜖 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ ′ ≤ 𝑐𝑐 (3)
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐allowable = ′ stress
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
1 ≤ 0.85𝑓𝑓 at the ′
𝑐𝑐′ ′ 2
faces of the nodes and struts. (3) support However, fromthe AASHTO
bearing through approach compressive struts
𝑓𝑓
𝜖𝜖𝑐𝑐1𝑐𝑐for = == 0.8+170𝜖𝜖
𝜖𝜖0.8+170𝜖𝜖
𝑠𝑠 + (𝜖𝜖11𝑠𝑠1+≤≤0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
0.85𝑓𝑓
0.85𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐in a𝛼𝛼strut (3) (4) (3)
the
0.8+170𝜖𝜖 allowable
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ stress  ′ 𝑠𝑠 is based on
(3) Modified Compression
inside the pier Field
cap Theory
in the (MCFT)
disturbed region. The
𝑓𝑓
𝜖𝜖1(Collins =
= 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 +and (𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠1Mitchell ≤ 0.85𝑓𝑓
+ 0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 (3)
(4) ratios used by ACI. The MCFT just below
compressive stresses are maximum
1991) 2 𝛼𝛼rather than the reinforcement
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝜖𝜖1 = 𝜖𝜖0.8+170𝜖𝜖 𝑠𝑠 + (𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 + 0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝛼𝛼2𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠
(4) (4) the bearings and at the corners of pier cap and
𝜖𝜖𝜖𝜖11based == 𝜖𝜖𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + +(𝜖𝜖
equations(𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠++0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
are presented
0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑠𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑠 below: (4) (4)
Where: pier stem. The principal tensile strains inside pier
𝜖𝜖Where:
1 = 𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 + (𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠 + 0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑠
2
(4)
cap are shown in figure 7. The maximum tensile
𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑠 == the
Where: thesmallestsmallest
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ anglebetween
angle between ′ the the compression strut and
compression stresses the adjoining
occur between tie. the bearings. These
Where: 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ≤ 0.85𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 (3)
𝛼𝛼𝜖𝜖
Where: = = the
strut
the tensile
and
0.8+170𝜖𝜖
smallest thestrain
angle in
1 adjoining tie. the
between concrete the in the
compression direction strutof the
tensile
and tension
the stress tie
adjoining are taken
tie. by the reinforcement ties.
Where:𝑠𝑠
𝛼𝛼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠′ = the smallest angle between the compression strut and the adjoining tie.
𝑓𝑓
𝛼𝛼
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
= specified
the
the smallest
tensile concrete
angle
strain ininthe strength
between
the concretethe (cylinder
compression
in the strength)
in direction
strut and the
of tension
the adjoining tie.
𝜖𝜖𝛼𝛼 𝑐𝑐
Where: 𝑠𝑠 ===the thetensile
the tensile
smallest strain strain
angle in concrete
between the concrete
the in the direction
compression the ofstrut the andtension tie
thetieadjoining tie.
𝜖𝜖𝑠𝑠′𝑠𝑠𝜖𝜖
𝑓𝑓 ==the =
usable tensile
𝜖𝜖 + (𝜖𝜖 strain
compressive + in thestrength
0.002)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 concrete2
𝛼𝛼 in the direction of the tension (4) tie
𝑓𝑓
𝜖𝜖𝛼𝛼𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = =1 specified
direction
specified
the tensile
𝑠𝑠 ofconcrete
the
concrete
strain
𝑠𝑠 tension
in strength
strength
the
𝑐𝑐 = the smallest angle between the compression strut and the adjoining tie. tie
concrete (cylinder
(cylinder
𝑠𝑠 in the strength)
strength) direction of the tension tie
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠′′ = specified concrete strength (cylinder strength)
𝜖𝜖𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ==
=the usable
usable
specified
specifiedtensile compressive
compressive
concrete
strain
concrete in strength
the strength
strength concrete
strength (cylinder thestrength)
in (cylinder direction of the tension tie
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 usable= compressive strength
Rather than
usable compressive using the amount of reinforcement
strength(cylinder strength) that crosses the anticipated crack as in
𝑐𝑐 = strength
′
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 specified concrete strength
ACI,
Rather
Rather Where: AASHTO
than
than using using bases
usingthe the the
amount
theamountamount efficiency of on
reinforcement an average that strain
crosses inthe theanticipated
concrete atcrackthe as location
in of
𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
Rather usable
= usable than compressive
compressive strength
strength of of reinforcement
reinforcement thatthat crossescrosses the
the anticipated anticipated crack crack as in as in
ACI,
a 𝛼𝛼tie. AASHTO
= The
the strut bases thetheefficiency
strengths as presentedonon an an average in AASHTO strain in the
were concrete
developed at the basedlocation
tie.on of
tests of
ACI,
Rather
ACI, AASHTO
𝑠𝑠 AASHTO thansmallest bases
using
bases angle
the
the amount
efficiency between
efficiency of the
onreinforcement
an average compression
average strainthat strut
strain
in inand
crosses
the the the
concretethe adjoining
concreteat theatlocation
anticipated the location
crack of as of in
Rather
a
reinforced tie.
𝜖𝜖 = The
thethan using
strut
tensile
concrete the
strengths
strain amount
panels. in asthe of reinforcement
presented
concrete
Panels were inin AASHTO
the that
subjected directionwereto of
a developed
the
planar tension based
loading tie on
scheme, tests of
in which
aACI,
Rather tie. The
AASHTO than strut bases
using strengths
the
the crack as
efficiency
amount presented on an in
averageAASHTO strain were in developed
the concrete based
at the on tests
location of
as of reinforcement AASHTO that werecrosses the based
anticipated crack of as in
a tie. The 𝑠𝑠
crosses
reinforced thestrut anticipated strengths as presented inwereACI, in
AASHTO developed on tests
astress
reinforced
ACI,
reinforced
′
𝑐𝑐 =
𝑓𝑓tie. wasconcrete
specified
The
AASHTO applied
concrete
strut
concrete bases
panels.
concrete to
thethe
panels.
strengths
panels.
Panels
strength
as
efficiencyfour
Panels
Panels presented
were(cylinder
edges
onwere
subjected
an of in the
subjected
average
subjected AASHTO
to a planar
strength)
panels.
tostrain a That
atoplanar
were planar
in
loading
stress
developed
the
loading
scheme,
loading
concrete consisted
scheme, scheme,
based
at the
in which
onofintests
location
in which both
which ofa
bases
stress the
was efficiency
applied to on the an average
four edges strainof the in the
panels. That stress consisted of both a
normal
stress
concrete
reinforced
astress 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = The
𝑓𝑓tie. usable
wasand
was applied
at concrete
the
applied compressive
shearinglocation tocomponents.
topanels.ofthe
the afour strength
four
tie. The
Panelsedges edgesThis
strutwere experimental
of
ofstrengthsinthe
subjected
the panels.
panels. to program
Thata That
planar
stress (Vecchio
stress
loading
consisted and
consisted of Collins
scheme, both ofin 1982)
aboth
which a
normal and strut shearing strengths
components. as presented
This experimental AASHTO programwere developed
(Vecchio based
and Collins on
1982) tests of
allowed
as
normal
normal was
stress
reinforced presented andthe
andshearing researchers
in
shearing AASHTO
applied components. tocomponents. to
were
theexamine examine
four developed
This This
edges concrete
experimental based
experimental
ofsubjected
the under program
panels. complex
toprogram
a That (Vecchio stress
(Vecchio
stress and states
and Collins
Collins
consisted and
1982) develop
ofinboth 1982)
whicha
allowed theconcrete researchers panels. to Panels were
concrete under complex planar
stress loading
states scheme,
and develop
on
mechanics-based
allowed
allowed Ratherteststhe theof
than reinforced
using
researchers
researchers models the concrete
to tobased
amount
examine
examine panels.
on of that
reinforcement
concrete
concrete Panels
data. underThe
under model,
that
complex MCFT,
crosses
complex stress was
the
states
stress then
anticipated
and
states converted
develop
and crack
develop into
asain
normal
stress
mechanics-based and applied
was shearing models tocomponents.
the
based four on that edgesThis data. experimental
of The the model,panels. program
MCFT,Thatwas (Vecchio
stressthenconsisted and Collins
converted of
intoboth 1982)
were
a design
ACI,
mechanics-based subjected
AASHTO tool. to
In
bases aorder
models planar
the based to loading
apply
efficiency
on that scheme,
the
on data. an design
average
The inmodel,
formstrain of
MCFT, inMCFT,
the
was one
concrete
then must
converted at the choose
location
into anof
mechanics-based
allowed
normal
a design the
and tool. researchers
shearing models
Inapplied
order components.tobased
to examine
apply onthe that
This data. The
concrete
experimental
design under
form model, complex
ofprogram
MCFT, MCFT, was
stress
(Vecchio
one must then
states
and converted
choose and an
Collins develop
1982)into
which
a adesign
stress tool.
was InInmodels
order
to
to
the four edges of the ofFig. 6MCFT,
. Principal compressive an stress in reinforced
appropriate
apanels.
mechanics-based
allowed
appropriate
tie. The
design the
That tool.tensile
strut
researchers
tensilestress
concrete
strengths
order
concrete
consisted toapply
based
to strain
as apply
ofon
examine
strain
the
(𝜖𝜖both
(𝜖𝜖
presented that
𝑐𝑐 ).
).design
𝑐𝑐the
a data.
concretenormal
in The
design form
AASHTO
underform
model, MCFT,
were
of
complex MCFT, onewas
developed
stress
must
one then choose
based
must
states and on
choose
converted tests
develop anof
into
appropriate
reinforced tensile
concrete concrete panels. strain Panels (𝜖𝜖 ). were subjected to a planar loading concrete scheme, pier in capwhich
appropriate
a
and design
mechanics-based shearing tool.tensile concrete
Inmodels
components.order based tostrainapply
This on(𝜖𝜖 𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐the). data.
experimental
that design Theform model, of MCFT,MCFT,was onethen must choose into
converted an
The
program
appropriate
aThedesign stress angle was between
(Vecchio
angle between tool. applied
tensile and
Inthe the to
concrete
order strut
Collins
strut to the and four
and
1982)
strain any
any (𝜖𝜖
apply edges
allowed
adjoiningadjoining
). design of the
the tiepanels.
tie is form is explicitly
explicitly That
of considered stress
considered consisted
in the in choose an a
the
AASHTO of
AASHTO both
𝑐𝑐the MCFT, one must
The
researchersnormal angle between
and to examine
shearing the strut concrete
components. and any under adjoining
This complex tie is explicitly considered in the AASHTO
LRFD
The
LRFD
appropriate STM
angle
STM provisions.
between
provisions.
tensile the Therefore,
strut strain
Therefore,
concrete andno any no
limit
(𝜖𝜖 limit isexperimental
adjoining is placed
placed tieon onprogram
is explicitly
that
𝑐𝑐 ). is placed on that angle as in ACI. For the
that (Vecchio
angle
angleconsidered
as in as ACI. inand
inACI.the
For Collins For 1982)
AASHTO
the the
LRFD STM
stress states provisions. andAASHTO, Therefore,
develop no limit
mechanics-based
nodal
nodal
LRFD
The allowed stress
stress
STM between the limits, researchers
limits,
provisions. AASHTO, Therefore, to
like examine
like ACI, ACI, simply
no adjoining concrete
simply specifies
limit is placed under
specifies factors complex
factors based
on that angle basedstress
on the on states
the
type of
as in ACI. AASHTO typeand
node of develop
node
For the
nodalangle
models stressbased limits, on AASHTO,
thatthedata. strut like and
The ACI, any
model, simplyMCFT, specifies tie factors
is explicitly basedconsidered
on the typeinofthe node′ ′
(Table
(Table
nodal
LRFD mechanics-based3).
3).
stress
STM ItIt should
should
limits,
provisions. models
be be noted
AASHTO, noted
Therefore, based
that that
like the on
ACI, the that
AASHTO
noAASHTO AASHTO
simply
limit data. nodal The
nodal
specifies
isnodal
placed model,
efficiency
efficiency
factors
on thatfactorsMCFT,
factors
based
angle was
factors
areon then
are
multiplied
the
asmultiplied
ininACI. converted
multiplied
type 𝑓𝑓
of
𝑐𝑐′ node into
𝑓𝑓
The angle Itbetween thenoted strutthat andthe any adjoining tie efficiency
is explicitly considered 𝑓𝑓For
the AASHTO the 𝑐𝑐
was
(Table then 3). converted should be into ′a ′design tool. In order to are 𝑐𝑐
directly a design rather tool.than In order 𝑐𝑐asas specified
to apply inthe ACI 318.
design form of
directly rather than specified in ACI 318. thatMCFT, one must choose 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′an
(Table 3). Itprovisions.
should 0.85𝑓𝑓
0.85𝑓𝑓
be 𝑐𝑐′noted that the AASHTO nodal efficiency factors are multiplied
nodal
apply
directlythe
LRFD stress
STM design
rather limits,
than form AASHTO,
0.85𝑓𝑓of MCFT,
Therefore, likeone
𝑐𝑐 as specified in ACI 318.
ACI, must
no simply
limitchoose is specifies
placed onfactors based
angle on in
as the type
ACI. of
Fornode the
an
directly
(Table
nodal appropriate
appropriate rather
3).
stress It limits,tensile
tensile
than
should beconcrete
concrete
0.85𝑓𝑓
AASHTO, noted′
𝑐𝑐 aslike
strain
strain
specified
that ACI, the(𝜖𝜖simply ).
in. ACIspecifies
𝑐𝑐AASHTO 318.nodal efficiency
factors based factors on the are type multiplied of node 𝑓𝑓 ′
𝑐𝑐
The angle
directly
(Table 3). between
rather
It the
than 0.85𝑓𝑓
should strut
𝑐𝑐 asand
′
be noted any
the adjoining
specified
that in ACI 318.
AASHTO nodal efficiency factors are multiplied 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′
The angle between the ′strut and any adjoining tie is explicitly considered in the AASHTO
directly rather than 0.85𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 as specified in ACI 318.
LRFD STM provisions. Therefore, no limit is placed on that angle as in ACI. For the
nodal stress limits, AASHTO, like ACI, simply specifies factors based on the type of node
(Table 3). It should be noted that the AASHTO nodal efficiency factors are multiplied 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′
 27

stresses within the pier cap, the forces in different

members and nodes can be calculated and
compared with the strength of the members and
the nodes.

Fig. 7 . Principal Tensile strain in RC pier cap

Utilisation ratio of concrete and steel in
compression and tension respectively is shown
in figure 8. This also gives an idea of the
distribution of stresses in the concrete and steel Fig. 9 . Strut and tie model for typical pier cap
in compression and tension respectively. The
Similarly, strut-and-tie model can be developed
steel provided at the top between the bearings
for pier cap having large numbers of bearings
are subjected to tensile stresses and the utility
and have larger cantilever part. In such cases,
ratio is maximum in that region. If the same
additional nodes between two bearings can be
pier cap were analysed by sectional method,
selected as shown in figure 10. The compression
the requirement of reinforcement between the
struts and tension ties are shown. The vertical
bearings would be zero. Whereas the strut and
shear reinforcement equal to the force of vertical
tie model concludes that the tensile stress in the
tie shall be uniformly distributed to take care of
reinforcement (tension tie) between the bearings
shear force. The horizontal reinforced placed at
should be same throughout its length. The same
top will act as tension tie. This reinforcement shall
result is found in the finite element analysis as
be anchored sufficient length behind the bearings
depicted in figure 7 and figure 8.
to develop required tension.

Fig. 10 . Strut-and-tie model for larger width pier cap

Fig 8 . Utilisation ratio of concrete and steel in

compression and tension 6 Modelling and Analysis of Strut-and-Tie
The development of Strut-and-Tie models is
not straight forward. Hence, a design strategy
The strut and tie model which represents the
is required for the development of a STM. The
true behaviour of pier cap of figure 1 under
procedure is listed as follows:
concentrated loads can be developed as shown
in figure 9. The compression struts and tension a) Define the disturbed region from geometry
ties are compatible with the stress pattern and load conditions.
shown in the results of finite element analysis b) Visualize the actual flow of stress within pier
as depicted in figure 6 to 8. Once the strut and cap from loads to supports.
tie model is developed by visualizing the flow of
c) Develop a truss model with represents
28

the actual flow of stresses. The axis of inside the pier cap. For dimensioning of struts,
struts and ties shall be chosen so that they ties and nodes, recommendations given in ACI
approximately coincide with the compression 318, AASHTO or any other standard international
and tension fields respectively (Fig 9 and 10) code can be referred.
d) Calculate the forces in all struts and ties. 4 Provision related to formation of strut-and-tie
Calculate the forces on different faces of model, dimensions of struts, ties and nodes and
nodes. prediction of their strength should be included in
IRC-112 and IRS Concrete Bridge Code.
e) Define the dimensions of struts, ties and
8 References
nodes as recommended by ACI, AASHTO
or any other international codes. 1 ACI 318-14. Building code requirements for
structural concrete and commentary. A report
f) Calculates the stress in strut, tie and nodes. by ACI committee 318, Farmington Hills (MI):
The stresses should not be more than the American Concrete Institute 2014
permissible stress.
2 AASHTO (2010). LRFD Bridge Design
g) If the stresses are more than the permissible Specifications, 5th ed., American Association
stress, resize the pier cap and/or revise the of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
reinforcement. Washington, DC
h) Provide adequate anchorage to steel tie 3 Vecchio, F. J. and M. P. Collins, The Modified
reinforcement. Compression Field Theory for Reinforced
Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear, ACI
The process is usually iterative as the truss Journal, Vol. 83, No. 2, Mar–Apr, pp. 219–231.
geometry depends on the dimensions of the nodes 1986
which in turn depend on the member forces.
4 Richard M. Barker, Jay A. Puckett, Design of
7 Conclusions and recommendations Highway Bridges, An LRFD Approach, John
1 Most bridge pier caps are deep beams and exhibit Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
nonlinear strain distribution. Method of analysis 5 Indu Geevar and Devdas Menon, Strength of
capable of capturing the true behaviour of deep Reinforced Concrete Pier Cap – Experimental
beam is required to be performed for strength Validation of Strut-and-tie method, ACI Structural
prediction. Journal V 116, No. 1, January 2019, 261-273.
2 The stress flow pattern of deep pier cap obtained 6 Pappu Baniya, Serhan Gunar, Specialized Strut-
from FE analysis suggests that the pier cap can’t and-tie method for rapid strength prediction of
be analysed by sectional method. The strut-and- bridge pier, Engineering Structures 198 (2019)
tie method (STM) provides a viable analysis
7 Trevor Pullen, Strut-and-Tie Modeling following
method for strength prediction of deep pier cap.
AASHTO LRFD, MS thesis, Iowa State University
3 The strut-and-tie model shall be formulated which of Science and Technology Ames, IA January
is compatible with the actual flow of stresses 2013.

CST-1888H
 29

Maintenance of Track on Bridge Approaches

B. Rama Rao* and Shashank Yadagiri**

SYNOPSIS
Ten out of ten girder bridges have this problem—the approaches are either low or high. Difference
in resilience of track often leads to low approaches. And, either ramping in or ramping out during
tamping results in high approaches. Both thesituations are vulnerable for rough running. The
approach track, therefore, should be either lifted or lowered to make it level.
At the bridges approaches under study, more OMS peaks and less TQI values (70) were recorded
due to unevenness caused by either low or high approaches. At bridge 628, lifting of approach
track with UNIMAT(no ramming out in the approach) and, at bridge 612, lowering of approach track
with BCM were done. The method of execution is discussed in this paper.

Case1: Approach track is lower than the bridge 145m from the bridge. With the sleeper spacing
proper of 600mm, number of sleepers to be tamped
Tamping is usually stopped well before a bridge in 55m are 92 (55000/600). Lift per sleeper is
approach. After many such tampings, sag is left in 0.6mm (55/92). Table 1 below lists the values of
the approach. At these locations, tamping should be lifts to eliminate the sag.
continued till the bridge by feeding lifts, calculated Table 1 . Values of lifts at each station
based on levels, in the front tower of tamping machine.
Detailed procedure of one such case (Bridge 628 UP)

Design RL

Design RL
is discussed here: Station

Station
Lift

Lift
RL

RL
TBM 100 -1 100.28 40 100.32
-9 100.24 55 100.29 0 100.32 0 100.32
Fig. 1 : Existing levels of approach trackand bridge 100.32
1-
-8 100.26 50 100.31 to Bridge 628
1 Existinglevelsofthe approach track and bridge 14
100.31
proper are taken at an interval of 10m.
-7 100.29 25 100.31 15 100.27 40 100.31
2 Graph (Fig.1) is plotted using these initial levels.
-6 100.3 20 100.32 16 100.31 0 100.31
3 The amount of lift (Annexure 1) at each station is -5 100.31 10 100.32 17 100.29 20 100.31
calculated.
-4 100.31 10 100.32 18 100.29 20 100.31
4 The lifts are written on sleepers so that these -3 100.3 20 100.32 19 100.26 50 100.31
values can be fed in the front tower of the tamping
machine. -2 100.295 25 100.32 20 100.24 70 100.31

6 During traffic block, machine should be positioned

such that tamping bank of machine is at the point
of zero lift (shown in Fig 3) i.e. 145m from the
bridge.
7 At this position, front measuring tower of the
Fig. 2 . Typical layout of Tamping Machine machine will be at “b” (12.82 m for UNIMAT3S)
distance ahead of tamping bank and rear tower
5 Starting point of tamping when machine works will be at “a” distance (5.58 m for UNIMAT 3S)
towards the bridge: behind the tamping bank.
In the present case, 55mm lift is required to make 8. When tamping is started from 1st sleeper, front
a level-track up to 90m from the bridge. Thus, trolley will be on 21st sleeper. Thus lift should be
to get 1 in 1000 ramp, the machine should start fed from 22nd sleeper. Since rear trolley is behind
working from 55m (55mm x 1000) behindi.e the 1st sleeper by a length of 5.58m (10 sleepers),

* Sr. DEN / Central / BZA, IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

** ADEN / BPP Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
30

a lift of 18.6 mm has to be achieved in 10 sleepers F: Front trolley

i.e. from 22nd sleeper to 31st sleeper to get the
Position A: Initial position of Machine (“M” is at point of
ramp of 1 in 1000 right from the first sleeper. After
zero lift)
tamping these 10 sleepers, machine completely
enters the ramp. Position B: Position when part of the machine is on 1
in 1000 gradient
Position C:When full machine is on 1 in 1000 gradient
Position D: When “M” is at exit of ramp
Position E: When “R” is still in the ramp
9 When the whole machine enters the ramp i.e.
B when the rear trolley (R) comes tothe point of
C zero lift, the lift values corresponding to 1 in 1000
gradient should be fed in the front tower.
Fig. 3 . Movement of tamping machine in the ramp 10 Similarly, at the end of the 1 in 1000 ramp (Point
portion ‘D” in Fig. 3), a correction should be applied to
R: Rear trolley M: Measuring trolley the lifts to be fed in the front tower.Corrections are
shown in the below (table 2).
Table 2. Marking of lift values on sleepers

Lift(mm) to be Lift(mm) to be Lift(mm) to be fed Lift(mm) to be fed

fed in the front fed in the front in the front tower in the front tower
Lift(mm)
tower at the tower at the entry at the exit of Ramp at the exit of Ramp
required as
Sleeper entry of ramp of ramp when until tamping bank after tamping bank
per 1 in 1000
for a length of complete machine reaches the design reaches the design
ramp
5.58m (Position is in ramp portion lift position (55mm) lift position (55mm)
B) (Position C) (Position D) (Position E)
Start 0.0
1 to 21 0.6 to 12.6 @ - - - -
0.6 per sleeper
22 13.2 1.86 - - -
25 15 7.44 - - -
28 16.8 13.02 - - -
31 18.6 18.6 - - -
32 to 19.2 to 55.2 @ - 19.2 to 55.2 (Same - -
92 0.6 per sleeper as column 1)
93 to 55.8 to 67.8 @ - - 55.8 to 67.8 (Same -
113 0.6 per sleeper as column 1)
114 - - - - 66.52
115 - - - - 65.24
116 - - - - 63.96
117 - - - - 62.68
118 - - - - 61.4
119 - - - - 60.12
120 - - - - 58.84
121 - - - - 57.56
122 - - - - 56.28
123 - - - - 55
Note for sleeper 114 to 123: Since the distance between “M” and “R” is 5.58m, the lift 67.8mm has to be brought
down to 55mm in a length of 5.58m. It needs 10 sleepers (5.58/0.6=9.3). Hence, reduction of lift per sleeper is
1.28mm [(67.8-55)/10].
 31

11 Further, tamping should be continued by feeding

the lift values of sag written on the sleepers. When
the front tower enters the bridge, sag will end, and
hence lift will also be zero at the front tower. After
this point, tamping should be continued with zero
lift till the last ballasted sleeper i.e. start of the
bridge. Since the front tower and rear tower are
on level track, the track within the machine-length
will be lifted automatically.
12 In this method, approaches are lifted without
stopping the tamping before the bridge.

Fig. 7 . Marking of proposed levels on pegs.

2 Proposed rail levels are calculatedconsidering
possible amount of lowering based on the
Fig. 4 . Final levels of approach track & bridge available cushion. This is to avoid cutting of
formation.

Case 2 : Approach track is higher than the bridge 3 The proposed levels (Table3) are marked on the
proper pegs driven on cess at a spacing of 30m.The
proposed levels are further reduced by 20mm to
Lowering—may be for a length of 250m—can compensate the lift to be given during tamping.
remedy this issue. As manual lowering is difficult,
loweringwithBCM can be the best option.Many a 4 Two BCMs—one machine at each approach—are
times, required-lowering may not be possible due to deployed under traffic block of 2 hr 30 minutes.
inadequate cushion. In such situations, the slope of Two such split-blocks are availed due to high
approach track can be at least flattened by lowering density of traffic. Otherwise, one block of 4 hrs
the track to the extent possible. will suffice.

At Bridge 612 DN, the approach gradient, as per index 5 In fact, there is no mechanism in BCM to measure
plan, should be 1 in 1000. But the existing gradients the amount of lowering. The gap between top of
are 1 in 333 at one end and 1 in 373 at the other the cutter bar and bottom of the sleeper (Fig 8)
end. Field survey has revealed that these slopes can is measured at every 6m to ensure the amount
be flattened by lowering. Here is the procedure for of lowering. Small fluctuations of lowering are
lowering of approach trackwith BCM: inevitable.

Fig 5 : Existing levels of approach track and bridge

1. Existing levels of the approach-track are taken at
6-meter interval and graphis plotted.

Fig. 8 . Measurement of amount of lowering (Picture

Fig. 6 . Proposed rail levels
taken at maximum lowering point: 217mm)
6 Levels aretaken again after lowering and amount
of lift calculated to get the desired gradient. The
lift-values are marked on sleepers; maximum lift
is 40mm.
7 The track is tamped in design-mode by feeding
these lifts. After tamping, levels are taken one
32

more time, for second tamping. 11 60 100.01 99.86 150

8 After second tamping, the approach gradients are 12 66 100.01 99.846 164
1 in 475 in place of 1 in 333, and 1 in 800 in place
13 72 100.02 99.832 188
of 1 in 373.
14 78 100.02 99.818 202
Limitation : Adequate ballast cushion is prerequisite so
15 84 100.01 99.804 206
that lowering can be done without cutting the formation.
16 90 100 99.79 210
Concluding remarks : Bridge approaches: Lowering
of bridge approaches can be done with BCM. On the 17 96 99.98 99.776 204
other hand, if lifting of bridge approaches is to be done 18 102 99.97 99.762 208
with CSM or Unimat, it needs careful adjustment of lifts 19 108 99.96 99.748 212
in the front tower of tamping machine.
20 114 99.94 99.734 206
Ride index is improved from 3.1 to 2.0 after these attentions. 21 120 99.93 99.72 210
A tip on GRPs of P&C: 22 126 99.92 99.706 214
23 132 99.905 99.692 213
24 138 99.895 99.678 217
25 144 99.88 99.664 216
26 150 99.86 99.65 210
27 156 99.83 99.636 194
28 162 99.8 99.622 178
29 168 99.77 99.608 162
30 174 99.745 99.594 151
31 180 99.72 99.58 140
32 186 99.705 99.566 139
Fig. 9 . T5156 GRP at SRJ 33 192 99.695 99.552 143
GRPs—at the toe of crossing, heel of crossing, SRJ, 34 198 99.675 99.538 137
and welds of P&C—are displaced frequently due to 35 204 99.655 99.524 131
dynamic loads. T5156 GRPs, which are designed with 36 210 99.63 99.51 120
vertical projections for channel sleepers, can be used
as an alternative. The vertical projections check the 37 216 99.605 99.496 109
displacementcompletely. 38 222 99.58 99.482 98
Table 3 . Proposed Levels 39 228 99.555 99.468 87
40 234 99.525 99.454 71
41 240 99.485 99.44 45
Proposed

Fall (mm)
Distance

RL (m)

RL (m)
Sl.no

42 246 99.465 99.426 39

43 252 99.45 99.412 38
44 258 99.415 99.398 17
BCM
1 0 100 100 0 45 264 99.39 99.39 0
end
46 270 99.38 99.39 -10
2 6 99.995 99.986 9
BCM
3 12 100 99.972 28 47 276 99.39 99.39 0
Start
4 18 100 99.958 42
48 282 99.39 99.39 0
5 24 100.005 99.944 61
49 288 99.38
6 30 100.005 99.93 75
50 294 99.38
7 36 100.01 99.916 94
51 300 99.38
8 42 100.01 99.902 108
52 306 99.375
9 48 100.005 99.888 117
53 312 99.38
10 54 100.01 99.874 136
54 318 99.375
 33

55 324 99.375 82 486 99.69 99.5 190

56 330 99.37 83 492 99.71 99.51 200
57 336 99.37 84 498 99.72 99.52 200
58 342 99.37 85 504 99.73 99.53 200
59 348 99.37 86 510 99.74 99.54 200
60 354 99.37 87 516 99.74 99.55 190
61 360 99.37 88 522 99.74 99.56 180
62 366 99.37 89 528 99.74 99.57 170
63 372 99.37 99.37 0 90 534 99.74 99.58 160
BCM 91 540 99.74 99.59 150
64 378 99.35 99.37 -20
Start 92 546 99.74 99.6 140
65 384 99.38 99.37 10 93 552 99.745 99.61 135
66 390 99.41 99.37 40 94 558 99.74 99.62 120
67 396 99.435 99.37 65 95 564 99.74 99.63 110
68 402 99.455 99.37 85 96 570 99.735 99.64 95
69 408 99.465 99.37 95 97 576 99.73 99.65 80
70 414 99.49 99.38 110 98 582 99.73 99.66 70
71 420 99.51 99.39 120 99 588 99.73 99.67 60
72 426 99.53 99.4 130 100 594 99.725 99.68 45
73 432 99.56 99.41 150 101 600 99.725 99.69 35
74 438 99.58 99.42 160 102 606 99.72 99.7 20
75 444 99.605 99.43 175 103 612 99.72 99.71 10
76 450 99.625 99.44 185 104 618 99.715 99.71 5
77 456 99.635 99.45 185 105 624 99.715 99.71 5
78 462 99.64 99.46 180 106 630 99.71 99.71 0
79 468 99.65 99.47 180 107 636 99.71 99.71 0
80 474 99.66 99.48 180 BCM
108 642 99.71 99.71 0
81 480 99.675 99.49 185 end
34

Time Dependent Deflection and Prestress

Loss in PSC Bridges
G S Yadav* and Avinash Kumar**

SYNOPSIS
In PSC bridges, the prestressing force causes the concrete to be subjected to sustained compressive
stresses even without the presence of live loads. Resulting creep in concrete combined with other
time dependent phenomenon such as shrinkage in concrete, change in modulus of elasticity of
concrete, and relaxation in prestressing steel result in time dependent deflection and loss of pre-
stress in PSC bridge decks. In composite PSC-RCC bridge decks the problem becomes more
involved due to presence of different grades of concretes in girders and deck slab and due to
different construction stages. Interaction of time dependent properties of materials with each-other
further complicates the problem. The time dependent deflection affects the Camber in PSC bridge
decks. Knowledge of time dependent deflection is important to enable the maintenance engineers
to derive meaningful conclusions from measurement of Camber. Presently this parameter is not
calculated for PSC bridges on Indian Railways (IR). In this paper the phenomenon of time dependent
deflection and loss of prestress is explained, and calculations of time dependent deflection and
prestress losses are presented for a typical design used on IR.

1 Camber in prestressed girder bridges

Camber is the common word to describe the upward
deflection of eccentrically prestressed bridge girders.
The amount of initial Camber is governed by the
combined action of the prestress force and self-
weight of the girder/deck. Camber and/or deflection
during service is function of time dependent material
properties such as modulus of elasticity of concrete
(Ec), creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation
of prestressing steel. Unlike steel bridges, the Camber
in prestressed bridges may increase or decrease with
time, depending upon stress distribution across depth
of the girder under sustained loads.
In pre-cracking stage, the deflection of prestressed
concrete girders can be predicted with good precision as
prestressed concrete is a, by and large, homogeneous
elastic body which obeys the laws of mechanics quite
closely. Normally, prestressed girder bridges are Fig. 1 . Load Deflection Curve of a prestressed beam
designed to remain crack free under working loads, (Design of prestressed concrete structures: T. Y. Lin
hence calculation of deflections is a straightforward and Ned H. Burns.
process, provided time dependent material properties The time dependency of material properties introduces
and their interdependency are known. fair bit of complications in estimation of Camber during
Figure 1 shows the deflection in uncracked and cracked service, mainly in three ways:
prestressed girders. i Firstly, it is difficult to determine the value of Ec
within an accuracy of 10% or even 20%. Moreover,
Ec of structural components like girders may differ
from that of concrete cubes by significant margin.
Besides, the value of Ec varies for different stress
levels and changes with the age of concrete.
ii Secondly, the creep and shrinkage of concrete
and loss of prestress in steel have profound

* Prof Bridge II/IRICEN IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

** Prof Track-II/IRICEN Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
 35

effect on deflection during service. The creep and

shrinkage depend upon large number of factors,
hence, introduces greater uncertainty in the
estimation of Camber.
iii Thirdly, not only the material properties are time
dependent, they are inter-dependent also, thus
complicating the issue further.
As per present state of knowledge it is possible to
estimate deflections of prestressed beams within
accuracy of about 20% if proper quality control
measures are observed in production of prestressed
concrete. Stress vs time in the strands in pre-stressed concrete
girder (NCHRP Report 496)
A frequent design requirement is to estimate what
Camber may be expected at the time of prestressing (a) Loss due to relaxation between initial tensioning
of girders, as well as later during service. It is a good and transfer (in pretensioned girders), and
practice to balance the downward deflection resulting temperature change from that of the bare strand to
from dead load by the upward deflection produced by temperature of the strand embedded in concrete.
prestress whenever possible. When this is achieved, (b) Instantaneous prestress loss at transfer due
the flexural creep and the highly variable value of Ec to anchorage seating/slip and effect of elastic
will have little effect on the time dependent Camber or shortening (prestress loss) and downward
deflection. Frequently, designer can put slight Camber deflection due to self-weight (prestress gain).
in the girder so that flexural creep tending to Camber the (c) Prestress loss between transfer and deck
beam will just about balance the downward deflection placement due to shrinkage and creep of girder
resulting from the loss of pre-stress. In the context of concrete and relaxation of prestressing strands.
Railway bridges, the change in Camber (loss or gain)
(d) Pre-stress gain due to deck weight on the non-
beyond a certain value can cause serious overstressing
composite section and superimposed dead loads
of fasteners in ballast less Railway tracks. In case of
(SIDL) on the composite section.
ballasted tracks, the effects, however, get dissipated
during maintenance operations. (e) Long-term prestress loss after deck placement
due to shrinkage and creep of girder concrete,
If the estimated Camber at different times during service relaxation of prestressing strands, and gain due
life of the bridge is known with some accuracy, actual to differential shrinkage of deck.
level of prestress in PSC beams can be estimated by
Total losses TL are losses due to Friction and slip FS,
measuring Camber during service. This appears to be
elastic shortening ES, creep of concrete CR, shrinkage
the objective behind instructions in Indian Railways
of concrete SH, and relaxation of tendons RE.
Bridge Manual (IRBM) para 1107/b/ii. This para
stipulates that ‘Camber in prestressed bridges shall TL = FS+ES + CR + SH + RE
be measured within one year of construction and once Total prestress losses can range from about 15%
in five years during subsequent inspections. Variation to 25% of prestress before transfer (PCI design
in Camber from estimated value may indicate loss of Handbook).
prestress more than the estimated value.’ However,
in IRBM it is not explained what the initial Camber will Accurate prediction of prestress losses requires
be and what are the expected values during service. accurate estimation of the long-term properties of
In absence of such guidelines field officials are not concrete and prestressing steel, which is a very
able to derive any meaningful deductions from their complex phenomenon because of the uncontrollable
inspections. variables involved.

2 Prestress losses in prestressed girders Instantaneous pre-stress loss (due to elastic shortening,
anchorage set/slip and friction) can be calculated
Components of prestress losses are illustrated in with fair degree of accuracy. However, estimation of
Figure 2 and explained below: time dependent prestress loss is complicated due to
uncertainty in estimation of material properties and
interaction between creep, shrinkage, and relaxation.
The interaction between creep, shrinkage and
relaxation takes place as explained below:
i As concrete creeps and shrinks, the prestressing
steel shortens and loses some of its tension.
36

Consequently, concrete creeps less than in the 3.4 Relaxation in prestressing steel:
case of sustained constant compression. Relaxation loss in prestressing steel depends upon
ii Also, as concrete creeps and shrinks, the stress at transfer and duration the steel is stressed.
prestressing strands relax at a slower rate For modern low relaxation stress relieved prestressing
than they would if they were stressed and kept steel, the loss due to relaxation is about 30% of the
stretched between two fixed points Thus, the loss in ordinary stress relieved steel.
“reduced” relaxation is less than the “intrinsic”
4 Prestress Loss Calculation Methods:
relaxation that occurs in a constant-length
laboratory test. Estimating prestress loss requires an accurate
prediction of material properties and of the interaction
3 Factors influencing material properties
between creep and shrinkage of concrete and the
3.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Ec): relaxation of steel. In addition, prestress losses are
The Ec is affected by stiffness of the cement paste, influenced by composite action between the cast-in-
porosity, composition of the boundary zone between place concrete deck and the precast concrete girders.
paste and aggregates, stiffness and porosity of Methods of estimating prestress losses can be divided
the aggregates, and proportion of the concrete into the following three major categories, listed in
constituents. However, concrete strength and unit descending order of complexity and accuracy:
weight are used in prediction formulae to capture
(a) Time-Step methods (used in FEM based computer
the effect of fundamental underlying factors. This, in
programs)
part, explains the inaccuracy in the current prediction
of the modulus of elasticity of concrete. In early-age (b) Refined methods
concrete, the strength of the cement paste is the (c) Lump-Sum methods
primary contributor to the strength while at later stage
the stiffness of the coarse aggregates is the primary IRC-112 and international design codes have included
contributor to the modulus of elasticity. Accurate detailed procedures for calculating time dependent
estimation of the value of elastic modulus at different properties of the materials.
times allows for accurate prediction of the initial 5 Calculation of time dependent properties of
Camber and initial elastic prestress loss and helps materials:
improve the accuracy of the prediction of creep loss.
The modulus of elasticity increases approximately with Indian Railway’s Concrete Bridge Code does
the square root of the concrete compressive strength. not stipulate any methodology for estimation of
Empirical equations have been developed to estimate time dependent properties of materials. It simply
the modulus of elasticity based on the compressive gives ultimate values of creep, shrinkage and Ec.
strength of the concrete. Provisions given in AASHTO – LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications -9th edition-2020 are the latest codal
3.2 Shrinkage of Concrete: provisions amongst all international codes. However,
Shrinkage depends on many variables, including the equations given in AASHTO code are based on
water-to-binder ratio, moisture, relative humidity of FPS system. These equations, being empirical, can’t
the environment, ambient temperature, aggregate be used without conversion to equations compatible
properties, and size and shape of the structural member. with SI units. IRC-112 (which is almost a replica of
It is assumed to be independent of loading and results Euro code-1992/part2) gives detailed guidelines for
primarily from shrinkage of the cement paste. Because estimation of time dependent properties of concrete.
aggregates tend to restrain the shrinkage of the paste, The analysis is performed by using provisions of IRC-
the stiffness and proportion of aggregates influence 112, Euro code-1992/part2
shrinkage.
and CEB-FIP 2010.
3.3 Creep of Concrete:
It is important to note that mean concrete strength
The creep of concrete depends on many factors, such parameters are used for analysis of time dependent
as volume content of hydrated cement paste, relative deformations. Characteristic strength is used for
humidity, volume to surface area ratio, type and volume determination of capacity of structural components.
of the aggregate, the age of the concrete at the time As per IRC-112, 10 MPa is added in the characteristic
of loading, the stress level, the duration the concrete strength of concrete to obtain mean strength of
is stressed, and the geometry of the member. The concrete.
size and shape of concrete member can significantly
influence the rate and the magnitude of creep. The 5.1 Time dependent compressive strength and
rate and magnitude of ultimate creep are substantially modulus of elasticity of concrete:
smaller for larger members. Variation of mean compressive strength of concrete
with time is given by
 37

fcm(t) = βcc(t).fcm ; Mpa

With, βcc(t) = e (s(1-28/t)0.5)
βh = 1.5*(1+(0.012RH)18h0 + 250α3; < 1500α3 for fcm >
Where, 45 Mpa
fcm(t) = mean compressive strength of concrete at age α1, α2, α3 are coefficients to consider the influence of
t days the concrete strength
fcm = mean compressive strength at 28 days α1 = (43.75/fcm)0.7 α2 = (43.75/fcm)0.2
s = factor depending upon type of cement. It is 0.25 α3 = (43.75/fcm)0.5
for Ordinary Portland Cement
Note : Above equations are applicable for Ordinary
Variation of modulus of elasticity of concrete with time Portland Cement. For other type of cements the age
is given by at loading t0 is adjusted as described in IRC 112
(Annexure_A)
Ecm(t) = (fcm(t)/fcm)0.3).Ecm
Where Ecm is the secant modulus of concrete related to 5.3 Drying shrinkage of Concrete:
its mean strength Shrinkage of concrete consist of two components.
Autogenous shrinkage which is the result of chemical
5.2 Creep of concrete :
reactions taking place in the cement paste; and drying
The creep coefficient at time t is calculated from: shrinkage which is the result of evaporation of water
ɸ(t,t0) = ɸ0.βc(t,t0) from the concrete.
Where, The basic drying shrinkage strain έcd,0 is calculated
ɸ0 is notional creep coefficient and can be estimated from
from ɸ0 = ɸRHβ(fcm).β(t0) έcd,0 = 0.85(220+110αds1) e(-αds2 . fcm/12.5) * 10-6 *βRH
ɸRH is a coefficient to allow for the effect of relative βRH = 1.55(1-(RH/100)3)
humidity on notional creep coefficient αds1, αds2 are coefficients which depend upon type of
ɸRH = 1+ (1-RH/100)/ (0.1h00.33) for fcm < 45 Mpa cement. Their value is 4 and 0.12 respectively for
ɸRH = 1+ (1-RH/100)/ (0.1h00.33) for fcm < 45 Mpa Ordinary Portland Cement.
RH is relative humidity of ambient environment in % The development of drying shrinkage strain with time
β(fcm) is a coefficient to allow for the effect of concrete is given by:
mean strength on notional creep coefficient έcd(t) = βds(t,ts).Kh. έcd,0
β(fcm) =16.8/ (fcm)0.5 Where
β(t0) is a coefficient to allow for the effect of concrete Kh is a coefficient depending on the notional size h0
age at loading on notional creep coefficient according to table-1 below
β(t0) = 1/(0.1+t00.20) Table 1
h0 = 2Ac/u h0 kh
Ac is the cross sectional area 100 1.0
u is the perimeter of the member in contact with 200 0.85
atmosphere 300 0.75
βc(t,t0) is a coefficient to describe the development of > 500 0.70
creep with time after loading and may be estimated βds (t,ts) = (t-ts) / (t-ts)+0.04.h01.5
from the Expression :
where,
βc(t,t0) = ((t-t0) / (βh+t-t0))0.3
t- is the age of concrete at the moment considered
t - age of concrete in days at the moment of consideration in days
t0 - is the age of concrete at loading in days
ts - is the age of concrete(days) at beginning of drying
βh - is a coefficient depending upon relative humidity shrinkage. Normally it is at the end of curing.
(RH in %) and the notional member size (h0 in mm). It
5.4 Autogenous shrinkage of concrete:
may be estimated from:
The autogenous shrinkage strain follows from:
βh = 1.5*(1+(0.012RH)18h0 + 250 < 1500 for fcm < 45
38

έca(t) = βas(t) έca(α)

Where,
έca(α) =2.5(fck-10)10-6
and
βds(t) =1- exp(-0.2t0.5)
5.5 Relaxation in Prestressing Steel:
Relationship between Relaxation loss at time t in
hours (ρt) and that at 1000 hours (ρ1000) is given by the
equation:
Fig. 3 . Variation of time dependent properties
ρt = ρ1000(t/1000) k (Compressive strength, Creep, and Shrinkage)
Where, k is given by (ρ1000 /ρ100)
6 Defining Construction Stages for Composite
However, above provisions in IRC-112, overestimate Bridge Deck:
the relaxation loss for low relaxation steel. For composite bridge decks it is important to precisely
Euro code defines the relaxation loss for low relaxation define the construction stages. The loads applied at
steel as below: different stages and the material properties at the time
of loading are important considerations in the estimation
Δσpr = σpi * 0.66 ρ1000 e9.1µ (t/1000)0.75(1-µ) * 10-5 of time dependent deformation in composite bridge
(3.3.2(6) Euro Code-1992/part 2) decks. The construction stages for a typical PSC-RCC
composite bridge deck (PSC-I girders for18.3 m span
Where,
with 2 stages of stressing) as per RDSO standard
ρ1000 = relaxation loss (in %) at 1000 hours at a mean drawing RDSO-B/10273 are defined in Table-2 below:
temperature of 200C
Table 2 .
= 2.5 % for low relaxation steel
Activated
Δσpr = relaxation loss of prestress at time t hours Construction Activated
Structural Remarks
σpi = initial prestress just after transfer Stage (CS) Loads
members
µ = σpi/fpk Self-weight
of girder +
fpk = characteristic strength of prestressing steel
Prestressing
t = time after tensioning in hours CS1 Girders
load of stage
1 (Tendon 1
Unpropped
and 3)
construction
Loads in
method is
CS1 +
assumed
Weight of
CS2 Girders wet concrete
from deck
slab and
diaphragms
 39

Loads in the substructure through elastomeric bearings

CS2 + (elastic links). Connection between girders and
Girders and deck by using rigid links is technically valid as
Prestressing
deck slab the deck end is very stiff due to provision of end
loads from
CS3 acting as diaphragm.
stage 2 of
composite
prestressing (viii) Indian Railway Concrete Bridge Code doesn’t
deck
(tendon 2 define time dependent material properties except
Unpropped specifying ultimate creep and shrinkage values
and 4)
construction for concrete and ultimate relaxation loss in
Loads in
method is prestress steel. IRC-112 is, therefore, used for
CS3 + SIDL
assumed analysis. 2011 edition of IRC -112 is used as the
(wearing
Same as 2017 edition of the code is not part of the Midas
CS4 course
above Civil software available at IRICEN. However,
+ballast
retainers + the provisions about time dependent material
footpath) properties are same in 2011 and 2017 editions of
Same as Loads in IRC-112.
CS5
above CS3 + Track (ix) The analysis is also carried out as per Euro Code-
2 and CEB-FIP 2010 to compare the results
7 Analysis Model: obtained as per IRC -112.
Structural analysis software Midas Civil is used for
modelling the bridge deck. Following are the salient
features of the structural model:
(i) RDSO standard span for 18.4 m PSC-I girder deck for
25 T loading vide drawing number RDSO-B/10273
is used for creating the analysis model
(ii) Grillage method is used for generating the Fig. 4 . Grillage model with required boundary
analysis model conditions.
(iii) Girders are modelled as longitudinal grillage 8 Check for uncracked section:
members (beam elements). Longitudinal PSC bridge decks are generally designed to remain
stiffness of the deck slab is considered as part of uncracked even under application of live loads. The
longitudinal grillage members. deflection is calculated based on gross concrete
(iv) Transverse grillage members (beam elements) area of the deck. It is important to check whether this
are used to model transverse stiffness of the deck assumption of section remaining uncracked is true or
slab. Dummy material with properties of concrete not. After prestress loss the most critical part of the
of deck slab but with zero-unit weight is defined. bridge deck for check for presence of tensile stresses
This is done to avoid double counting of self- is bottom of girder. The stress diagram for stresses at
weight of the deck slab. girder bottom after completion of 75 years of age is
posted below:
(v) All loads other than self-weight of girders and
deck slab are converted into element loads and
applied to appropriate members.
(vi) Construction stages are defined as mentioned
in Table-2. Additional stages are defined to
determine deflection and prestress loss at an
interval of five years up-to 75 years age of the
bridge.
(vii) Appropriate boundary conditions are defined. Fig. 5 . Combined Stresses at Girder Bottom under
The girders are supported on temporary bearings Permanent loads only at 75 years
up-to CS-3. After this stage the bridge deck
is transferred onto the elastomeric bearings
(modelled with elastic links). The elastic links
are connected to fixed supports representing
firm-unyielding substructure. The girder insertion
points are connected to the elastomeric
bearings by using rigid links. Rigid links provide
structural connection between bridge deck and Fig. 6 . Combined Stresses at Girder Bottom under
40

Permanent and Live loads at 75 years make the bridge deck to deflect upward. However,
There is tensile stress of 0.71 MPa at end of the the loss in prestressing force will cause the deck
girder. This is since there is un-prestressed concrete to deflect downward. Thus, the time dependent
cover of 150 mm after end anchorages of the girders. deflection due to creep and prestress loss will be
This is insignificant. Rest of the girder remains under compensating each other
compressive stresses up to 75 years of age. Hence (v) The differential shrinkage of deck slab with
the analysis of deflection based on assumption of respect to the girders will cause downward
uncracked section holds good. deflection. The creep, shrinkage and relaxation
9 Discussion of Results and Conclusion: effects are not only time dependent, but they are
interdependent also. In general creep dominates
(i) Analysis is performed to obtain time dependent
other two causes. Thus, in a PSC bridge deck, if
deflection and prestress losses for an 18.3 m
the pressure line is below neutral axis, the bridge
Standard PSC-I girder deck used on Indian
deck is likely to gain camber during service.
Railways. Analysis is done as per three design
codes viz. IRC-112-2011, CEB-FIP 2010, and (vi) Change in camber more than that predicted by
Euro Code-1992-Part2 (EN-2/part2). The results analysis may indicate excessive loss of prestress.
are tabulated in Table-3 below.
(vii) Indian Railway bridges are inspected in detail
Tabel 3 every five years. First inspection is done within
Deflection(mm) at one year of completion of the bridge. Camber
mid-span due to Prestress Loss measurement is part of the inspection. However,
Permanent load (%) time dependent deflection values of PSC bridges
Time
(Camber) are not available for comparing the values
After
obtained during inspection.
Con-
FIP-2010

FIP-2010
IRC-112

IRC-112

(viii) The time dependent deflection should be worked

(part2)

(part2)

struction
CEB-

CEB-
EN-2

EN-2

out for each bridge deck and should be part of

bridge completion and handing over documents.
1 year 9.00 10.98 10.04 13 12 12 10 References:
6 years 9.50 12.03 10.96 17 16 16 1 IRC-112-2011 Code of practice for Concrete
11 years 9.53 12.17 11.06 18 17 17 Road Bridges

16 years 9.50 12.18 11.05 18 18 17 2 IRC 22 -2015 Design code for limit state design of
composite construction
21 years 9.47 12.18 11.04 19 18 18
26 years 9.46 12.18 11.03 19 18 18 3 CEB-FIP model code 2010
31 years 9.44 12.19 11.03 19 18 18 4 Euro code 1992-Part2-2005 ( EN-2/part2)
36 years 9.39 12.19 11.03 20 19 18 5 IR Concrete Bridge Code
41 years 9.33 12.18 11.03 21 19 19 6 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
46 years 9.27 12.19 11.03 22 19 19 2020
51 years 9.23 12.19 11.03 22 19 19 7 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
75 years 9.25 12.19 11.03 22 19 19 Specifications 2017
Camber 8 PCI handbook for PSC design
0.53 1.21 1.02
Gain
9 RDSO drawing no RDSO-B/
(ii) As predicted by theory, there is camber gain over
the life span of the bridge, though the values are 10 Design of pre-stress concrete structures by
insignificant for the span analysed. T.Y.LIN and NED H. BURNS
(iii) It is important to note that the predicted PSC loss 11 NCHRP repost no. 496
of about 20-22% is taking place, but there is no 12 Research Project no. 2010-05 on ‘Predicting
loss of camber. Deflection, Camber and Loss of Prestress’ in
(iv) This is since in a PSC bridge deck, under prestress concrete members: by North Carolina
sustained loads, the lower part of the bridge deck state University
is subjected to higher compressive stresses as 13 Improving the prediction of time-dependent
compared to upper part of the deck. The creep effects on pre-stress concrete bridges PHD Thesis
will be higher in the lower part of the bridge deck by A. H. Gheitanbaf at IOWA state university
as creep is dependent on applied stress. This will
 41

Assessment of Vehicle Dynamics and It’s

Impact Over Track Degradation
- A Case Study for Gadag (GDG) – Ballari
(BAY) Section of
South Western Railway
Nitish Kumar Ranjan

SYNOPSIS
Rail wheel interaction is a complex phenomenon which defines the dynamics of vehicle and its
impact. In view of requirement to increase the axle load and speed, assessment of vehicle dynamics
and its impact becomes most important. Further it is also required to get the results of assessment
in a form which can be understood and used as initial information for maintenance planning
at field level otherwise complex results of this complex phenomenon will lead to complexity in
maintenance. Different types of instrumentations are in use to understand the dynamics of vehicles
in terms of load transferred. But none of the instrumentations presently done in Indian Railways
explain completely the vehicle dynamics and its impact on track degradation. However one of such
instrumentation of track known as Wheel Impact Load Detector (WILD) gives the impact of vehicle
dynamics in terms of Impact Load Factor and Impact Load. In this article it is tried to understand
vehicle dynamics and its impact based on the results given by WILD. System of monitoring &
utilisation of WILD results, present constraints of assessment by WILD, degradation of track due
to vehicle dynamics and future development & changes required to make the assessment more
realistic in view of increase in speed and axle load is also deliberated in this article. For the
assessment purpose, WILD results of Hubballi division of South Western Railway are used, which
is installed on one of the busiest iron ore route, Vasco de gamma–Ballari, of Indian Railway. To
understand the track degradation USFD results of Gadag- Ballari section of same division is also
used.

1 Introduction: safety, vehicle stability, wheel-rail forces, wheel-

rail corrugation, wheel out of-roundness etc., and
In present scenario Indian Railways is facing tough
is influenced by a variety of factors. Wheel sets are
competition from other mode of transportation to attract
regarded as fundamental components of railway
more numbers of travellers as well as more business
vehicles; they support the vehicle during rolling, guide
in Goods transportation. It is imperative for railway
it and transfer longitudinal forces at traction and
not only to improve the track structure to have higher
braking. The wheel-rail interface is the most important
speeds but also making our track available for traffic
parameter in the dynamics of railway vehicles and their
movement for longer period in a day. Keeping our track
condition. This interface is where most of the cost for
available for longer period for traffic movement implies
maintenance on both railway vehicles and track occurs.
that reducing the maintenance time, which further
The change in rail profiles is a major maintenance cost.
implies the controlling and monitoring the situations
The profile change on wheels can also be significant,
which leads to premature renewals of assets like rails,
especially in curves. Damage mechanisms such as
sleepers etc;.
wear and plastic deformation are the main contributors
Railways use the low resistance of movement between to profile change. Track is designed for carrying specific
wheel and rail, in order to be an energy efficient mode load at specific speed but the impact of load as well as
of transport. The higher speed or heavy axle load speed over track lead to imperceptible damage based
trains affects the vehicle-track dynamic interaction. the condition of rolling stocks. Hence to make the track
Vehicle-track interaction includes ride comfort and the available for longer period with higher speed at

Dy.Chief Vigilance Officer (Engg.)/S.W.Rly, Hubballi IRICEN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGG.

Volume 14, No. 2, Dec. 2021
42

higher axle load cannot be done in isolation. Condition of rolling stocks passing over the instrumented zone.
monitoring and predictive maintenance of rolling Indian Railways have installed nine such systems over
stocks are equally important. It is imperative to assess different zones.
and understand the vehicle dynamics and its impact
WILD uses instrumented tracks in which rails are wired
on track degradation so that quality of maintenance
with strain gauges to measure the load pattern of the
of rolling can be improved or design of track can be
wheel on the rail. The track consists of 12 sleepers –
improved based on the loading pattern.
strain measuring zones. Each zone has a full bridge
WILD(Wheel Impact Load Detector) is a technology consisting of 4 Rosette type strain gauges. The rail
that is widely used in Global Railways to monitor the length of 12 sleepers is arrived to capture two full
health of rolling stock to ensure safe operations with rotation of the wheel on rail. The space between the
proven accuracy and reliability. WILD scan hundreds sleeper and any load that appears in the effective
of wheels per day and wheel defects like with spalling zone is considered. Various such measuring zones
(chipping), shelling, and flat or out of round are are formed along the track. As wheel rolls over the
identified. If these are left undetected, it can cause rail, various portions of the wheel fall in the effective
damage to tracks and can cause derailment also. Here zone and dead zone (sleepers). As a result various
the extent of damage done over track by rolling stocks diameters of wheel have different coverage. The
and system of monitoring of WILD generated alarm is instrumented portions are fixed in such a way to give
discussed through a case study of various results/data best coverage for the wheels of interest. Once installed
of WILD and track features in Gadag-Ballari section of the system’s wheel coverage pattern doesn’t change.
South Western Railways.
As the Train passes over the instrumented rail, data is
2 How WILD helps in assessment of vehicle collected and sent to the system in real time. The data
dynamics? collected is tested, all extraneous noise removed and
the pure raw data analyzed. Analyzed data is converted
WILD is an unmanned intelligent trackside data
to a report form and sent through GPRS network to
acquisition system that measures the dynamic impact
central Server. A Computer in C&W Control room (or
load of wheels on the rail. It has been developed jointly
anywhere as desired) continuously scans for report
by RDSO and IIT Kanpur. This system provides audio
every 2 minutes/lesser and displays the newest report
visual signals in the case of passing of abnormal
as and when released by the system. If defective axles
wheel having higher impact load due some defects
found, an audio visual alarm is activated. All reports
which can cause damage to the track as well as rolling
can be viewed and consolidated period wise in the
stock. This system has facility for automatic detection
dedicated website.
of wheels having higher impact load and recording

3 Criterion of WILD alarm

After analysis of information received WILD generates two types of alarm.
1) Maintenance Alarm 2) Critical alarm
A detail of limits and action to be taken based on those alarms is tabulated (Table-1) below:

Max Dynamic Load Impact Load Factor

Alarm Action to be taken
for a wheel for a wheel
i) Coaching stock- intimation to be given to the
> 2.0 primary/secondary depot for attending the defects.
Maintenance > 20 T
< 4.5 ii) Freight stock- intimation to be given to rake
terminating point for attending the defects.
Thorough examination by TXR at TXR point for
checking any damageable defect and to decide for
Critical > 35 T > 4.5
detachment or to allow the stock to run upto train
terminating point.
 43

4 WILD alarms generated on Gadag-Ballari section:

Maintenance and critical Alarm (Table 2)

Nos. of Nos. of Nos. of Nos of trains generated

Year Month Wheel maintenance critical alarms trains maintenance and
alarms generated generated passed critical alarm
2017 Nov* 89176* 237* 4* 262* 103*
2017 Dec 394712 1355 6 1085 474
2018 Jan 438408 1150 4 1239 527

Maintenance and critical Alarm (Table 2) Contd…

Nos. of Nos. of Nos of trains generated

Nos. of trains
Year Month Wheel maintenance critical alarms maintenance and critical
passed
alarms generated generated alarm
2018 Feb 356648 1371 4 1037 445
2018 Mar 355200 2461 2 1109 584
2018 Apr 342812 1638 1 1068 445
2018 May 395988 1250 4 1180 547
2018 Jun 374876 1210 2 1122 488
2018 Jul 338624 882 2 1005 391
2018 Aug 201060 608 1 624 266
2018 Sep 416864 1303 2 1240 487
2018 Oct 472812 1197 2 1346 524
2018 Nov 461896 1196 1 1306 494
TOTAL 4639076 15858 35 13623 5775
*only one week data is available for Nov’2017

To study the level of maintenance and condition of alarm.

rolling stock, data generated by WILD installed at km
Comments: Before permitting the CC+8+2
131/0-1 near Ginigera station of Hubballi division is
loading on identified route, installation of WILD in
taken for analysis. (Table-2)
those routes is one of the recommendation done
As WILD was made functional in the month of by CRS.As per Annual Report 2007-08 issued by
November’2017 (it was defective for almost one and Chief Commissioner of Railway Safety(CCRS) it
half year), data from one year i.e. from Nov ‘2017 to is mentioned by CCRS that there is no definite co-
Nov’ 2018 is taken to understand the results. It is also relation being available between the critical alarm
relevant to mention that Hospet station is the next and the condition of the rolling stock from WILD
TXR point (nearly 12km from the WILD location in one systems recently installed, more comprehensive
direction) and Hubballi is another TXR point (nearly studies are necessary for monitoring the health of
132km from the WILD location in other direction). rolling stock particularly on routes where higher
Distance of TXR point from the location of WILD is one axle load trains are running. The percentage
aspect which need relook considering the damaging of critical and maintenance alarms based on
effect of defective rolling stock. available data from WILD studies being in the
range of 0.02 and 0.1% respectively of total wheel
4.1 Two major observations can be made out from
population, a system of reducing their number by
the details tabulated above:
improving maintenance and monitoring methods
4.1.1 Observation: From Nov’17 to Nov’ 2018 (say in should be evolved. In summary, Commission
one year time span) total 4639076 numbers of recommend installation of better monitoring
wheels have passed over WILD. These 4639076 systems than the one currently available.
nos. of wheels have generated 15893 nos. of
Paragraph above clearly brought out the serious
alarms. It means 0.34% of wheels have generated
concern of CCRS even for the percentage range
44

of 0.02 and 0.1% alarm but actual % generation required action on such alarms.
of maintenance alarm is 0.34% i.e. 3 times more
5 Action taken on alarms in Gadag-Ballari
than what was projected, which is a serious
section:
matter.
In the one year of span total 15858 nos. of maintenance
4.1.2 Observation: From Nov’2017 to Nov’ 2018 total
alarm and 35 nos. of critical alarm is generated.
13623 nos. of trains have passed over the WILD
Practically no action is being taken on maintenance
location and 5775 nos. of trains have generated
alarm. So far it has not been figured out how to work
alarms.
over this information to take some action in track as
Comments: It shows that 42% of trains have well as rolling stock maintenance and ultimately it has
generated alarms which further imply that almost become just a record. Even there are hardly any action
every alternate train have maintenance issues is being taken on critical alarm also. In most of the
of rolling stock. This is high not only in terms critical alarm cases defective vehicle was allowed to
of number but also in terms of percentage and run over system for more than 1000kms or more than
exposes the level of stress under which assets weeks even after repeated critical alarms by same
are put in service. This is biggest challenge as far vehicle. It is not possible to discuss all the cases but
as handling of quantum of operational constraints few cases are tabulated (Table-3) here to understand
raised out of alarm generated is concerned. So the pathetic scenario of cluelessness on action required
far no concrete system is put in place to take for critical alarms.

S. Vehicle Date of Magnitude

Action taken Observations
N. Nos. critical alarm of alarm
Coach was detached i) Coach was allowed to run at
SC GSCN ILF=5.23 at Tirupati station on sectional speed for almost 450kms.
1 29.11.17
96286 IL=33.76 30.11.17 and one wheel ii) One weld failure took place in the
was replaced section.
Coach was detached at i) Coach was allowed to run at
SC GSCN ILF=3.81 Kakinada port station on sectional speed for almost 1000km.
2 03.12.17
14241 IL=35.95 06.12.17 and wheel was ii) One weld failure took place in the
replaced. section.
ILF=4.6 i) Coach was allowed to run at
14.01.18 No action was taken
IL=47.46 sectional speed for four days. Even
SC GS after second critical alarm it ran for
3 Coach was detached 450km.
09443 ILF=2.83
18.01.18 at Tirupati station on
IL=35.00 ii) One weld failure took place in the
19.01.18
section.
ILF=2.38
16.01.18 No defect noticed.
IL=35.56
ILF=3 Skid marks was found on Defective coach was allowed to
03.02.18
SC WGSCN IL=38 4th wheel at TXR point run at sectional speed for 27 days.
4
99241 ILF=3.13 Skid marks was found on It was detached only after fourth
09.02.18 critical alarm is generated.
IL=37.88 4th wheel at TXR point
ILF=3.12 Coach was detached at
11.02.18
IL=35.57 Tirupati station
Coach was allowed to run even
CR WGSCN ILF=4.79
5 07.04.18 Shelled thread was found after defective noticed in visual
97239 IL=39.58
inspection.

Coach was allowed to run even

CR BOXN ILF=2.15 Metal deposition was
6 19.11.18 after defective noticed in visual
25010106687 IL=40.00 found over wheel
inspection.
 45

Following important points need to be discussed in Track is kept in service under continuous dynamic
connection with observations made in above table: forces. Due to impact of those repeated dynamic forces
degradation in track structures takes place. Different
5.1 Presently in Indian Railway best grade of rail in
components of track structures like rails, ERCs,
use is 60kg 90 UTS rails on operational routes.
sleepers, ballast etc; gets degraded due to stresses.
Permissible limit of stress in this rail is 46.8kg/
Even track parameters frequently get disturbed due
mm2 .CC+8+2 routes are permitted with 22.9t
to dynamic forces. There is no confirmed correlation
axle load. For generation of critical alarm, value
available to relate the level of dynamic forces and
for a wheel is set for more than 35t, which is almost
degradation in track structures because there are
equal to 300% dynamic augment. This much
various factors which contribute significantly in track
magnitude of load will create stress upto 55.28kg/
degradation like vehicle condition, thermal stress,
mm2, which is much more than permissible 46.8
over loading, quality of track components, track
kg/mm2 in 60kg 90 UTS rails. Situation will be
geometry etc;. Rail is most important component of
even worse in 52kg rails. The permissible criteria
track structure and it is the only component which has
for maintenance alarm generation 20t and for
direct interaction with rolling stock. Effect of dynamic
critical alarm 35t, is almost 75% and 200%
forces can be represented in true sense by assessing
respectively higher than the permissible axle load
the degradation in rails. Wear, rail/weld failures,
on IR.
IMRs, scabbing etc; are few parameters which can be
5.2 At SN.3 in table above, coach number SC GS used to show the degradation in rails due to dynamic
09443 was not detached even after critical alarm forces. But in most of these parameters, level of track
of magnitude 47.46t was noticed. Dynamic maintenance and geometry of track has major role and
augment for such load is almost 310 % which these parameters are quantitative in nature. A variation
indicated heavy dynamic forces. Such dynamic in USFD results is other parameter to shows the
forces of repeated nature will lead to reduce deterioration of health of track over a period of time.
fatigue life of rail/weld that may cause sudden As it is seen in above paragraphs that the almost 42%
failure also and hence standard of maintenance of trains running in system generates maintenance/
of rolling stock needs to be checked as there is critical alarms. Level of impact load is very high as
limitation in design of track structure. compared to designed stress of rails. Due to this
plastic deformations took place in rails and rail/weld
5.3 At SN.4 in table above, it can be seen that coach
becomes weaker by repeated hammering under such
number SC WGSCN 99241 was detached only
load. It can be very well assessed by USFD results of
after fourth critical alarms, although skid marks
Gadag- Ballari section of Hubballi division shown in the
were noticed on wheels in two alarms. Either
Table-4. (Data used for comparison here is taken from
it raises a big question mark over our skills to
March’17 to March’18 as from March’18 to Nov’18,
detect the defects or it indicates complete failure
approximately 30km of CTR (P) work was done and
of decision makers to decide the fate of defective
approximately 18km of double line section is opened.
vehicle.
Hence data after March’18 cannot be considered for
6 Impact over track degradation comparison).

Comparison of USFD Test Result (Table 4)

Rail testing Weld Testing

SN Total Month/Year Remarks
OBS(R) OBS(W) DFW(O) DFW(R)
1 98 395 -- -- 493 June-17 Almost 64% increase
2 185 357 -- ---- 542 Sep-17 in defects in USFD Rail
Testing between four rail
3 203 477 -- ---- 680 Dec-17
testing in a span of 10
4 232 578 --- --- 810 Mar-18 months.
2017-18 (Mar-18) Almost 43% increase in
5 ---- ---- 2778 240 3018
(3 years testing) defects in USFD Weld
Testing from previous
6 ---- ---- 1974 137 2111 2014-15 (Mar- 15) testing.

7 Discussion and Recommendations: During 2005 to understand the dynamic augment of

various rolling stock RDSO has done some field trial,
7.1 Discussion-1:
which was published as C-100 report. In that report
46

there is mention of one ICF coach trial which was removing defective wheels based primarily on
having flat of size 18x25x3mm on one wheel. It is visual inspections. This filters out all bad wheels
found that the flat of that size on a wheel produces with known and visually identifiable defects.
dynamic augment of 257% at speed of 96kmph as Therefore any wheel identified as defective by a
compared to normal dynamic augment of 57.4%. It WILD system is very unlikely to have any visual
can be seen that the small flat size in a wheel (say defect. Hence a large number of cases of false
15-20mm) can produce the instantaneous wheel load alarms have been reported by field unit and no
of such a magnitude that stresses in rails crosses it’s action is being taken even on critical alarm due
permissible stresses limit. to limitations of visual examination. Dependency
on visual examination is major impediment to
Recommendation-1:
improve the quality of maintenance of rolling
Presently permissible limit of flat on wheel tread is stock and reducing its impact on track at higher
50mm for coaching stock/locomotives and 60mm for speed with higher axle load.
Goods stock. It is understood that up to 50/60mm flat
Recommendations-3:
will be available on high number of wheels. As per
discussion above, by keeping permissible limit so Many railways, advanced in technology have already
high, rails are kept under stresses most of the time done enough research to identify the defects other
in its plastic limit. Increasing UTS of rails will not help than visual examination. WILD captures data in a
as it will make rails more brittle and hence difficult to snapshot manner. Latest research over the world has
handle. Therefore, permissible limit of flat on wheel found that it is possible to use this data for condition
tread need to revise as higher speed means higher monitoring and predictive maintenance of rolling stock.
dynamic augment and further it means much higher Association of American Railroads (AAR) has created
stress in rails. the InteRRIS service which today is a benchmark for
use of trackside detectors integrated into maintenance
7.2 Discussion-2:
and operations. This now being improved further under
As discussed previously that in WILD maintenance the AAR ATSI (Advanced Technology Safety Initiative)
alarm is permitted from 20t to 35t in a wheel. With Programme as an Equipment Health Monitoring
permissible stress limit of 46.8 kg/mm2 for 60kg Service (EHMS).
90 UTS rail ,permitted load on a wheel comes out
With the help of such technology condition monitoring
around 10-12t,which in line with 22.9t axle load. For
& predictive maintenance can be done duly removing
maintenance alarm vehicles are not being even
dependency on visual examination for maintenance.
checked at next TXR point, leave aside its detachment.
It means that upto 35t impact load on a wheel; vehicle 7.4 Discussion-4:
is allowed to run with maximum speed, which is 300%
As discussed in previous paragraphs about the
dynamic augment. Again with these criteria; rails
capabilities of WILD to assess the vehicle dynamics and
are officially allowed to be stressed upto plastic limit
its impact on track. But WILD can assess impact only
without any check.
in terms of vertical load. Because of these limitations,
Recommendation-2: WILD is laid on straight tracks only. With increase in
axle load and speed, assessment of thrust on rails at
Both criterions for maintenance and critical alarm need
curves is very important to arrive at the maintenance
to be revised as with increase of speed and axle load,
requirement of track as well as rolling stock.
stresses in rail will lead to sudden fractures.
Recommendation-4:
7.3 Discussion-3:
Truck Performance Detector is another wayside
High impact load in wheels are caused by many
detector which can measure the lateral load as well as
defects like eccentricity, discrete defects, periodic non-
vertical load of each wheel. This detector is already in
roundness, non-periodic non-roundness, corrugation,
use in many countries.
roughness, flats, spalling, shelling. Many of these
defects are not visually identifiable. As almost all of 8 Conclusion:
the examinations after stopping of trains are visual
Increase in vehicle speed and axle load is depended
and the technicians are only looking for known visually
on vehicle dynamics. Stability of vehicle and track at
identifiable defects. Many of the defects which can
higher speed and axle load is more important to ensure
generate high wheel impact loads / high ILF are not
safety & riding comfort. With the minor redesigning of
classified as defects in the regular maintenance
few components of track, improvement in layout and
instructions presently in use on the IR as these are
improved maintenance practices, a limited increase
based on visual inspection of wheel treads.
in speed of the vehicle and increase of axle load
In Indian Railways there is system of identifying and can be achieved but it will not be as significant as it
 47

is desired. There is a limitation also in redesigning of forces are much bigger contributory in degradation
track structure. Conditioning monitoring and preventive of track, hence stipulation of life for rails should be
maintenance of rolling stock is major important on the basis of “peak tonnage” rather than just on
activities which are required to meet the desired tonnage. GMT needs to be revised as GMPT (GROSS
improvement. Existing standard of maintenance and MILLION PEAK TONNAGE).It is also seen that track
monitoring of rolling stock will not be enough. Many maintenance unit never analyse gravity of critical/
permissible limits of maintenance & monitoring are maintenance alarm. Status of action taken & findings
also required to be changed so the dynamic forces can of defects after critical alarms by coach & wagon unit
be brought down so that safety and life of assets can never discussed. Rise of USFD defects should be seen
be enhanced. Presently degradation of track is being as flagging of degrading track condition. Overall better
analysed in isolation. It is being done as more about coordination among rolling stock & track maintenance
understanding the pattern of degradation rather than unit to be done on real time basis by sharing the details
contributory factors for degradation. 64% increase in and integration of their respective monitoring system
defects during USFD rail testing (as shown in Table-4) of maintenance to sustain the impact of increase in
cannot be just because of thermal stresses, poor track speed and axle load in an economical way also.
maintenance practices. Impact of vehicle dynamic

Some of the crowd watching the first Electronic Train carrying H. E. the Governer of Bombay and party,
leaving Victoria Terminas Station.
48
Updates Of Codes & Manuals
S.NO. ACS NO. DT OF ISSUE REMARKS
TRACK
1. Indian Railways P-Way Manual
01. 01 July 2021 Para No 915 replaced
02. 02 Aug. 2021 Para 636(2)(e), 702(1)(d), 702(2), 717(1)(b), 718 replaced Para 702(1)(2)
renamed as Para 702(1)(b)
03. 03 21.10.2021 Heading of Para 228 replaced New para 228(4) added
04. 04 03.11.2021 Para 408(2)(e) replaced
2. LWR Manual

3. Track Machine Manual

4. Manual For Ultrasonic Testing of Rails & Welds

01. 01 Nov. 2014 Para No 8.15.1 replaced
02. 02 Dec. 2014 Para No 8.14, 8.15.1, Annexure IIA and IIB replaced
03. 03 Mar. 2016 Para No 4.1.1(c), 5.1.2, 8.6.4, 8.7.2, 8.10, 8.14, 8.15.1, Figs. 3 & 22
replaced. New clause b)(iii) below para 8.16 added, New para 6.3.1 &
6.3.2, 10.6 added
04. 04 Sept. 2018 Para 6.6, 8.14, 8.15, 8.15.1 & 8.15.2 modified,
05. 05 Jan. 2021 Para 10.6 modified
5. Indian Railways Code For The Engineering Department
01. 50 21.09.2017 Introduction of measurement & recording of ‘executed works’ by the
contractor’ in Rly Construction Works.
02. 51 27.09.2017 Para Nos 701, 1102, 1209 should be amended
03. 52 23.10.2017 Existing para 1238 replaced
04. 53 06.11.2017 Para No 701 should be amended
05. 54 22.01.2018 Para No 1264 (e) & 1264 (f) should be amended
06. 56 05.03.2019 Para No 1264 should be amended
BRIDGE
1. Indian Railways Bridge Manual
01. 01 01.09.1999 Para No 1007 replaced, New para 1007(A) added.
02. 02 21.07.2000 New para 16 added
03. 03 21.07.2000 Deleted para 513(b)
04. 04 21.07.2000 Deleted para 515
05. 05 21.07.2000 Deleted para 603
06. 06 21.07.2000 Deleted para 222(1b), 222(2f)
07. 07 21.07.2000 Deleted para 618
08. 08 21.07.2000 Para No 504(4) replaced, Add new para 521, sub para 5 under para 616
and sub para 5 under para 210
09. 09 27.07.2000 Add new sub para 317 of Chapter III
10. 10 31.08.2000 Para No 604 replaced
11. 11 14.01.2003 Add para before chapter 1
12. 12 18.12.2007 Para No 217.2(a)(i) and para 217.2.(b)(i) replaced
13. 13 22.01.2008 Para No 317 replaced
14. 14 20.03.2008 Delete para 310, 312(4), 313(2) and 313(3) of chapter III,
 49

S.NO. ACS NO. DT OF ISSUE REMARKS

15. 15 05.08.2008 Para No 410(2)(b), 418(5), 430 replaced, Para 3(ii) of 606 is proposed for
deletion and Para 3(i) renumbered as 3
16. 16 13.08.2008 Para No 317(iii) replaced
17. 17 15.09.2008 Para 318 added
18. 18 17.12.2008 Para 224 added
19. 19 11.01.2010 Para 318 modified
20. 20 07.06.2010 Para No 1104(5) replaced
21. 21 02.07.2010 Para No 1107 (d) modified. Add para 1107(15)(i)
22. 22 28.03.2011 Para No 1107(15)(i) replaced & renumber as 1107(15)(b)(i), para 1107(15)
(b) is renumbered as 1107(15)(b)(ii)
23. 23 23.08.2011 Replace existing Chapter-VIII by revised Chapter-VIII
24. 24 14.09.2011 Para 714(2), 1005(1), 1005(3), 1104, 1104(2), 1104(5), 1106(2), Page No
xi(Index)1104 modified
25. 25 17.12.2012 New sub para 3 may be added to existing para 311
26. 26 23.08.2013 Para No 217.2(a)(ii), 217.2(c), 217.4(c), 217.4(d), 217.4(e), 217.4(l), 615
to be replaced
27. 27 03.01.2014 New para 1107 5 i), 215 A added
28. 28 20.03.2014 Chapter-X, Part B – Title of Deep Cuttings replaced and para 1010 to
1015 & Annexure 10/2 replaced by Para 1010 to 1017 and Annexure 10/2
attached.
29. 29 15.04.2014 Para No 312(2), 312(4) replaced. Add new para 313(4)
30. 30 25.11.2014 Para 102(b), 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509 & Annexure 5/1 deleted
31. 31 09.02.2015 Para No 617 replaced.
32. 32 12.03.2015 Para No 222 2(f) replaced.
33. 33 21.03.2016 Para No 107(1) (a) is amended and 107 (1)(f) added. Para 222 (3) is
amended by adding sub para (c), (d) and (e)
34. 34 04.10.2016 Added para 224
35. 35 31.07.2017 Para No 313(2) & 313(3) replaced.
36. 36 27.03.2018 Para No 317 & 318 replaced.
37. 37 09.10.2019 Para 1102.2(iv) replaced, Insert 11/2a proforma, Para 1107(15)(b)(i) &
1107(15)(b)(ii) modified
38. 38 14.01.2020 Para 317 replaced
2. Indian Railways Bridge Rule
01. 47 22.06.2017 Add new para 2.8.1.2
02. 48 22.06.2017 Add new clauses
03. 49 26.12.2017 Para 2.12 deleted. New para 2.12 inserted
3. Indian Railways Bridge Substructure & Foundation Code
01. 01 17.04.2014 Para 4.8.1, 4.9.3 replaced
02. 02 20.10.2016 Modify description & heading of contents at S.No. 7.5, Delete para 7.5.3
03. 03 22.06.2017 Modified para 4.5.9
04. 04 11.08.2017 Modified para 4.9.2 & 4.9.3
06. 06 04.11.2019 Modified paras 1.2, 1.5 I (f), 5.12.1, 5.12.2 (a), (b), (c), 5.12.3, 5.12.5,
5.12.6, 5.12.7, 5.12.8, 5.16.2.7 (b).
07. 07 11.11.2019 Para 5.10
08. 08 11.11.2019 Para 3.1 of Appendix V (Clause 6.9.3) modified
09. 09 06.07.2020 Para No. 1.5 (I) - (c) & (g) modified
50

S.NO. ACS NO. DT OF ISSUE REMARKS

4. Indian Railways Concrete Bridge Code
01. 01 16.12.2014 Replace table 10 of para 10.2.1
02. 02 14.01.2015 Insert para 5.4.7 & 5.4.7.2
03. 03 20.01.2015 Insert note under para 4.5.1, delete para 14.9 & replace, delete para
15.9.4.1 & replace, delete para 15.9.4.2 & replace, delete para 15.9.9 &
replace
04. 04 15.11.2016 Para 14.9, 14.9.1 & 15.9.9 deleted
05. 05 13.06.2017 Para 16.4.4.4.5 modified
06. 06 27.07.2017 Para 7.1.5 modified
07. 07 26.06.2018 New para 4.5.1 added, existing para 7.1.5 modified
08. 08 23.05.2019 Replace the clause 7.2.6.4.2.4.1, Replace clause 7.2.6.4.2.4.2 and
12.3.2, Replace clause 15.4.2.2.1, Appendix B (Table B1), Appendix B
(Table B2), Appendix B (Clause B-7.1), Appendix B1 (Fig B1-2),
5. Indian Railways Arch Bridge Code
01. 07 25.09.2000 Replace para 1.1
02. 08 28.01.2015 Replace para 5.3.3
03. 09 19.11.2019 Replace paras 2.1.2, 5.3.2, 5.3.4, 5.3.5, 5.3.5.1, 12.1.1, 12.1.2, 12.2, 12.3
6. Indian Railways Welded Bridge Code
01. 01 16.02.2015 Para 27.1 replaced
02. 02 11.07.2018 Para 27.1 replaced
Works
1. Indian Railways Code For The Engineering Department
01. 50 21.09.2017 Introduction of measurement & recording of ‘executed works’ by the
contractor’ in Rly Construction Works.
02. 51 27.09.2017 Para Nos 701, 1102, 1209 should be amended
03. 52 23.10.2017 Existing para 1238 replaced
04. 53 06.11.2017 Para No 701 should be amended
05. 54 22.01.2018 Para No 1264 (e) & 1264 (f) should be amended
06. 56 05.03.2019 Para No 1264 should be amended
07. 57 08.01.2020 Para No 1829 should be amended

Byculla1853
 51
IRICEN Calendar of Courses -2021
COURSE
COURSE NAME FROM TO DURATION TIMINGS ELIGIBILITY
NO
NOVEMBER
21314 IRICEN Day 08.11.21 10.11.21 3 DAYS
21785 BASIC TRACK MAINTENANCE 08.11.21 12.11.21 1 BN All officers
21786 Concrete Technology- mix design, 08.11.21 12.11.21 1 AN All officers
RMC, and durability
21231 WEBINAR 10.11.21 10.11.21 1 DAY All officers
21787 Bridge Planning and bridge 15.11.21 19.11.21 1 BN All officers
foundations
21788 AT and FB welding of Rail 15.11.21 19.11.21 1 AN All officers
21205 SR. PROF. P. WAY 22.11.21 17.12.21 4 CAMPUS JAG, Selection
Grade, SAG
21415 BENTLEY 22.11.21 26.11.21 1 CAMPUS All officers
21789 Laying and maintenance of LWR 22.11.21 26.11.21 1 BN All officers
21790 Modern surveying for railway 22.11.21 26.11.21 1 AN All officers
projects
21232 WEBINAR 24.11.21 24.11.21 1 DAY All officers
21503 PSU COURSE SLOT 29.11.21 31.12.21 5 CAMPUS PSU TRAINEES
21416 RAIL WHEEL INTERACTION 29.11.21 03.12.21 1 CAMPUS All officers
21791 Formation- construction including 29.11.21 03.12.21 1 BN All officers
ground improvement and
geotechnical aspects
21792 Track Tolerance and Track 29.11.21 03.12.21 1 AN All officers
monitoring
DECEMBER
21417 USFD 06.12.21 10.12.21 1 CAMPUS JS, SS, JAG
21793 Advance track Maintenance 06.12.21 10.12.21 1 BN All officers
21794 Construction of PSC bridge 06.12.21 10.12.21 1 AN All officers
superstructures
21418 Points & Crossing/ Layout 13.12.21 17.12.21 1 CAMPUS JS, SS, JAG
Calculation
21795 Steel fabrication and quality 13.12.21 17.12.21 1 BN All officers
Inspection and launching of girders
21796 TMS 13.12.21 17.12.21 1 AN All officers
21233 WEBINAR 15.12.21 15.12.21 1 DAY All officers
21315 CAO SEMINAR 20.12.21 21.12.21 2 DAYS CAMPUS CAOs OF ALL RLYS.
21206 SR. PROF. BRDGE 20.12.21 14.01.22 4 CAMPUS JAG, Selection
Grade, SAG
21419 MIDAS 20.12.21 24.12.21 1 CAMPUS AEN/Design, Design
Assistants
21797 Turnouts and layout calculations 20.12.21 24.12.21 1 BN All officers
21798 Dispute resolution and arbitration 20.12.21 24.12.21 1 AN All officers
21316 SPARE SLOT 27.12.21 28.12.21 2 DAYS CAMPUS
21799 Tenders and contracts 27.12.21 31.12.21 1 BN All officers
21800 Design, Laying and Maintenance of 27.12.21 31.12.21 1 AN All officers
Curve
21420 Mechanised Track Maintenance 27.12.21 31.12.21 1 CAMPUS All officers
21234 WEBINAR 29.12.21 29.12.21 1 DAY All officers
21317 SPARE SLOT 30.12.21 31.12.21 2 DAYS
52
SSTW Calendar of Courses -2021
COURSE Duration
COURSE NAME FROM TO TIMING ELIGIBILITY
NO Weeks
NOVEMBER
21624 Referesher Course P-Way 08.11.21 26.11.21 CAMPUS 3 SSE/JE/P-Way
21820 Geotechnical engineering and 08.11.21 12.11.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/Works
construction of formation
21983 Mechanized Tamping 08.11.21 12.11.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
21984 Land Management 08.11.21 12.11.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/WORKS
21625 Referesher Course Works 15.11.21 26.11.21 CAMPUS 2 SSE/JE/Works
21985 Important aspect of Track monitoring and 15.11.21 19.11.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
TMS data entry
21986 Water supply, Sewerage system and 15.11.21 19.11.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/WORKS
Waste water recycling system.
21987 DEEPSCREENING & Track Laying - 22.11.21 26.11.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
Mechanised & Manual
21988 Water proofing and Termite treatment 22.11.21 26.11.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/WORKS
of building – During construction and
maintenance.
21626 Referesher Course USFD 29.11.21 03.12.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/USFD
21821 SURVEY 29.11.21 03.12.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/Works
21989 LWR : Laying, maintenance and Rail 29.11.21 03.12.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
welding
21990 Construction & maintenance of 29.11.21 03.12.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/WORKS
passenger amenity works and provisions
of SOD.
DECEMBER
21627 Referesher Course P-Way 06.12.21 24.12.21 CAMPUS 3 SSE/JE/P-Way
21822 Concrete technology 06.12.21 10.12.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/Works
21991 IRPWM provisions of Routine track 06.12.21 10.12.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
maintenance and safety precautions
21992 Preparation of Estimate, schedule and 06.12.21 10.12.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/ALL
Contract management- Execution aspect
21823 PSC/Concrete Bridge construction and 13.12.21 17.12.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/Works-BRI.
Quality control.
21993 Curve- Speed potential & Realignment. 13.12.21 17.12.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
Level crossings
21994 Steel/Composite girder fabrication and 13.12.21 17.12.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/BRIDGE
HSFG bolts
21628 Referesher Course Works 20.12.21 31.12.21 CAMPUS 2 SSE/JE/Works
21995 Track Renewal works: TRR, TFR, TSR, 20.12.21 24.12.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
TWR and TBR
21996 Building: Planning, Construction, 20.12.21 24.12.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/ ALL
Important NBC Provisions and colony
maintenance.
21824 Rail wheel interaction and Derailment 27.12.21 31.12.21 CAMPUS 1 SSE/JE/P-Way
investigation
21997 Turnouts, Layout Calculation and Yard 27.12.21 31.12.21 BN 1 SSE/JE/P. WAY
drainage
21998 Launching of PSC/Steel girder and 27.12.21 31.12.21 AN 1 SSE/JE/WORKS
temporary arrangements.
 -IRICEN
Calender of CoursesCalendar 2021
of Courses IRICEN 2021
Month & Year July.2021 Aug.2021 SEPT.2021 Oct.2021 Nov.2021 Dec.2021 Jan.2022

HOSTEL CAP 75 50 70 65 65 95 85 70 60 65 65 50 95 95 95 95 95 70 95 95 70 85 60 60 90 85 15 15 0 0
Date (Monday) 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 6 13 20 27 4 11 18 25 1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3 10 17 24

IRSE 2018/19 21005/21006 IRSE PHASE‐II

Trainees 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

AWARENESS COURSES

Trainees

DIPAWALI
Integrated courses 21102 INTEGRATED 21103 INTEGRATED

Trainees 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

21202
Sr.Prof. courses 21203 Sr. Prof. P.Way 21204 Sr.Prof.Bridge 21205 Sr. Prof. P.Way 21206 Sr.Prof.Bridge
Sr.Prof.
TRAINEES 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
21410 21414 21418 21420
21408 214109 21416 21417
CAMPUS COURSE P&C‐ 21412 TUNNELING MECH P&C‐ MECH
RWI USFD RWI USFD
LAYOUT MAINT. LAYOUT MAINT.
Trainees 25 25 25 35 35 25 25 25 25 25
21406
21407 21411 21413 21415 21419*
Software courses BRIDGE
MIDAS BENTLY STAADPRO BENTLY MIDAS
DESIGN
Trainees 35 30 30 30 30 30

21751 21753 21755 21757 21759 21761 21763 21765 21767 21769 21771 21773 21775 21777 21779 21781 21783 21785 21787 21789 21791 21793 21795 21797 21799
Building ‐ Mech Bridge Basic track Advance Advance Tenders Laying and Steel T/Outs and Formation‐ D'ment Bridge‐ USFD of Building ‐ Mech Advance Basic track Bridge Laying and Formation‐ Advance Steel T/Outs Tenders
ONLINE COURSE BN planning, Maint. of Planning maintena concepts track and Maint. of fabricatio Layout calc. constructi Investigati inspection rails and planning, Maint. of concepts maintena Planning Maint. of constructi track fabricatio and and
constructi track and bridge nce of bridge Maintena contracts LWR n and on on , welds constructi track of to nce and bridge LWR on Maintena n and Layout contracts
on and foundatio design nce quality including maintena on and bridge foundatio including nce quality calc
21752 21754 21756 21758 21760 AT 21762 21766 21768 21770 21772 21774 21776 21778 21780 21782 21784 21786 21788 AT 21790 21792 21794 21798 21800
Bridge Quality Land Const. of and FB Conc Tech‐ Modern Track DisputeRes Design, Bridge Laying and Formation‐ Bridge Quality Land Conc Tech‐ and FB Modern Track Const. of DisputeRe Design,
21764 21796
ONLINE COURSE AN Rehab ‐ Assurance Managem PSC bridge welding of mix survey for Tole. & olution and Laying and bearings Mechanis maint. & Rehab ‐ Assurance Managem mix welding of survey for Tole. & PSC bridge solution Laying and
TMS TMS
case in ent superstruc Rail design, RLY PROJ. Track Arbitration Maintena including ed Rrehabilit case in ent design, Rail RLY PROJ. Track superstruc and Maintena
studies Execution tures RMC, and monitorin nce of maintena Renewal ation studies Execution RMC, and monitorin tures Arbitratio nce of
21223 21224 21225 21226 21227 21228 21229 21230 21231 21232 21233 21234
WEBINARS

Courses for PSU 21502 PSU COURSE SLOT 21503 PSU COURSE SLOT

Trainees 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 21314 2 2 2
HAG/SAG SEMINARS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 IRICEN
3 3 3 3 3
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 DAY 1 1 1
Trainees 25 7 8 25 9 0 25 1 2 25 3 5 25 6 25 7

CBE/ CE‐ EPC‐ SLOT/ SLOT /

CTE CAO
TP PPP/SLOT CE‐TMC SLOT

Spare Capacity available 19 44 24 29 29 ‐1 9 24 34 29 29 44 ‐1 ‐1 ‐1 ‐1 ‐1 24 ‐1 ‐1 24 9 34 34 4 9 79 79 94 94

Calender of Courses -SSTW 2021

Month & Year July.2021 Aug.2021 SEPT.2021 Oct.2021 Nov.2021 Dec.2021
HOSTEL CAP 50 40 50 50 50 40 50 50 50 50 40 45 45 45 0 55 30 0 50 50 50 40 50 55 50 45

Date (Monday) 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 6 13 20 27 4 11 18 25 1 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27
Institute Holidays
Track courses 21617 21618 Refresher Course (P 21814 21619 Refresher Course (P WAY) 21621 21622 Refresher Course (P WAY) 21817 RWI 21819 SPL COURSE 21624 Refresher 21626 Refresher (USFD) 21627 Refresher Course (P.Way) 21824 RWI
Refresher WAY) RWI Refresher Course (P.Way)
(USFD) (USFD)
Trainees 30 20 30 30 30 20 30 30 30 30 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 30 30 30 25
Works courses 21813 21620 Refresher 21815 SURVEY 21816 CONC 21820 GEO. 21625 Refresher 21821 SURVEY 21822 CONC TECH 21628 Refresher Course (Works)
GEO. Course (Works) TECH ENGG/ Course (Works)
ENGG/FO FORM ATION
Trainees 20 20 20 20 20 20 NO TEACHING ACTIVITY. 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Bridge courses 21812 21623 Refresher Course (Bridges) 21818 BR. INSP. IRICEN DAY, DEEPAWALI 21823 BR. CONST. /
BR. MAINT. QLTY CTNL
CONST. /
Trainees 20 15 15 15 25 25
Online courses BN 21951 21953 21955 21957 21959 21961 21963 21965 21967 MECH. 21969 TRACK 21971 L 21973 IRPWM 21975 DEEPSCRNING & 21977 Curve 21979 Track 21981 T/O, LAYOUT & 21983 MECH. 21985 21987 DEEPSCRNING 21989 LWR 21991 IRPWM 21993 Curve 21995 Track Renewal 21997 T/O, LAYOUT &
MECH. TRACK LWR IRPWM DEEPSCR Curve Track T/O, TMPNG MONI/TMS WR PROVISIONS FOR Track Laying ‐ Renewal Works YD. DRNG TMPNG TRACK & Track Laying ‐ PROVISIONS FOR Works YD. DRNG
TMPNG MONI/T PROVISIO NING & Renewal LAYOUT Track Maint. Mechanised & Manual MONI/TMS Mechanised & Manual Track Maint.
Online courses AN 21952 21954 21956 21958 21960 21962 21964 21966 21968 LAND 21970 Water 21972 WATER 21974 Pass. 21976 21978 21980 GIRDER 21982 BLDG. PLANNG. 21984 LAND 21986 21988 21990 Pass. Amenitiy 21992 21994 STL/Composite 21996 BLDG. PLANNG. 21998 GIRDER
LAND Water WATER Pass. Estimate/ GIRDER STL/Com BLDG. MGMT. Proofig/ Termite SUPPLY/SEWA Amenitiy Estimate/Schedule& STL/Composit Launching CONST. MGMT. WATER SUPPLY/ Water Proofig Works/SOD Estimate/Schedule GRDR Fab CONST. Launching
MGMT. Proofig/ SUPPLY/S Amenitiy Schedule Launchin posite PLANNG. Treatment GE SYS. Works/SOD Contract MGMT. e GRDR Fab SEWAGE SYS. / Termite Treatment & Contract MGMT.
21852 SPARE SLOT ‐ PSU
PSU courses
COURSE
Trainees 20 20 20 20
Spare capacity
available 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 5 5 5 50 ‐5 20 50 0 0 0 10 0 ‐5 0 5

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