Unit 1

Introduction to English, characteristics of language, formation of words, root words,

antonyms-synonyms, One word, Idioms, homophones, pronunciation

Introduction to English Language and Vocabulary

English is a very rich language and its journey started somewhere around 5 Century AD. It
travelled a long way to become a rich language this day by adding new words and coinages.
Portmanteau, back-formation, clipping, derivations, new inventions and discoveries are
different ways in which the language kept adding words. Some people like Shakespeare also
added a robust number of words and phrases into the language. But the most important
contribution for enriching the English language is loan words or borrowing. English almost
borrowed from all well-known languages and today boasts of around 171,476 words in
Oxford dictionary.

The Germanic tribes arrived in Britain and invaded the country during the 5th century AD.
Britain was populated by various Celtic tribes before the invasion by Germanic tribes.
Though the Celtic tribes were united by customs, religion and common speech they lacked
political unity and that made them susceptible to invasions from neighbouring tribes. In the
first century, Britain was conquered and ruled by the Romans and finally got freedom from
them in 410 AD. This made Britain vulnerable to attacks from different invasions from the
North as the Romans took back with them their strong and able army. Many tribes migrated
to Britain but the Saxons, the Angles, the Jutes, the Franks and the Frisians were some of the
few who made their undeniable presence marked in this country. These invaders were from
Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.
The original inhabitants, who spoke Celtic language were driven to the west and the north
by the invaders. They mainly migrated to present day Wales, Scotland and Cornwall. The
Saxons called the native Britons, ‘wealas’ and wealas meant foreigner or slave and this is the
origin of the word Welsh. Initially, these different tribes fought with each other over
ownership and other issues but gradually came together to be called Anglo-Saxons or
English. The language they spoke is now known to us as Old English. The word England, a
popular and well-known country now originated from the words Engla-land (the land of
Anglo-Saxons) or Englisc. (the language)
The Germanic tribes were constantly fighting to overpower. But as time passed the different
Germanic cultures gradually became similar to each other until they eventually stopped
seeing themselves as their individual origin but collectively as either Anglo-Saxon or the
words England and English are derived from Engla-land (“land of the Angles”) and englisc
(the language the Angles spoke).
EVOLUTION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The evolution of the English language can be divided into three periods- 1) Old English 2)
Middle English 3) Modern English.
Old English (450-1100 AD)
Old English is very different from what we know or see today and so very difficult to
understand it. Several words now that we use in Modern English originated from the Old
English period. Some of the words that were coined in Old English time but are also used
today and are part of our day to day language can be- father, god, hare, king, lord, queen,
sing, ship, foot, fish. Night, stone, tongue, us, we, where, white, widow, wolf etc. Many
words used today have a different spelling as compared to their Old English versions and
some have different meanings. For example-wif was a woman and now the spelling has
changed to wife and the dictionary meaning to a married woman in relation to her spouse.
The Old English deor now has changed to deer and the meaning from a wild animal (broader
meaning any wild animal) has changed to a specific wild animal the dictionary meaning to
hoofed grazing or browsing animal. Some other words like light, knight can also be traced
back to the Old English period where the silent letters g and k were pronounced.
Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 AD William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, a part of France, invaded and
conquered England. The Normans spoke a dialect of Old French that is known as Anglo-
Norman. This became the language of the Royal Court, the ruling classes and business
classes. The languages of these times were divided according to classes. French was spoken
by upper classes and English was spoken by lower class. In 1204 AD King John lost the
province of Normandy to the King of France and French slowly started losing its sheen in
England. The labour classes started getting more prominence as English lost almost one- third
of its population due to black death. And gradually English became more important language
than French and Anglo-Norman, and the nobility also started using a finer version of English.
By 1362 the divide between the upper classes and lower classes over the languages ended and
both spoke a common language English. Many French words were added to the English
language during this time and this period was named as the Middle English period. It was the
period when the great poet Chaucer made his presence felt with his works. Though the
Middle English language was easier than Old English still it would be difficult to understand
by people who speak modern day English. This period ended around 1500 AD.

FIG 1-Chaucer’s English

Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great
Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter. From the 16th century the
British had contact with many peoples from around the world. These major factors created a
marked difference between Middle and Old English. Modern English shifted into something
that was more understandable for modern English-speaking people.
One of the most important factors that brought changes to English was that slowly Britain
stated coming in contact with the outer world and due to Renaissance, several new words and
phrases were added to the languages. These words from other languages especially from
Latin and Greek made the English language-rich.
The invention of the printing press in 1476 by William Caxton affected the English language
very significantly. Now, the English language started getting prominence in books and
pamphlets and gradually was standardized. Rules for grammar and spelling came into being
and the first English dictionary by Samuel Johnson was published in 1604. This was the
period in which the greatest playwrights of all the times to come, Shakespeare was born who
contributed many phrases and words to the English language.
Modern English (1800-Present)
Although early modern English and modern English periods are almost the same, the
difference in modern English period is the extended vocabulary. Technology and the
Industrial revolution combined added several words to the language. The Industrial
revolution created a need for more words and the need was fulfilled by coining more words
especially from Greek and Latin root words. For example, words like protein, nuclear,
oxygen and vaccine did not exist before, but they were made with Greek and Latin
influences. Not all the new words were created from classical roots though, English words
that already existed were also combined for terms like typewriter, airplane and horsepower.
During this time most of the countries on earth belonged to the British Empire, and that’s
why the English language took over foreign words from many different countries. Another
influence on word coinage was from the words related to maritime. As England ruled many
countries, the people from this country travelled to other countries on ships as it was for some
time the only available and convenient mode of transport. Thus, many words related to sea
travel and maritime were added into the English language. Then came a time the British
military started to play a significant role in people’s lives because of its invasions and many
military words became a part and parcel of English language. For example- blockbuster,
spearhead, camouflage, nosedive etc.
This period consists of renaissance which brought about the technology printing press and
many more inventions. This period starts around the 15 th century and lasts till 1650. It was
during this period when the continents Africa, America and Asia. This period was also the
time when many scientific discoveries and Protestant Reformation took place. This had a
great impact on English vocabulary and many authors and writers started borrowing words
from classic languages as the translators could not find equivalent words in English and used
the Greek and Latin words directly especially in law, theology and medicine. Words also
made way from the new continents Africa, America and Asia, sometimes directly and a few
times indirectly through European languages.
Formation of Words:
Different ways of coining words -
The number of words the English language contains is if not impossible but very difficult to
count. To answer this question the Head words from a dictionary can be counted and Oxford
dictionary claims to have 500,000 words. But this data does not make any sense as the list
includes both ancient and modern words and many of the ancient words are either obsolete or
not active words now. English language over the past centuries has enriched itself by adding
numerous words in its repertoire.
There are as many as ten different ways how words are coined in English. They may be by
blending, inheritance, by creative imagination, joining initial phrases, compounding,
shortening, derivations, conversions and by some rare echoic processes.
INHERITANCE
Most of the vocabulary that was used from centuries is passed down with only a few minor
changes. Most of the common words like the prepositions-in, to, by, for and the conjunctions
like and, or, but are the basic words of the English language and we learn it as soon as we
start using the language. These words were there in the language since the beginning of the
language and are passed down to us.
BLENDING
The words created by blending are called portmanteau words as famously coined by Lewis
Carroll. He created many words like slithy that has lithe and slimy fused into one and chortle
from chuckle and snort and these words he named as portmanteau words. Other famous and
often used portmanteau words are-smog(smoke+fog), Brunch (breakfast+ lunch),
Heliport( Helicopter+airport) etc. Sometimes we lose track of the components of some blend
words. E.g Vaseline (wasser(water)+ elaion (oil)). It is difficult to guess or identify the two
components of the above word though it is famous as a lubricant. Now-a-days new technical
terms are created by blending. It’s creative and serves the purpose right. In sciences
especially in Chemistry, many new inventions were made and all of them needed names. E.g.
acetal( Acetic+alchohal),phospham(phosphorous+ammonia).
INITIALISMS & ACRONYMS
Initialism is when the letters that make up an acronym are pronounced individually. There
were rare in ancient times like the only words that come to mind are okay and GOP. The
world war produced few acronyms but it is during II World War and the time of Roosevelt
that many initialisms stated to gain popularity and were in use. GI (for General Issue), GP
(General Purpose Vehicle), UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) etc. were common initialisms
and were used in active vocabulary. In more recent times words related to computers,
diseases, technology are used as initialisms. E.g CPU (Central Processing Unit), HTTP
(HyperText Transfer protocol), FYI (For Your Information), PFA (Please Find Attachment)
etc.
The word acronym is formed from the Greek roots acr-, meaning height, summit, or tip and -
onym, meaning name. This word has originated in German, with attestations for the German
form Akronym from as early as 1921. Acronyms are abbreviations that also use initials, but
those initials are pronounced as a word rather than saying the individual initials. For example,
“National Aeronautical and Space Administration” becomes NASA and is pronounced “nah-
sah.” More examples of this can be AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), JPG
(Joint Photographic Experts Group), GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) etc.
An interesting phenomenon in recent times is reverse acronyms which means first the
acronym is made than the creators think what each letter would mean. E.g CORE -first the
creators made the word core and then thought what each letter in this would mean. CORE
stands for Congress of Racial Equality. NOW is the acronym for National organization of
Women and PUSH meaning People United to Serve Humanity and AID means Agency for
International Development.
SHORTENING
Shortening is a process which takes a part or a syllable of a word and deletes the rest. It is
also called clipping. Many long words that are difficult to pronounce or take a long time to
pronounce are clipped and shortened. E.g. Influenza-Flu, advertisement-ad, gasoline-gas,
Mathematics-Maths, examination- exam etc. There are many instances where people do not
remember the actual word from which a word is formed. WI-FI is an apt example where
everyone uses and knows wi-fi but a very few know that it comes from a word called wireless
fidelity.
BACK-FORMATIONS
This is another means by which new words have come into being called back-formations.
Most back formations are the result of a misunderstanding. E.g. Edit from editor where ‘er’ is
wrongly perceived as the suffix and is shortened to make the word edit. To burgle from
burglar is formed in the same way. The verb to sidle is a back formation from the adverb
sidling, and the nouns beggar, hawker, by back –formation gave rise to verbs to beg, to hawk.
Most agent nouns are formed from the verb adding –er or –or (worker, singer, gambler etc)
but here the process has worked in the opposite direction. Back- formations are no longer
transparent.

WORDS DERIVED FROM PROPER NOUNS

A good number of words entered English language, which is derived from Personal Names.
An interesting example could be boycott which came from the name Charles Boycott, the
land agent who went to towns to collect taxes but people were against paying and stood with
big banners ‘Boycott no entry’ and slowly the word boycott evolved to mean no entry or
oppose. The same way the word Sandwich was coined from the Earl of Sandwich who
because of his addiction to playing dice invented a new way of eating putting the curry or
meat in between the bread to eat faster. The word utopian comes from Thomas Moore’s
utopia and the word Lilliputian comes from Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. Many garments have
taken their names of those who first used them or introduced to the public. The word teddy
bear from the American president Theodore Roosevelt.

SYNCOPATION
This is a particular form of shortening or abbreviation. Example: pram. Its original form was
perambulator. It was syncopated to perambulator and then abbreviated to pram. In
syncopation, a vowel is removed from a word and the consonants on either side are then run
together. As a result, one syllable is lost. Born, Worn and Forlorn are syncopated forms. At
one time they had the terminal ending –en.

TELESCOPING
This process is similar to syncopation, but here two words are combined into one.
Example: to don was originally to do on. to doff was originally to do off. More recent
examples are- pinafore from pin+ afore. Overall, from over + all

BIBLE & SHAKESPEARE

Other than the influx of words from foreign languages two other important influences on the
English vocabulary during the Renaissance was the greatest playwright William Shakespeare
and the Bible written in 1611. Though Shakespeare’s influenced literature, theatre and many
other aspects but his greatest influence was on vocabulary. Phrases like seen better days,
strange bedfellows, a sorry sight, and full circle are used very actively these days too. Many
words like assassination, bedazzled, inaudible, majestic, cold-blooded, blood-stained etc.
King James’ Bible was written to be read in churches and had many Old English words that
were more difficult than the language of Shakespeare. But slowly many idioms from the
Bible became a part of everyday language. Some idioms were -A fly in the ointment, let there
be light, my brother’s keeper, a wolf in sheep’s clothing, if the blind lead the blind etc.
According to David Crystal in his book Beget there were 257 idioms in James Bibles that
made into everyday language.
BORROWING:
The purists criticised influx of words from other languages and did their best to revive the
obscure words from English to make them everyday words. One among them was Thomas
Elyot who did his best to enrich the language and make it a language that could be used by
the people on street as well as a library language. However, the efforts of the purists like
Elyot were not enough and words from foreign countries kept flowing into the English
language. In fact, the borrowing words from other languages was the most significant feature
of the Renaissance period. (Crystal 60).

An etymological dictionary of any major language contains the dozens of sources for its
vocabulary. Close contact over centuries in Europe and other areas resulted in extensive
borrowing and re-borrowing. The radio, television, internet and other such sources of
transmission of news and knowledge helped in the spread of language and communication.
The globalization also helped in spreading the foreign language and the vocabulary in most of
the countries. E.g. Hakuna Matata was spread by the movie Lion King that means no worries
or no problem. The faster means of travel too helped in the spread or borrowing of some
words into other languages.
Borrowing is the process of importing linguistic items from one linguistic system into
another, a process that occurs any time two cultures are in contact over a period of time.
Words are generally loaned when two countries come into close contact with each other and
there is an exchange of culture, traditions, trade war or colonisation. Colonization was the
reason why English came into close contact with other countries and during exchange of
trade and wars many words of other languages entered into the English language. Often the
words loaned are nouns. New culture, objects, food items and day to day words are needed
during colonisation and the colonizers usually adopt the words of the colonized in their
original form or at times some changes are made. In the same way, the colonized also borrow
or adapt some words from the colonizer’s language according to the need. The borrowing of
words starts when the people who are bilingual use the foreign words while speaking their
native language. The people who hear these foreign words slowly get used to the foreign
words spoken by these bi linguists and they too slowly adopt them in their native language. In
this way foreign words become a part and parcel of the native language as many speakers
start using these words and then is called a borrowed word and the process is called
borrowing or loan word. Sometimes the foreign words fall out of use and do not become
borrowed or loan words.
In short loan words are those words that are imported from one language to another language.
They are also called borrowed words. In the past 1500 years, English adopted words from
more than 300 languages.
TYPES OF BORROWINGS
The borrowed words comprising the new vocabulary in the given language are not
homogeneous by structure; they can be subdivided into three subcategories:
a) Borrowing a word - the most frequent and typical case of borrowing
b) Borrowing a phoneme- the most rarest and particular case, depending on the degree of
contact between the two languages
c) Borrowing a morpheme - usually, the morpheme is selected on the basis of a verbal series
consisting of words with a common lexical meaning, characterized by the repetition of a
structural element, for example, a businessman, a barman, an athlete, etc.
d) Syntactical or structural borrowing - the word is borrowed syntactically, when the
construction of phrases in a language is influenced by foreign syntactic constructions-for
example, the influence of English newspaper clichés, mainly headlines, on the headlines of
the modern press.
e) Semantic borrowings - a process of borrowing semantic meaning (rather than lexical
items) from another language. The complete word in the borrowing language already exists;
the change is that its meaning is extended to include another meaning its existing translation
has in the lending language. Semantic loans often occur when two languages are in close
contact, and takes various forms. E.g. the English word pioneer (explorer) under the influence
of the new meaning of the correlated Russian word (пионер) developed one more meaning: a
member of a young pioneer organization; brigade (an army unit) under the influence of the
new meaning developed one more meaning – active social workers; norm=standard – norm
developed one more meaning – “an amount of work”
Borrowings share a hierarchical relationship with each other. Lexical borrowing is the first
stage of foreign language influence and the word is borrowed "not entirely, as a complete,
finished, grammatically formed word, but only, as a more or less formless piece of a lexical
material, receiving a new form only in the system and by means of another Language (V.
Akulenko, 1973). A borrowed word acquires certain grammatical characteristics inherent to
the given language, and in this case, the word is subordinated to one or another grammatical
category; for example, in Russian, there is a gender-related correlation of words depending on
their formal appearance (words ending with consonants, as a rule, refer to the masculine
gender, words ending with -o, -e, to the nouns of the neutral gender, etc.).
THE REASONS FOR BORROWING
The causes or reasons for borrowing words from other languages can be divided into external
and internal causes that directly or indirectly contribute to the process.
EXTERNAL CAUSES
Political, social, economic, cultural and industrial ties between different groups of native
speakers of both countries can be the external cause for borrowing words from foreign
languages. The vocabulary of a language is affected the most due to the changes in the
political, cultural, economic and industrial changes. Whatever changes occur in these fields
the vocabulary also absorbs these changes and adopt or borrow the foreign vocabulary as
most of the times the native vocabulary might not have the equivalents. Hence both the
languages loan and borrow the words necessary for daily communication exchanges. During
borrowing or loaning of words, it is not always necessary that there is an equivalent exchange
of vocabulary in both the languages. It might so happen that one language might borrow more
words from the other language. It happened in the case of Russian and Armenian. Armenian
borrowed more Russian words into its native language. The cultures or countries that are
constantly discovering, inventing or innovating new objects, technologies or discovering
newer phenomena might become enriched in vocabulary and other countries loan these new
words from them. America as a powerful country in terms of new innovations and inventions
loan words to other countries all the time. This phenomenon is termed as ‘Americanism’.
Some common examples of this would include- Gasoline, bi-weekly(fortnightly), pocketbook
(handbag), going Dutch (everyone pays for the meal), zonked (exhausted), I-Pad (new
invention), e-mail(technology) etc. In this type of borrowings, the lexical forms along with
the other features or phenomenon of the vocabulary. In this case, the semantic and stylistic
differentiation occurs through creation of synonymous pairs.
Internal Causes
Loaning of a word occurs also due to simplify the semantic structure and eliminate the
polysemy (the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or a phrase) of the original
word. The borrowing can also occur to explain certain semantic nuances. The word borrowed
from the other language along with the existing word in the native language serves different
semantic purposes. Thus, the word loaned and the original word together form a class of
words that are structurally similar and belong to the same lexical unit. The Russian language
borrowed many words from French, German in truncated forms like taxicab(taxi),
metropolitan(metro), automobile(auto) etc. Several times the loan words are retained in the
language and turned into a lexical series which becomes an interesting trend to observe. E.g.
Russian language borrowed the word man from English and later added a series of words like
gentleman, sportsman, congressman etc. Thus, by loaning words from a foreign language
helps to replace a long or two words into a single word. e.g. Sprint for running long distances,
motel for a hotel for campers.
Fig 2 English Language Tree
WORLD CONTRIBUTION TO ENGLISH VOCABUALRY
As discussed earlier English language borrowed words from almost all known world
languages. The reason for this was England ruled almost every country and region of
the world at some point of time or the other. Hence came in close contact with the
culture and traditions of those countries. In this process, it borrowed many words from
those countries and extended its vocabulary. Here, we will now discuss the contribution
of foreign languages to the growth of English vocabulary.
This pie chart given below shows the distribution of the origins of English words. 29 per cent
of the words in English come from French. 29% come from Latin, but it is unclear whether
some of these words come directly from Latin or from Latin through French. Words that
come from Latin are generally relatively rare (many of them are scientific or legal words).
Similarly, 26% from German, the largest part of the very most common words in English
(such as "the", "a", "do", "he"...) come from Germanic languages, not from Latin or French.
The 6% of the loanwords come from Greek, another 6% from other languages, and the
remaining 4% words derived from Proper Names. The following are some of the words given
with their origin for understanding:
There was no cultural connection between the Celts and the Anglo-Saxons and hence the
number of words that came into Old English from the Celtic language were very less. Rock,
bin, deep valley, Bin were some such words.
ANGLO-SAXON WORDS-
The words that entered English in form of Germanic words are the Anglo-Saxon
words. These words still make the lexicon of English. These words are grammatical as
well as lexical words. Some of the grammatical words are-be, in and that and the lexical
words are love, father, apple, bury, daughter, brother etc. Anglo-Saxon words are
concrete and short Some other examples are: -
Landscape
Body Parts
Animals
Adjectives
Calendar
Verbs
Land
Arm
Goat
White
Day
Eat
Hill
Bone
Swine
Wide
Month
Go
Meadow
Chest
Goat
Long
Moon
Fly
Ledge
Year
Fish
Good
Year
Live

NORMAN INFLUENCE

In 1066, the Normans had an eclectic mix of languages: a Frankish influenced northern
French dialect; Old Norse from their Viking roots; Flemish from the army supporting William
I’s wife, Matilda of Flanders; and the Brythonic based language of the mercenary Bretons.
The Normans kept the basic structure of the English language, but during the Middle English
period, they introduced around 10,000 words of their own into the English tongue. Many
words were related to officialdom and are evident in the vocabulary surrounding the
administration, parliament, government, the legal profession and the crown. Many more
words filtered down into everyday matters including food production, such as beef; pork;
herb; juice and poultry. They introduced words beginning with ‘con’, ‘de’, ‘dis’ and ‘en’,
such as: conceal; continue; demand; encounter; disengage and engage. They also included
words ending in ‘age’ and ‘ence’ as in: advantage; courage; language and commence.

THE FRENCH INFLUENCE

The French influence can be divided into two phases the first phase from 1150-1250 and the
second phase from 1250-1500. From 1150 to 1250 there were less French words adopted into
English (about 900) than in the second phase. The loan words were mostly from the areas of
the nobility (e.g. servant, messenger), literature (e.g. story, rime) and the church. The French
influence on the English vocabulary had its greatest expansion in the period of Middle
English (1150 – 1500). During this time over 10,000 French words were adopted into the
English language and about 75 per cent of these are still in use.
Although these extensive changes were important for the improvement of the English
language, there were also disadvantages to it. The loss of native words, the different Middle
English dialects, the need of a Standard English are only some examples for this.
Since the Norman Conquest in 1066 the French language became more and more important.
The Normans (North-man) were descendants of the Danes and spoke French influenced by a
Germanic dialect. They inhabited some parts in the north of France and adapted not only to
the language but also to the French culture. They had a talent for building churches,
cathedrals, castles and proved the English their rank of military
The English culture was not inferior to the French. The Anglo-Saxons were excellent
writers, artists and craftsmen. They did not lack in civilization. “French became the language
of the upper classes in England simply because it was the language of the conquerors, not
because of any cultural superiority on their part.” (CharlesBarber,135)
By this time, the French and English language existed side by side and French took over to
be the language of the court and “royalty of England throughout the twelfth, thirteenth and
(diminishingly) fourteenth centuries” (Charles Barber). The kings of England spoke French,
took French wives and lived mostly in France. The Normans became the new upper class.
They dominated all high positions like the church, education, aristocracy, administration etc.
So, many other people, particularly among the gentry whose native language was English had
to acquire French, if they “wanted to get on in the world.
Although there were more common people holding on to their mother tongue than noblemen
speaking French, English was on a decline, as the French language had its prestige in the
most important ranks.
In the first phase from 1150 to 1250, there were less French words adopted into the English
(about 900) than in the second phase. The borrowings show characteristics of the Anglo-
Norman phonology and were mostly from the areas of the nobility (e.g. servant, messenger),
literature (e.g. story, rime) and the church.
In the second stage (1250-1500) there was a rapid change in the prestige of the French
language with a climax at the end of the 14th century. The Norman- French developed its
peculiarities to the so-called Anglo- Norman dialect, but it was more and more regarded as
old-fashioned and rustic compared to the Central French spoken in Paris
The decline of French as a vernacular was a slow process starting with the loss of Normandy
to the French crown in 1204. At that time many noblemen had properties in England and
Normandy and had to decide whether to become English or to go back to France. Many
Norman landholders chose to stay and the coming up of national thinking in England must
have increased the importance of the English language. The final success of English over the
French was observable in the 14th century where those who spoke French as their mother-
tongue were turning to the use of English.

The following are some of the words borrowed from French into English:

Government &Administrative

govern crown government empire royal majesty treaty parliament tax statute
Clothing

gown cape embroidery pearl diamond Lace buckle button fur

garment robe
Armed Forces
arm army battle guard soldier ambush combat peace spy

Ecclesiastical

religion virgin faith clergy confession heresy devout preach

Law
justice judge petition arrest accuse evidence sue estate property slander accuse
Food
Feast beef
bacon cream
salad spice
sugar raisin

GREEK INFLUENCE

The language of Ancient Greece had almost as important an impact on English as Latin. This
is because the Ancient Greeks were the foremost European thinkers before Latin was spread
across the continent by the Romans. Words from their language entered English not only
directly as names for modern ideas and inventions, but also via Latin since the Romans
themselves used many Ancient Greek words in their learned writings (e.g. Philosophia, the
Greek word for philosophy).

Greek is one of the oldest Indo- European languages. It is usually divided into Ancient
Greek (often thought of as a dead language) and Modern Greek. According to Peter T.
Daniels, the Ancient Greeks were the first to use a 'true' alphabet, that is, one representing
both vowels and consonants. Indeed, the word 'alphabet' is formed of the first two letters of
the Greek alphabet, 'alpha' and 'beta'. The English language is indebted to Greek not only for
its alphabet but also for a major portion of its vocabulary. If it were not for the ancient
Greeks, the English language would not be the 26 letters that are used today. All the religious
expression used in English when Christianity began was Greek. The New Testament of the
Bible was written in Greek. The New Testament, used by the converted Anglo-Saxons,
greatly influenced the developing of the English language, which at this time had no alphabet
and was only spoken, not written. To express religious ideas previously unknown to the
Anglo-Saxons, they imported many words directly from the original New Testament such as
"church" from Greek Kyriako, "about the Lord", "ecclesiastical" from Greek ekklesia,
originally an Athenian assembly, and also "apostle," "monk," "prophet" etc. Many words that
have been borrowed from French were borrowed from Greek by the French. For example,
English angel, derived from Latin Angelus, was first derived from Greek Angelos, meaning
"messenger."
The next major influence of Greek upon the English language occurred during the
Renaissance, which had its greatest force in England during 1500–1625. During this period,
the study of classics was stressed. The classicists of that time intentionally tried to enrich the
English language by borrowing from such classic languages as Greek and Latin. When one
examines the English literature from the Renaissance era, the results of the classicists' efforts
can be seen. For example, about 19 per cent of Hamlet's soliloquy (Hamlet, Act III, Scene I)
by William Shakespeare is from the classical languages Latin and Greek. In general, the
classical content of Shakespeare's plays was 21 per cent. The ancient Greeks have supplied
many facets of the first-world governments of the modern world. In fact, the entire
government of The United States of America hinges on the ideas of these ancient people. It is
only expected that many terms of government in the English language come from Greek.
When one talks of monarchies and democracies, he is using words derived from Greek.
"Treasurer," "chambers," and "parliament" are from Greek. Even the word "government"
itself is from Greek
Modern science has also failed to escape Greek influences in its vocabulary. Not only do its
different fields exhibit signs of a Greek influence in the histories of their respective
vocabularies, but science as a whole often uses Greek when forming words to express new
ideas. Many medical terms, occupations, and college courses are directly derived from the
Greek language. A Paediatrician, a doctor who works with children, owes his occupational
name to the Greek paidos, child. A hypodermic needle is so-called because it goes under
(Greek hypo) the skin (Greek derma). Even the title of a doctor of female ills, gynaecology, is
from Greek gyne means woman. Chemistry is also greatly influenced by Greek. You only
have to consider the periodic table, around half are Greek in origin: some common examples
include arsenic, calcium, copper, helium, hydrogen, iodine, magnesium etc. It has influenced
English language to the extent that the very term "grammar" was devised by the Greeks,
which means, in their language, "that which pertains to writing." Greek philosophers are
credited with the creation of such grammatical terms and concepts as "article," "noun,"
"pronoun," "adjective," "verb," "adverb," "preposition," "conjunction," and "interjection."
Many English words are formed of parts of words (morphemes) that originate from the Greek
language, including the following examples:
• phobia (fear of), as in arachnophobia – the fear of spiders
• micro (small), as in microscopic – so small it's hard to see
• demos (people) as in democracy – government by the people

If you look closer, there are several phrases derived from Greek. To have an ‘Achilles Heel’
means to have a weakness or vulnerable point. Achilles was a Greek hero and central
character in Homer's epic poem, The Iliad. He was only vulnerable at his heel. The 'Midas
touch' is another common expression deriving from Greek mythology. Describing a near-
magical ability to succeed at anything one undertakes, the expression originates from a
story of King Midas, who is remembered for his ability to turn everything he touched into
gold. An idiom which has its roots in Greek antiquity as ‘crocodile tears’. The phrase is
thought to come from the popular ancient belief that crocodiles weep while eating their
victims.
Some more words that have been taken from Greek into English are as follows_

Athlete
nymph
Catastrophe
phone
therapy
criterion
enthusiasm orchestra
devil
church
atom diphthong
Toxic
theory
Dropsy theatre
Academy
phobia
Ecstasy
micro
Harmony
gigantic
Pseudo
zone

INDIAN INFLUENCE
Britain’s relationship with India goes back as far as the early 17th century when the East
India Company (EIC), an English and later British joint-stock company, made its first voyage
to India in 1601 to trade in the East Indies. After trading with mainly Qing China, the EIC
later seized control of large companies within the Indian subcontinent from 1757 until 1858
where a rule was then passed to the Crown until India’s independence in 1947.
With such a prolonged presence in the region, it’s no wonder India adopted English as its
official language post-independence, while at the same time, making a direct impact on the
English language. India has a vast amount of languages, including 22 official languages, 122
major and around 1599 recorded languages and dialects, according to the 2001 Census of
India.
India’s influence has seen words from Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam and Tamil all make
their way into the English Language once the EIC arrived in India and traded with local and
surrounding territories. The word ‘shampoo’, derived from the Hindi word chāmpo meaning
‘massage into the head/hair’, dates back to 1762, where Indian natives historically used
extracts from a variety of herbs and dried berries to clean their hair. The word can also be
traced back to the Sanskrit root chapayati, which means ‘to press, knead, soothe’.
Words synonymous with criminality such as ‘mugger’ and ‘thug’ have its roots firmly in the
Indian subcontinent. You wouldn’t associate a street robber with a crocodile, but ‘mugger’,
the Hindi word for crocodile, relates to the aquatic reptile’s master of ambush. Similarly, the
word ‘thug’ was used by Indian natives to describe organised robbers or assassins who were
infamously known for their skill and stealth. Cashmere is commonly known as a luxurious
wool in the West but has its origins from the Kashmir region where the wool is produced by
Kashmir goats. It’s also synonymous with the words ‘shawl’, originally from Persian before
making its way to India via Urdu and Hindi, and ‘patchouli’ which both enter the English
language in the 18th and 19th-century.
Britain firmly established its rule over modern-day India by the mid-19th-century which
gave way to some peculiar words (and subsequently cultural practices) penetrating the
English language. For example, ‘pyjamas’, is derived from the Hindi word paijamap,
meaning ‘leg garment’ – the loose cotton or silk trousers worn by Indian men and women. By
1854, visitors to British India advised Europeans to wear pyjamas during afternoon naps. It
wasn’t until 1870 when pyjamas swiftly replaced the traditional nightdress for male sleeping
attire in England and Europe.
Veranda and bungalow are both unique to India and its climate. While common in India,
especially with British and Portuguese settlers, these structures would never have been
practical in Britain’s cold climates. However, these Indian structural concepts were adopted
in Britain as London began to expand throughout the 19th century.
Although the East India Company first made contact with the Indian subcontinent in the
early 17th Century, India was still a huge hub for trade and commerce before Britain made
first contact with Indian natives. So much so that the Indo-Greek trade and business
relationships between India and Portugal had promoted the use of Indian words in other
European languages. Pepper, indigo and ginger were first used in Latin and Greek before
entering into English vocabulary. Ginger can be traced back to Malayalam where the Greeks
imported the plant. From there, it would travel across the Caribbean and to Africa – providing
a global presence for the word as early as the 15th century.
It’s fair to say that India’s influence on British culture and the English language goes far
beyond the culinary likes of curry and Indian fast food restaurants. After all, India’s only been
free from British rule since 1947 and English is still one of India’s official languages. Some
other popular words from India are
Hindi
Dharma
Khaki
Jungle
Avatar
Malayalam
Teak
Popadum
Coir
Mango
Telugu
Mongoose
Bandicoot
Pitta
Boy
Tamil
Pandal
Clay
Mulligatawny
Culvert

The Renaissance

The English Renaissance saw thousands of Greek and Latin-based words enter the language.
This occurred via the Italian Renaissance and was greatly helped by English poets, authors
and playwrights, especially Elizabethan-era playwright William Shakespeare who wrote
many plays centred in Italy including Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of Venice, Julius
Caesar and Two Gentlemen of Verona.

These wordsmiths also made up and created many thousands of new words, leading to a
debate known as the ‘Inkhorn Controversy’. ‘Inkhorn’ was the term for an inkwell made out
of a small horn and became a nickname for the new words being created by playwrights and
poets.

One advocate for inkhorn words was Thomas Elyot, a prolific writer during the English
Renaissance. He was well studied in both Latin and Greek, and as such, was able to introduce
many new concocted words into the English vocabulary. Those academics and scholars
totally against inkhorn words included Thomas Wilson who was not only an academic and
scholar but also as an author, diplomat, judge, privy councillor and Dean of Durham. He was
against the flowery extravagant speech and inkhorns of the English Renaissance and
advocated a simpler way of writing, using words derived from Old English rather than from
Latin and Greek.

OVERSEAS IMPORTS

Elizabethan exploration, privateering and piracy was another source for English vocabulary.
These came mainly from the Spanish and Portuguese, including many Caribbean and Native
American words explorers from the nations had adopted, such as ‘tobacco’ and ‘potato’.

Stuart colonialism on the eastern shores of America saw a great number of words from
Native Americans being adopted and entering the English language direct, including ‘canoe’,
and ‘hammock’. The Pilgrim Fathers and subsequent English settlements adopted even more.

Britain’s share in world trade saw a steady rise during the Tudor and Stuarts’ exploration
policies through to the Victorian Empire building. This increase in trade would see another
wave of new words entering the English vocabulary from foreign climes, including words
from the Netherlands such as- landscape; scone; booze; schooner; skipper; avast; knapsack;
easel; sketch – and a great deal more.

The British Empire at its height encompassed one- quarter of the Earth’s landmass and ruled
over hundreds of millions of different peoples throughout the world. The English language
evolved alongside this empire, with words being adopted into the vocabulary. Numerous
words from India alone have become common in English today, such as- pyjamas; khaki;
bungalow; jodhpurs; juggernaut; curry; chutney; shampoo and thug – to name but a few.

THE AMERICAN INFLUENCE

American influence on English has been profound. American literature became more
popular in England, as did films with the advent of the movies and Hollywood, along with
songs, music and dance and many American programmes on television. The USA were also
allies of Britain in two world wars and still use British-based USAF airfields. All these
factors together with the age of the computer mean that even more Americanisms and phrases
have been adopted into the English vocabulary.

One example is the phrase ‘stiff upper lip’. It’s believed that this originated as the
Americans saw the English aristocracy speaking with a strict ‘standard English’, which
necessitated an immobile upper lip to pronounce it, no matter what the circumstances.

Other examples of American-influenced phrases include no axe to grind; sitting on the

fence; poker face; stake a claim – and words such as: bedrock; smooch; raincoat; skyscraper;
joyride; showdown; cocktail and cookie.

The English language has never had an official standard. It has evolved through the
centuries and adopted many thousands of words through overseas exploration, international
trade, and the building of an empire. It has progressed from very humble beginnings as a
dialect of Germanic settlers in the 5th century, to a global language in the 21st century. It is a
rich language with tens of thousands more words in its vocabulary than any other language
and as Maria Legg writes in her foreword to ‘In a Manner of Speaking’: “Indeed, a history of
the language must necessarily be a history of its people too.”

References
• Baugh A.C. & Cable T. A (1978), History of the English Language,
 Routledge, Francis& Taylor Group.
• Papanis. Alexandros(1995), The Greek Thesaurus in
English ,University of Nottingham Press.
• Durkin P. (2014), Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in
English. Oxford University Press
• Richard Hogg (1992), The Cambridge History of the English
Language, Cambridge University Press.
• Pyles T. & Alego J. (1964), The Origins and Development of the
English Language 1964, Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
• Dean L.F. & Wilson K.G. (1963), Essays on Language and Usage,
Oxford University Press.
• Brook G. L. (1958), A History of the English, London, Little, Brown &
Company.
• Jespersen O. (1985) Growth and Structure of English Language, Basil
Blackwell.
• Rastorgueva H. (1993), A History of the English Language, Moscow
University Press.
• Myers L.M. (1966), The Roots of Modern English, Boston, Little
Brown & Company.
• Stepanyan.E. A Survey on Loanwords and Borrowings and Their Role
in the Reflection of Cultural Values and Democracy Development: the Armenian
Paradigm, European Journal of Marketing and Economics May-August 2018 Volume
1, Issue 2, Pg77-86.
• Williams, Joseph M.(1975), Origins of English Language, A Social
and Linguistic History. Free press.
• Cf. Charles Barber, Joan.C. Beal, Philip.A.Shaw (2009), The English
Language: a historical introduction, Cambridge University Press.
• David Burnley in: Norman Blake (1992), The Cambridge History of
the English Language. volume 2, Cambridge University Press, p.427.
Characteristics of Language:
Let us know the characteristics of the language in brief: language is arbitrary, productive,
creative, symbolic, systematic, vocalic, social, non-instinctive, and conventional;
language is a system of communication, and language is human structurally complex, and
modifiable.
10 Characteristics Of Human Language
The ten characteristics of a language are given below. Please read carefully for proper
understanding.
1. Language Is Arbitrary
Language is undoubtedly arbitrary as there is no inherent connection between the nature
of things or concepts the speech deals with. However, those things and ideas are
expressed, and there is no reason why different communities pronounce a ‘single term’
differently.
A word was chosen to mean a specific thing or idea is arbitrary. It might be noticed that if
a language had not been arbitrary, there would have been just a single language that
remained throughout the world. That is why we can consider language as an arbitrary
vocal symbol.
2. Language Is A Social Phenomenon
In a sense, language should be considered a social phenomenon. Language is social in our
human society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human
relations.
As a member of a particular social group, we human beings interact with each other,
allowing us to identify with one another and connect and coordinate with one another.
This is how language is part and parcel of our society.
Language exists in the public arena, is a method for feeding and creating a society, and
sets up human relations. As a member of the community, we acquire a language
permanently.
3. Language Is A Symbolic System
Language signifies a symbolic system, and it consists of different sound symbols for
concepts, things, ideas, objects, etc. Language has sounds and words as their symbols.
These symbols are picked and routinely acknowledged and utilized. The words in a
language are not just patterns or images but symbols that denote meaning.
The language uses words as symbols and not as signs for the concept represented by
them. The core value of a language sometimes relies on the proper explanation of these
symbols.
4. Language Is Systematic
Although the language is symbolic, its symbols are arranged in specific systems. All
languages have their arrangement of plans, and each language is an arrangement of
systems.
Furthermore, all languages have phonological and syntactic systems, and within a system,
there are also several sub-systems.
For instance, we have the morphological and syntactic systems inside the linguistic
system. Inside these two sub-systems, we have systems, such as plural, of mindset, or
perspective, of tense, etc.
5. Language Is Vocal, Verbal And Sound
Language is a system of vocal and verbal symbolism, and it is essentially comprised of
vocal sounds just created by a physiological articulatory component in the human body.
First and foremost, it shows up as vocal sounds only. Language takes verbal elements
such as sounds, words, and phrases fixed up in specific ways to make several sentences.
Language is vocal and sound, which is produced by different speech organs. Writing can
be considered as an intelligent platform to represent vocal sounds, and it is the graphic
representation of the speech sounds of the language.
6. Language Is Non-Instinctive, Conventional
No language was made in multi-day out of a commonly settled upon recipe by a gathering
of people. Language is the result of advancement and tradition, and every age transmits
this tradition onto the following.
Like every human organization, languages may also change and pass on, develop and
extend. Each language has a circulation in a particular community around the globe.
However, we can consider language as non-instinctive because, naturally, it is acquired by
us.
7. Language Is Productive And Creative
Language has its efficiency and innovativeness. The auxiliary components of human
language are joined to create new expressions that neither the speaker nor their listeners
may have made or heard previously.
Honestly, the two sides comprehend without trouble. Language can be changed as
indicated by the necessities of human society. After all, language has the power of
productivity and creativity.

8. Language Is a System Of Communication

Language is strong, convenient, and the best form of communication for no doubt, and it
is the best way to express everything. Through language, we human beings express our
thoughts, desires, emotions, and feelings.
Further, we can interact easily through the welfare of language. After all, we may say that
language is the best communication system around the world.
9. Language Is Human And Structurally Complex
Human language is open-minded, extendable, and modifiable, contrary to animal
 language. Language should be modifiable from time to time.
No species other than human beings have been endowed with language. So we can say
that language is naturally human, structurally complex, and modifiable in some cases.
10. Language Is Unique, Complex, And Modifiable
Language is indeed a unique phenomenon in the world. Every language has its
characteristics and distinctive features. Furthermore, each language has its creativity and
productivity to deliver the best ways to communicate.
And this is how language has the potentiality to be unique, complex, and modifiable by
the change of time and culture.
Conclusion
After the above discussion, we conclude that these language characteristics are part and
parcel of building the authenticity of any language.
The Monkey’s Paw
Text for (root words, antonyms-synonyms, One word, Idioms, homophones,
pronunciation)
“Be careful what you wish for, you may receive it.” – Anonymous
PART ONE
Outside, the night was cold and wet, but in the small living room the curtains were closed and
the fire burned brightly. Father and son were playing chess; the father, whose ideas about the
game involved some very unusual moves, putting his king into such sharp and unnecessary
danger that it even brought comment from the white-haired old lady knitting quietly by the
fire. “Listen to the wind,” said Mr. White who, having seen a mistake that could cost him the
game after it was too late, was trying to stop his son from seeing it. “I’m listening,” said the
son, seriously studying the board as he stretched out his hand. “Check.” “I should hardly
think that he’ll come tonight,” said his father, with his hand held in the air over the board.
“Mate,” replied the son. “That’s the worst of living so far out,” cried Mr. White with sudden
and unexpected violence; “Of all the awful out of the way places to live in, this is the worst.
Can’t walk on the footpath without getting stuck in the mud, and the road’s a river. I don’t
know what the people are thinking about. I suppose they think it doesn’t matter because only
two houses in the road have people in them.” “Never mind, dear,” said his wife calmly;
“perhaps you’ll win the next one.” Mr. White looked up sharply, just in time to see a knowing
look between mother and son. The words died away on his lips, and he hid a guilty smile in
his thin grey beard. “There he is,” said Herbert White as the gate banged shut loudly and
heavy footsteps came toward the door. The old man rose quickly and opening the door, was
heard telling the new arrival how sorry he was for his recent loss. The new arrival talked
about his sadness, so that Mrs. White said, “Tut, tut!” and coughed gently as her husband
entered the room followed by a tall, heavy built, strong-looking man, whose skin had the
healthy reddish colour associated with outdoor life and whose eyes showed that he could be a
dangerous enemy. “Sergeant-Major Morris,” he said, introducing him to his wife and his son,
Herbert. The Sergeant-Major shook hands and, taking the offered seat by the fire, watched
with satisfaction as Mr. White got out whiskey and glasses. After the third glass his eyes got
brighter and he began to talk. The little family circle listened with growing interest to this
visitor from distant parts, as he squared his broad shoulders in the chair and spoke of wild
scenes and brave acts; of wars and strange peoples. “Twenty-one years of it,” said Mr. White,
looking at his wife and son. “When he went away he was a thin young man. Now look at
him.” “He doesn’t look to have taken much harm.” said Mrs. White politely. “I’d like to go to
India myself,” said the old man, just to look around a bit, you know.” “Better where you are,”
said the Sergeant-Major, shaking his head. He put down the empty glass and sighing softly,
shook it again. “I should like to see those old temples and fakirs and the street entertainers,”
said the old man. “What was that that you started telling me the other day about a monkey’s
paw or something, Morris?” “Nothing.” said the soldier quickly. “At least, nothing worth
hearing.” “Monkey’s paw?” said Mrs. White curiously. “Well, it’s just a bit of what you might
call magic, perhaps,” said the Sergeant-Major, without first stopping to think. His three
listeners leaned forward excitedly. Deep in thought, the visitor put his empty glass to his lips
and then set it down again. Mr. White filled it for him again. “To look at it,” said the
Sergeant-Major, feeling about in his pocket, “it’s just an ordinary little paw, dried to a
mummy.” He took something out of his pocket and held it out for them. Mrs. White drew
back with a look of disgust, but her son, taking it, examined it curiously. “And what is there
special about it?” asked Mr. White as he took it from his son, and having examined it, placed
it upon the table. “It had a spell put on it by an old fakir,” said the Sergeant-Major, “a very
holy man. He wanted to show that fate ruled people’s lives, and that those who tried to
change it would be sorry. He put a spell on it so that three different men could each have
three wishes from it.” The way he told the story showed that he truly believed it and his
listeners became aware that their light laughter was out of place and had hurt him a little.
“Well, why don’t you have three, sir?” said Herbert, cleverly. The soldier looked at him the
way that the middle aged usually look at disrespectful youth. “I have,” he said quietly, and his
face whitened. “And did you really have the three wishes granted?” asked Mrs. White. “I
did,” said the Sergeant-Major, and his glass tapped against his strong teeth. “And has
anybody else wished?” continued the old lady. “The first man had his three wishes. Yes,” was
the reply, “I don’t know what the first two were, but the third was for death. That’s how I got
the paw.” His voice was so serious that the group fell quiet. “If you’ve had your three wishes
it’s no good to you now then Morris,” said the old man at last. “What do you keep it for?”
The soldier shook his head. “Fancy I suppose,” he said slowly. “I did have some idea of
selling it, but I don’t think I will. It has caused me enough trouble already. Besides, people
won’t buy. They think it’s just a story, some of them; and those who do think anything of it
want to try it first and pay me afterward.” “If you could have another three wishes,” said the
old man, watching him carefully, “would you have them?” “I don’t know,” said the other. “I
don’t know.” He took the paw, and holding it between his front finger and thumb, suddenly
threw it upon the fire. Mr. White, with a slight cry, quickly bent down and took it off. “Better
let it burn,” said the soldier sadly, but in a way that let them know he believed it to be true. “If
you don’t want it Morris,” said the other, “give it to me.” “I won’t.” said his friend with
stubborn determination. “I threw it on the fire. If you keep it, don’t hold me responsible for
what happens. Throw it on the fire like a sensible man.” The other shook his head and
examined his possession closely. “How do you do it?” he asked. “Hold it up in your right
hand, and state your wish out loud so that you can be heard,” said the Sergeant-Major, “But I
warn you of what might happen.” “Sounds like the ‘Arabian Nights’”, said Mrs. White, as
she rose and began to set the dinner. “Don’t you think you might wish for four pairs of hands
for me.” Her husband drew the talisman from his pocket, and all three laughed loudly as the
Sergeant-Major, with a look of alarm on his face, caught him by the arm. “If you must wish,”
he demanded, “Wish for something sensible.” Mr. White dropped it back in his pocket, and
placing chairs, motioned his friend to the table. In the business of dinner the talisman was
partly forgotten, and afterward the three sat fascinated as the listened to more of the soldier’s
adventures in India. “If the tale about the monkey’s paw is not more truthful than those he has
been telling us,” said Herbert, as the door closed behind their guest, just in time to catch the
last train, “we shan’t make much out of it.” “Did you give anything for it, father?” asked Mrs.
White, watching her husband closely. “A little,” said he, colouring slightly, “He didn’t want
it, but I made him take it. And he pressed me again to throw it away.” “Not likely!” said
Herbert, with pretended horror. “Why, we’re going to be rich, and famous, and happy.”
Smiling, he said, “Wish to be a king, father, to begin with; then mother can’t complain all the
time.” He ran quickly around the table, chased by the laughing Mrs White armed with a piece
of cloth. Mr. White took the paw from his pocket and eyed it doubtfully. “I don’t know what
to wish for, and that’s a fact,” he said slowly. “It seems to me I’ve got all I want.” “If you
only paid off the house, you’d be quite happy, wouldn’t you!” said Herbert, with his hand on
his shoulder. “Well, wish for two hundred pounds, then; that’ll just do it.” His father, smiling
and with an embarrassed look for his foolishness in believing the soldier’s story, held up the
talisman. Herbert, with a serious face, spoiled only by a quick smile to his mother, sat down
at the piano and struck a few grand chords. “I wish for two hundred pounds,” said the old
man clearly. A fine crash from the piano greeted his words, broken by a frightened cry from
the old man. His wife and son ran toward him. “It moved,” he cried, with a look of horror at
the object as it lay on the floor. “As I wished, it twisted in my hand like a snake.” “Well, I
don’t see the money,” said his son, as he picked it up and placed it on the table, “and I bet I
never shall.” “It must have been your imagination, father,” said his wife, regarding him
worriedly. He shook his head. “Never mind, though; there’s no harm done, but it gave me a
shock all the same.” They sat down by the fire again while the two men finished their pipes.
Outside, the wind was higher than ever, and the old man jumped nervously at the sound of a
door banging upstairs. An unusual and depressing silence settled on all three, which lasted
until the old couple got up to to go to bed. “I expect you’ll find the cash tied up in a big bag
in the middle of your bed,” said Herbert, as he wished them goodnight, “and something
horrible sitting on top of your wardrobe watching you as you pocket your ill-gotten money.
Herbert, who normally had a playful nature and didn’t like to take things too seriously, sat
alone in the darkness looking into the dying fire. He saw faces in it; the last so horrible and so
monkey-like that he stared at it in amazement. It became so clear that, with a nervous laugh,
he felt on the table for a glass containing some water to throw over it. His hand found the
monkey’s paw, and with a little shake of his body he wiped his hand on his coat and went up
to bed. PART TWO In the brightness of the wintry sun next morning as it streamed over the
breakfast table he laughed at his fears. The room felt as it always had and there was an air of
health and happiness which was not there the previous night. The dirty, dried-up little paw
was thrown on the cabinet with a carelessness which indicated no great belief in what good it
could do. “I suppose all old soldiers are the same,” said Mrs. White. “The idea of our
listening to such nonsense! How could wishes be granted in these days? And if they could,
how could two hundred pounds hurt you, father?” “Might drop on his head from the sky,”
said Herbert. “Morris said the things happened so naturally,” said his father, “that you might
if you so wished not see the relationship.” “Well don’t break into the money before I come
back,” said Herbert as he rose from the table to go to work. “I’m afraid it’ll turn you into a
mean, greedy old man, and we shall have to tell everyone that we don’t know you.” His
mother laughed, and following him to the door, watched him go down the road, and returning
to the breakfast table, she felt very happy at the expense of her husband’s readiness to believe
such stories. All of which did not prevent her from hurrying to the door at the postman’s
knock nor, when she found that the post brought only a bill, talking about how Sergeant-
Majors can develop bad drinking habits after they leave the army. “Herbert will have some
more of his funny remarks, I expect, when he comes home,” she said as they sat at dinner. “I
know,” said Mr. White, pouring himself out some beer; “but for all that, the thing moved in
my hand; that I’ll swear to.” “You thought it did,” said the old lady, trying to calm him. “I say
it did,” replied the other. “There was no thought about it; I had just – What’s the matter?” His
wife made no reply. She was watching the mysterious movements of a man outside, who,
looking in an undecided fashion at the house, appeared to be trying to make up his mind to
enter. In mental connection with the two hundred pounds, she noticed that the stranger was
well dressed, and wore a silk hat of shiny newness. Three times he stopped briefly at the gate,
and then walked on again. The fourth time he stood with his hand upon it, and then with
sudden firmness of mind pushed it open and walked up the path. Mrs White at the same
moment placed her hands behind her, hurriedly untied the strings of her apron, and put it
under the cushion of her chair. She brought the stranger, who seemed a little uncomfortable,
into the room. He looked at her in a way that said there was something about his purpose that
he wanted to keep secret, and seemed to be thinking of something else as the old lady said
she was sorry for the appearance of the room and her husband’s coat, which he usually wore
in the garden. She then waited as patiently as her sex would permit for him to state his
business, but he was at first strangely silent. “I – was asked to call,” he said at last, and bent
down and picked a piece of cotton from his trousers. “I come from ‘Maw and Meggins.’ ”
The old lady jumped suddenly, as in alarm. “Is anything the matter?” she asked breathlessly.
“Has anything happened to Herbert? What is it? What is it?” Her husband spoke before he
could answer. “There there mother,” he said hurriedly. “Sit down, and don’t jump to a
conclusion. You’ve not brought bad news, I’m sure sir,” and eyed the other, expecting that it
was bad news but hoping he was wrong. “I’m sorry – ” began the visitor. “Is he hurt?”
demanded the mother wildly. The visitor lowered and raised his head once in
agreement.”Badly hurt,” he said quietly, “but he is not in any pain.” “Oh thank God!” said the
old woman, pressing her hands together tightly. “Thank God for that! Thank – ” She broke
off as the tragic meaning of the part about him not being in pain came to her. The man had
turned his head slightly so as not to look directly at her, but she saw the awful truth in his
face. She caught her breath, and turning to her husband, who did not yet understand the man’s
meaning, laid her shaking hand on his. There was a long silence. “He was caught in the
machinery,” said the visitor at length in a low voice. “Caught in the machinery,” repeated Mr.
White, too shocked to think clearly, “yes.” He sat staring out the window, and taking his
wife’s hand between his own, pressed it as he used to do when he was trying to win her love
in the time before they were married, nearly forty years before. “He was the only one left to
us,” he said, turning gently to the visitor. “It is hard.” The other coughed, and rising, walked
slowly to the window. “The firm wishes me to pass on their great sadness about your loss,”
he said, without looking round. “I ask that you to please understand that I am only their
servant and simply doing what they told me to do.” There was no reply; the old woman’s face
was white, her eyes staring, and her breath unheard; on the husband’s face was a look such as
his friend the Sergeant-Major might have carried into his first battle. “I was to say that Maw
and Meggins accept no responsibility,” continued the other. “But, although they don’t believe
that they have a legal requirement to make a payment to you for your loss, in view of your
son’s services they wish to present you with a certain sum.” Mr. White dropped his wife’s
hand, and rising to his feet, stared with a look of horror at his visitor. His dry lips shaped the
words, “How much?” “Two hundred pounds,” was the answer. Without hearing his wife’s
scream, the old man smiled weakly, put out his hands like a blind man, and fell, a senseless
mass, to the floor. PART THREE In the huge new cemetery, some two miles away, the old
people buried their dead, and came back to the house which was now full of shadows and
silence. It was all over so quickly that at first they could hardly realize it, and remained in a
state of waiting for something else to happen – something else which was to lighten this load,
too heavy for old hearts to bear. But the days passed, and they realized that they had to accept
the situation – the hopeless acceptance of the old. Sometimes they hardly said a word to each
other, for now they had nothing to talk about, and their days were long to tiredness. It was
about a week after that the old man, waking suddenly in the night, stretched out his hand and
found himself alone. The room was in darkness, and he could hear the sound of his wife
crying quietly at the window. He raised himself in bed and listened. “Come back,” he said
tenderly. “You will be cold.” “It is colder for my son,” said the old woman, who began crying
again. The sounds of crying died away on his ears. The bed was warm, and his eyes heavy
with sleep. He slept lightly at first, and then was fully asleep until a sudden wild cry from his
wife woke him with a start. “THE PAW!” she cried wildly. “THE MONKEY’S PAW!” He
started up in alarm. “Where? Where is it? What’s the matter?” She almost fell as she came
hurried across the room toward him. “I want it,” she said quietly. “You’ve not destroyed it?”
“It’s in the living room, on the shelf above the fireplace,” he replied. “Why?” She cried and
laughed together, and bending over, kissed his cheek. “I only just thought of it,” she said.
“Why didn’t I think of it before? Why didn’t you think of it?” “Think of what?” he
questioned. “The other two wishes,” she replied quickly. “We’ve only had one.” “Was not
that enough?” he demanded angrily. “No,” she cried excitedly; “We’ll have one more. Go
down and get it quickly, and wish our boy alive again.” The man sat up in bed and threw the
blankets from his shaking legs. “Good God, you are mad!” he cried, struck with horror. “Get
it,” she said, breathing quickly; “get it quickly, and wish – Oh my boy, my boy!” Her husband
struck a match and lit the candle. “Get back to bed he said,” his voice shaking. “You don’t
know what you are saying.” “We had the first wish granted,” said the old woman,
desperately; “why not the second?” “A c-c-coincidence,” said the old man. “Go get it and
wish,” cried his wife, shaking with excitement. The old man turned and looked at her, and his
voice shook. “He has been dead ten days, and besides he – I would not tell you before, but – I
could only recognize him by his clothing. If he was too terrible for you to see then, how
now?” “Bring him back,” cried the old woman, and pulled him towards the door. “Do you
think I fear the child I have nursed?” He went down in the darkness, and felt his way to the
living room, and then to the fireplace. The talisman was in its place on the shelf, and then a
horrible fear came over him that the unspoken wish might bring the broken body of his son
before him before he could escape from the room. He caught his breath as he found that he
had lost the direction of the door. His forehead cold with sweat, he felt his way round the
table and along the walls until he found himself at the bottom of the stairs with the evil thing
in his hand. Even his wife’s face seemed changed as he entered the room. It was white and
expectant, and to his fears seemed to have an unnatural look upon it. He was afraid of her.
“WISH!” she cried in a strong voice. “It is foolish and wicked,” he said weakly. “WISH!”
repeated his wife. He raised his hand. “I wish my son alive again.” The talisman fell to the
floor, and he looked at it fearfully. Then he sank into a chair and the old woman, with burning
eyes, walked to the window and opened the curtains. He sat until he could no longer bear the
cold, looking up from time to time at the figure of his wife staring through the window. The
candle, which had almost burned to the bottom, was throwing moving shadows around the
room. When the candle finally went out, the old man, with an unspeakable sense of relief at
the failure of the talisman, went slowly back back to his bed, and a minute afterward the old
woman came silently and lay without movement beside him. Neither spoke, but lay silently
listening to the ticking of the clock. They heard nothing else other than the normal night
sounds. The darkness was depressing, and after lying for some time building up his courage,
the husband took the box of matches, and lighting one, went downstairs for another candle.
At the foot of the stairs the match went out, and he stopped to light another; and at the same
moment a knock sounded on the front door. It was so quiet that it could only be heard
downstairs, as if the one knocking wanted to keep their coming a secret. The matches fell
from his hand. He stood motionless, not even breathing, until the knock was repeated. Then
he turned and ran quickly back to his room, and closed the door behind him. A third knock
sounded through the house. “WHAT’S THAT?” cried the old woman, sitting up quickly. “A
rat,” said the old man shakily – “a rat. It passed me on the stairs.” His wife sat up in bed
listening. A loud knock echoed through the house. “It’s Herbert!” she screamed. “It’s
Herbert!” She ran to the door, but her husband was there before her, and catching her by the
arm, held her tightly. “What are you going to do?” he asked in a low, scared voice. “It’s my
boy; it’s Herbert!” she cried, struggling automatically. “I forgot it was two miles away. What
are you holding me for? Let go. I must open the door.” “For God’s sake don’t let it in,” cried
the old man, shaking with fear. “You’re afraid of your own son,” she cried struggling. “Let
me go. I’m coming, Herbert; I’m coming.” There was another knock, and another. The old
woman with a sudden pull broke free and ran from the room. Her husband followed to the top
of the stairs, and called after her as she hurried down. He heard the chain pulled back and the
bottom lock open. Then the old woman’s voice, desperate and breathing heavily. “The top
lock,” she cried loudly. “Come down. I can’t reach it.” But her husband was on his hands and
knees feeling around wildly on the floor in search of the paw. If only he could find it before
the thing outside got in. The knocks came very quickly now echoing through the house, and
he heard the noise of his wife moving a chair and putting it down against the door. He heard
the movement of the lock as she began to open it, and at the same moment he found the
monkey’s paw, and frantically breathed his third and last wish. The knocking stopped
suddenly, although the echoes of it were still in the house. He heard the chair pulled back, and
the door opened. A cold wind blew up the staircase, and a long loud cry of disappointment
and pain from his wife gave him the courage to run down to her side, and then to the gate.
The streetlight opposite shone on a quiet and deserted road.
The Monkey’s Paw

Inferences

1. “Outside, the night was cold and wet, but in the small living room the curtains were
closed and the fire burned brightly.” - The Narrator

This first line of the story sets up several things right away. In particular, it shows the
symbols of darkness and light and the theme of happiness
at home. All through the story, these problems keep coming up. In this first sentence, the clear
differences between them set the stage for the conflict
that will follow.

2. “Never mind, dear…. Perhaps you’ll win the next one.” - Mrs. White

Mrs. White says this to Mr. White after he loses a chess game with their son, Herbert White,
due to his own mistake. At face value, she is trying
to calm and reassure her spouse. Emotionally, the "knowing glance" she gives her kid reveals
that she is acting the role of a supportive wife and is
aware that her reassurance is, in part, fictitious. This observation is a tragically ironic
premonition on the symbolic and structural levels. Her spouse
will probably lose even more spectacularly at the monkey's paw than he did at chess with his
son.

3. “He wanted to show that fate ruled people’s lives, and that those who tried to change it
would be sorry.” - Sergeant- Major Morris

Here, Morris describes in detail why the fakir, a nomadic Hindu holy man, cast a spell on the
monkey's paw. Even though he warns Mr. White
that utilising the paw will result in grief, Mr. White disregards his warning. If fate controls
people's lives, as the fakir claims, then Mr. White may be
destined to use the paw, lose his kid, and endanger his own life.

4. “Better where you are.” - Sergeant Major Morris

Morris responds to Mr. White's statement that he would like to visit India "just to look around
a little bit." This conversation between Mr. White
and his guest encapsulates the two perspectives on the fantastic, exotic side of the globe. Mr.
White appears to have spent his entire life in England,
and specifically on the outskirts of a tiny town. He is anxious to hear tales of India and other
exotic destinations, whereas Morris, who has actually
visited India, prefers the peaceful, innocent domesticity of an English village. The themes of
domestic bliss and the nature and limits of desire are
also present in this text.

5. “I don't know what the first two were, but the third was for death.” -Sergeant Major
Morris

Repeatedly, Morris tells Mr. White that the paw is a bad idea. There is magic in this paw; it
can grant wishes; however, the former owner's first
two wishes had such disastrous outcomes that death seemed preferable. The fact that the
Whites keep going, pushing themselves closer to adopting
the paw, says a lot about human nature. They have enough faith in their guest's explanation
that the paw is magical to ignore his dire warnings about
the danger it poses. Stupidity at its finest.

6. “As I wished, it twisted in my hand like a snake.” - Mr. White

This phrase conveys three important ideas that build upon one another. The paw is not simply
dead and mummified as it first appears to be.
It is in motion and essentially alive. Second, Mr. White's hand "twisted" the paw. Similar to
how his wish for £200, which appeared good and
innocent, will be turned into something dreadful by the magic of the paw. The two hundred
pounds that the Whites longed for will come to them,
but at the cost of their son's life. Third, snakes have a reputation for being unreliable and
negative in English and European literature. This reminds
me of the biblical account of Eve being tempted by the serpent to commit original sin in the
Garden of Eden. The paw introduces a similar incentive
to venture into the unknown into the Whites' existence.

7. “The idea of our listening to such nonsense! How could wishes be granted in these
days?” - Mrs. White

Here, Mrs. White captures the spirit of Part II's opening scenes. After a period of scientific
and economic progress, England penned this tale in the
early 20th century. In addition, this was the century of exploration, when British adventurers
mapped out much of the world for the first time. Logic
dictates that the paw should hold no sway. As it turns out, the opposite is true, as if the story
were highlighting the limitations of our comprehension
of the world.

8. “I’m afraid it’ll turn you into a mean, greedy old man, and we shall have to tell you
everyone that we don’t know you.” - Herbert White

This is one of several sentences in the story that contains heavy foreshadowing. Mr. White is
not at all "greedy," as evidenced by the fact that he
needs prompting to make a wish for wealth at the story's outset. Saddened and devastated by
the loss of his kid, he is nevertheless not the kind
to deny his wife a second request, no matter how misguided it may be. Also, Mr. White isn't
the one who has to be cut off from his family after
making that request. After his death, Herbert's family disowns and rejects him due to his
appearance change.

9. “I wish my son alive again.” - Mr. White

Mr. White's first goal was for financial support, but he didn't consider the potential
consequences (and how the money might arrive). It's
reminiscent of Mr. White's "fatal blunder" and his inability to plan ahead during a chess
game. Similarly naive is this phrase, which appears
as simple as it is. Mr. White was the one who found his son's body and claimed him as his
own. The garments he was wearing were the only
reason he was able to do so. Despite this, he makes the wish for his son's revival as if it were
an entirely positive thing.

10. “The streetlight opposite shone on a quite and deserted road.” - The Narrator

At the beginning of the story, the storm had left the road deserted but made a spectacular
amount of noise. It's silent now that nobody is there.
Their safety is no longer in jeopardy, and the traumatic events of the past are in the past. At
the beginning of the story, they were dismayed to
see that the road was deserted, since they had been anticipating a warm welcome for
Sergeant-Major Morris. Mr. White can now breathe a
sigh of relief because the road is no longer crowded. Since there is no one there, they are safe
from the weird creature that was once his kid.
It's an empty victory, like the street, and it's cruel. A sense of relief persists, though.

• Glossary:
• Aghast - struck with fear, dread, or consternation
 • Agitation - a mental state of extreme emotional disturbance
• Antimacassar - A cover that protects the back or arms of furniture
• Assent - agree or express agreement
• Avaricious - immoderately desirous of acquiring something
• Avert - turn away or aside
• Bibulous – fond of liquour
• Credulity - tendency to believe readily
• Doggedly – Stubbornly
• Fakir - a mendicant monk regarded as a holy man
• Falter - move hesitatingly, as if about to give way
• Fatal - causing death, leading to failure or disaster
• Furtively - in a secretive manner
• Fusillade - rapid simultaneous discharge of firearms, knocks in quick
succession
• Gratification – a source of pleasure
• Grimace - contort the face to indicate a certain mental state
• Grope - search blindly or uncertainly by feeling with the hands
• Juggler - one who performs tricks or acts of magic or deftness, the
quality of being skilful, clever, or quick
• Marred - blemished by injury or rough wear
• Mutilated - having a part of the body crippled or disabled
• Presumptuous - going beyond what is appropriate, permitted, or
courteous
• Pulsate - expand and contract rhythmically
• Reverberate - ring or echo with sound
• Rubicund – hale, healthy
• Simian – relating to or affecting apes or monkeys
• Sinister - wicked, evil, or dishonorable
• Talisman - a trinket thought to be a magical protection against evil
• Weary - physically and mentally fatigued
• Without – (archaic) outside, in the absence of
• Wont – apt to do something

• Synonyms - Antonyms:
Sr. No.
Word
Synonym
Antonym
•
Aghast
Appalled
Relief
•
Apathy
Indifference
Enthusiasm, Passion
•
Assent
Compliance
Dissent
•
Avaricious
Greedy
Generous
•
Broach
Introduce
Ignore
•
Condole
Sympathize, Pity
Indifference
•
Credulity
Gullibility
Suspicion
•
Doughty
Fearless
Cowardly
•
Fusillade
Barrage, Bombardment
Lack, Inactivity
•
Maligned
Harmful
Beneficial
•
Marred
Blemish
Enhance
•
Presumptuous
Arrogant
Polite
•
Proffer
Submit
Withdraw
•
Reverberate
Resound, Echo
Quieten
•
Sinister
Ominous, Doomy
Auspicious

• Figurative Language:
Sr. No.
Phrase
Figure of Speech
•
Wishes made using Monkey’s Paw
Irony
•
how could two hundred pounds hurt you, father… might drop on his head from the sky

•
We are all going to be rich, famous, and happy

•
Caught in the machinery
Euphemism
•
The monkey’s paw
Imagery
•
The night was cold and wet

•
The blinds were drawn

•
The fire burned brightly

•
Path’s a bog, and the road’s a torrent

•
The words died away on his lips
Personification
•
China candlestick was throwing pulsating shadows

•
A cold wind rushed up the staircase

•
A guilty grin

•
It twisted in my hand like a snake
Simile
•
Tut, Tut!
Onomatopoeia
•
A stair creaked

•
Sounds like the Arabian Nights
Allusion
•
Path’s a bog, and the road’s a torrent (Idiom)
someone is worrisome due to their own disappointments (Meaning)

•
To proffer (Idiom)
To offer to someone (Meaning)

Monkey’s Paw
 • Aghast /əˈɡɑːst/
• Agitation /adʒɪˈteɪʃ(ə)n/
• Antimacassar /æn.tɪ.məˈkæs.ə/
• Avaricious /a-və-ˈri-shəs/
• Bibulous /bɪbjʊləs/
• chords /kɔːd/
• Credulity /krɪˈdjuːlɪti/
• Doggedly /dɒɡɪdli/
• Embarrassed /ɪmˈbarəst, ɛmˈbarəst/
• Fascinate /fasɪneɪt/
• Furtively /fəːtɪvli/
• Fusillade /fjuːzɪˈleɪd, ˌfjuːzɪˈlɑːd/
• Gratification /ɡratɪfɪˈkeɪʃn/
• Grimace /ɡrɪməs/, /ɡrɪˈmeɪs/
• Juggler /dʒʌɡlə/
• Malign /məˈlʌɪn/
• Marred /mɑːd/
• Mutilate /mjuːtɪleɪt
• Possession /pəˈzɛʃ(ə)n/
• Presumptuous /prɪˈzʌm(p)tʃʊəs/
• Pulsate /pʌlˈseɪt/
• Reverberate /rɪˈvəːbəreɪt/
• Rubicund /ruːbɪk(ə)nd/
• Talisman /talɪzmən/
• Simian /sɪmɪən/
• Squared /skwɛːd/
• Stubborn /stʌbən/

Root Words (Monkey’s Paw)

Root
Meaning
Examples
Awe
Feeling of respect fear or admiration
Awesome, awful, awkward
Deter
to make somebody decide not to do something
Determine, deterioration, deterrent
Dict
Say
Verdict, contradict, dictate
Dis
Keeping things distant
Distant, disappear, disrupt, dislocate
Fore
Near or before
Forethought, Foretell, Foresight
Hurr
Making sound
Hurry, hurricane, hurrah
Myst
Secret or strange
Mystery, mystification, mystic
Mal
Bad or evil
Malice, Malfunction, Maleficent
Mort
Death
Mortgage, mortuary, mortal
Omni
All
Omnivorous, omnipotent, omniscient
Path
Feel
Empathy, pathetic, apathy
Phobia
Fear
Claustrophobia, Agoraphobia, Phobic

The Necklace
Text for (root words, antonyms-synonyms, One word, Idioms, homophones,
pronunciation)
The Necklace BY Guy de Maupassant She was one of those pretty and charming girls born,
as though fate had blundered over her, into a family of artisans. She had no marriage portion,
no expectations, no means of getting known, understood, loved, and wedded by a man of
wealth and distinction; and she let herself be married off to a little clerk in the Ministry of
Education. Her tastes were simple because she had never been able to afford any other, but
she was as unhappy as though she had married beneath her; for women have no caste or class,
their beauty, grace, and charm serving them for birth or family, their natural delicacy, their
instinctive elegance, their nimbleness of wit, are their only mark of rank, and put the slum
girl on a level with the highest lady in the land. She suffered endlessly, feeling herself born
for every delicacy and luxury. She suffered from the poorness of her house, from its mean
walls, worn chairs, and ugly curtains. All these things, of which other women of her class
would not even have been aware, tormented and insulted her. The sight of the little Breton
girl who came to do the work in her little house aroused heart-broken regrets and hopeless
dreams in her mind. She imagined silent antechambers, heavy with Oriental tapestries, lit by
torches in lofty bronze sockets, with two tall footmen in knee-breeches sleeping in large arm-
chairs, overcome by the heavy warmth of the stove. She imagined vast saloons hung with
antique silks, exquisite pieces of furniture supporting priceless ornaments, and small,
charming, perfumed rooms, created just for little parties of intimate friends, men who were
famous and sought after, whose homage roused every other woman's envious longings. When
she sat down for dinner at the round table covered with a three-days-old cloth, opposite her
husband, who took the cover off the soup-tureen, exclaiming delightedly: "Aha! Scotch
broth! What could be better?" she imagined delicate meals, gleaming silver, tapestries
peopling the walls with folk of a past age and strange birds in faery forests; she imagined
delicate food served in marvellous dishes, murmured gallantries, listened to with an
inscrutable smile as one trifled with the rosy flesh of trout or wings of asparagus chicken. She
had no clothes, no jewels, nothing. And these were the only things she loved; she felt that she
was made for them. She had longed so eagerly to charm, to be desired, to be wildly attractive
and sought after. She had a rich friend, an old school friend whom she refused to visit,
because she suffered so keenly when she returned home. She would weep whole days, with
grief, regret, despair, and misery. * One evening her husband came home with an exultant air,
holding a large envelope in his hand. "Here's something for you," he said. Swiftly she tore the
paper and drew out a printed card on which were these words: "The Minister of Education
and Madame Ramponneau request the pleasure of the company of Monsieur and Madame
Loisel at the Ministry on the evening of Monday, January the 18th." Instead of being
delighted, as her husband hoped, she flung the invitation petulantly across the table,
murmuring: "What do you want me to do with this?" "Why, darling, I thought you'd be
pleased. You never go out, and this is a great occasion. I had tremendous trouble to get it.
Every one wants one; it's very select, and very few go to the clerks. You'll see all the really
big people there." She looked at him out of furious eyes, and said impatiently: "And what do
you suppose I am to wear at such an affair?" He had not thought about it; he stammered:
"Why, the dress you go to the theatre in. It looks very nice, to me . . ." He stopped, stupefied
and utterly at a loss when he saw that his wife was beginning to cry. Two large tears ran
slowly down from the corners of her eyes towards the corners of her mouth. "What's the
matter with you? What's the matter with you?" he faltered. But with a violent effort she
overcame her grief and replied in a calm voice, wiping her wet cheeks: "Nothing. Only I
haven't a dress and so I can't go to this party. Give your invitation to some friend of yours
whose wife will be turned out better than I shall." He was heart-broken. "Look here,
Mathilde," he persisted. "What would be the cost of a suitable dress, which you could use on
other occasions as well, something very simple?" She thought for several seconds, reckoning
up prices and also wondering for how large a sum she could ask without bringing upon
herself an immediate refusal and an exclamation of horror from the careful-minded clerk. At
last she replied with some hesitation: "I don't know exactly, but I think I could do it on four
hundred francs." He grew slightly pale, for this was exactly the amount he had been saving
for a gun, intending to get a little shooting next summer on the plain of Nanterre with some
friends who went lark-shooting there on Sundays. Nevertheless he said: "Very well. I'll give
you four hundred francs. But try and get a really nice dress with the money." The day of the
party drew near, and Madame Loisel seemed sad, uneasy and anxious. Her dress was ready,
however. One evening her husband said to her: "What's the matter with you? You've been
very odd for the last three days." "I'm utterly miserable at not having any jewels, not a single
stone, to wear," she replied. "I shall look absolutely no one. I would almost rather not go to
the party." "Wear flowers," he said. "They're very smart at this time of the year. For ten francs
you could get two or three gorgeous roses." She was not convinced. "No . . . there's nothing
so humiliating as looking poor in the middle of a lot of rich women." "How stupid you are!"
exclaimed her husband. "Go and see Madame Forestier and ask her to lend you some jewels.
You know her quite well enough for that." She uttered a cry of delight. "That's true. I never
thought of it." Next day she went to see her friend and told her her trouble. Madame Forestier
went to her dressing-table, took up a large box, brought it to Madame Loisel, opened it, and
said: "Choose, my dear." First she saw some bracelets, then a pearl necklace, then a Venetian
cross in gold and gems, of exquisite workmanship. She tried the effect of the jewels before
the mirror, hesitating, unable to make up her mind to leave them, to give them up. She kept
on asking: "Haven't you anything else?" "Yes. Look for yourself. I don't know what you
would like best." Suddenly she discovered, in a black satin case, a superb diamond necklace;
her heart began to beat covetously. Her hands trembled as she lifted it. She fastened it round
her neck, upon her high dress, and remained in ecstasy at sight of herself. Then, with
hesitation, she asked in anguish: "Could you lend me this, just this alone?" "Yes, of course."
She flung herself on her friend's breast, embraced her frenziedly, and went away with her
treasure. The day of the party arrived. Madame Loisel was a success. She was the prettiest
woman present, elegant, graceful, smiling, and quite above herself with happiness. All the
men stared at her, inquired her name, and asked to be introduced to her. All the Under-
Secretaries of State were eager to waltz with her. The Minister noticed her. She danced
madly, ecstatically, drunk with pleasure, with no thought for anything, in the triumph of her
beauty, in the pride of her success, in a cloud of happiness made up of this universal homage
and admiration, of the desires she had aroused, of the completeness of a victory so dear to her
feminine heart. She left about four o'clock in the morning. Since midnight her husband had
been dozing in a deserted little room, in company with three other men whose wives were
having a good time. He threw over her shoulders the garments he had brought for them to go
home in, modest everyday clothes, whose poverty clashed with the beauty of the balldress.
She was conscious of this and was anxious to hurry away, so that she should not be noticed
by the other women putting on their costly furs. Loisel restrained her. "Wait a little. You'll
catch cold in the open. I'm going to fetch a cab." But she did not listen to him and rapidly
descended the staircase. When they were out in the street they could not find a cab; they
began to look for one, shouting at the drivers whom they saw passing in the distance. They
walked down towards the Seine, desperate and shivering. At last they found on the quay one
of those old nightprowling carriages which are only to be seen in Paris after dark, as though
they were ashamed of their shabbiness in the daylight. It brought them to their door in the
Rue des Martyrs, and sadly they walked up to their own apartment. It was the end, for her. As
for him, he was thinking that he must be at the office at ten. She took off the garments in
which she had wrapped her shoulders, so as to see herself in all her glory before the mirror.
But suddenly she uttered a cry. The necklace was no longer round her neck! "What's the
matter with you?" asked her husband, already half undressed. She turned towards him in the
utmost distress. "I . . . I . . . I've no longer got Madame Forestier's necklace. . . ." He started
with astonishment. "What! . . . Impossible!" They searched in the folds of her dress, in the
folds of the coat, in the pockets, everywhere. They could not find it. "Are you sure that you
still had it on when you came away from the ball?" he asked. "Yes, I touched it in the hall at
the Ministry." "But if you had lost it in the street, we should have heard it fall." "Yes.
Probably we should. Did you take the number of the cab?" "No. You didn't notice it, did
you?" "No." They stared at one another, dumbfounded. At last Loisel put on his clothes again.
"I'll go over all the ground we walked," he said, "and see if I can't find it." And he went out.
She remained in her evening clothes, lacking strength to get into bed, huddled on a chair,
without volition or power of thought. Her husband returned about seven. He had found
nothing. He went to the police station, to the newspapers, to offer a reward, to the cab
companies, everywhere that a ray of hope impelled him. She waited all day long, in the same
state of bewilderment at this fearful catastrophe. Loisel came home at night, his face lined
and pale; he had discovered nothing. "You must write to your friend," he said, "and tell her
that you've broken the clasp of her necklace and are getting it mended. That will give us time
to look about us." She wrote at his dictation. * By the end of a week they had lost all hope.
Loisel, who had aged five years, declared: "We must see about replacing the diamonds." Next
day they took the box which had held the necklace and went to the jewellers whose name was
inside. He consulted his books. "It was not I who sold this necklace, Madame; I must have
merely supplied the clasp." Then they went from jeweller to jeweller, searching for another
necklace like the first, consulting their memories, both ill with remorse and anguish of mind.
In a shop at the Palais-Royal they found a string of diamonds which seemed to them exactly
like the one they were looking for. It was worth forty thousand francs. They were allowed to
have it for thirty-six thousand. They begged the jeweller not to sell it for three days. And they
arranged matters on the understanding that it would be taken back for thirty-four thousand
francs, if the first one were found before the end of February. Loisel possessed eighteen
thousand francs left to him by his father. He intended to borrow the rest. He did borrow it,
getting a thousand from one man, five hundred from another, five louis here, three louis there.
He gave notes of hand, entered into ruinous agreements, did business with usurers and the
whole tribe of moneylenders. He mortgaged the whole remaining years of his existence,
risked his signature without even knowing if he could honour it, and, appalled at the
agonising face of the future, at the black misery about to fall upon him, at the prospect of
every possible physical privation and moral torture, he went to get the new necklace and put
down upon the jeweller's counter thirty-six thousand francs. When Madame Loisel took back
the necklace to Madame Forestier, the latter said to her in a chilly voice: "You ought to have
brought it back sooner; I might have needed it." She did not, as her friend had feared, open
the case. If she had noticed the substitution, what would she have thought? What would she
have said? Would she not have taken her for a thief? * Madame Loisel came to know the
ghastly life of abject poverty. From the very first she played her part heroically. This fearful
debt must be paid off. She would pay it. The servant was dismissed. They changed their flat;
they took a garret under the roof. She came to know the heavy work of the house, the hateful
duties of the kitchen. She washed the plates, wearing out her pink nails on the coarse pottery
and the bottoms of pans. She washed the dirty linen, the shirts and dishcloths, and hung them
out to dry on a string; every morning she took the dustbin down into the street and carried up
the water, stopping on each landing to get her breath. And, clad like a poor woman, she went
to the fruiterer, to the grocer, to the butcher, a basket on her arm, haggling, insulted, fighting
for every wretched halfpenny of her money. Every month notes had to be paid off, others
renewed, time gained. Her husband worked in the evenings at putting straight a merchant's
accounts, and often at night he did copying at twopence-halfpenny a page. And this life lasted
ten years. At the end of ten years everything was paid off, everything, the usurer's charges and
the accumulation of superimposed interest. Madame Loisel looked old now. She had become
like all the other strong, hard, coarse women of poor households. Her hair was badly done,
her skirts were awry, her hands were red. She spoke in a shrill voice, and the water slopped
all over the floor when she scrubbed it. But sometimes, when her husband was at the office,
she sat down by the window and thought of that evening long ago, of the ball at which she
had been so beautiful and so much admired. What would have happened if she had never lost
those jewels. Who knows? Who knows? How strange life is, how fickle! How little is needed
to ruin or to save! One Sunday, as she had gone for a walk along the Champs-Elysees to
freshen herself after the labours of the week, she caught sight suddenly of a woman who was
taking a child out for a walk. It was Madame Forestier, still young, still beautiful, still
attractive. Madame Loisel was conscious of some emotion. Should she speak to her? Yes,
certainly. And now that she had paid, she would tell her all. Why not? She went up to her.
"Good morning, Jeanne." The other did not recognise her, and was surprised at being thus
familiarly addressed by a poor woman. "But . . . Madame . . ." she stammered. "I don't know .
. . you must be making a mistake." "No . . . I am Mathilde Loisel." Her friend uttered a cry.
"Oh! . . . my poor Mathilde, how you have changed! . . ." "Yes, I've had some hard times
since I saw you last; and many sorrows . . . and all on your account." "On my account! . . .
How was that?" "You remember the diamond necklace you lent me for the ball at the
Ministry?" "Yes. Well?" "Well, I lost it." "How could you? Why, you brought it back." "I
brought you another one just like it. And for the last ten years we have been paying for it. You
realise it wasn't easy for us; we had no money. . . . Well, it's paid for at last, and I'm glad
indeed." Madame Forestier had halted. "You say you bought a diamond necklace to replace
mine?" "Yes. You hadn't noticed it? They were very much alike." And she smiled in proud
and innocent happiness. Madame Forestier, deeply moved, took her two hands. "Oh, my poor
Mathilde! But mine was imitation. It was worth at the very most five hundred francs! . . .”
The Necklace

Inferences

1. “She was one of those pretty and charming girls born, as though fate had blundered
over her, into a family of artisans.”

As a member of the lesser nobility, Maupassant saw firsthand the effects of the defeat of
France in the Franco-German War on affluent families. He was aware of how deeply these
families grieved their social exclusion. Madame Loisel's attitude of entitlement and
displeasure are on full display in her comments about continuing to live in the same
economic class to which she was born.

2. “Aha! Scotch broth! What could be better?”

While his wife is always complaining, Monsieur Loisel seems pleased with his existence and
grateful for what he has, while not trying to improve himself or his situation beyond his
means. In reality, when he makes his soup comment, Madame Loisel is daydreaming about
being served fancy food with sterling silver cutlery.

3. “She had no clothes, no jewels, nothing. And these were the only things she loved; she
felt that she was made for them.”

These phrases provide context for understanding Madame Loisel's predicament and outlook
on life. There was no pretty apparel or jewellery in her possession, yet these were the only
things that ever caught her eye or held any significance for her. Again, Madame Loisel is
depicted as shallow and dissatisfied all the time, feeling entitled due of her nice looks.

4. “She had longed so eagerly to charm, to be desired, to be wildly attractive and sought
after.”

Madame Loisel is a shallow and vain woman who only cares that people think she looks great
and dresses elegantly. Later, when she finally gets her chance to be envied and popular for
one night, she has to sacrifice everything to replace the necklace she lost, proving her earlier
statement to be an example of verbal irony.
One of several early sentences to begin with "She," as well. The constant reference both
humanises and dehumanises Madame Loisel because it establishes a rhythm and draws the
listener's attention to her. Maupassant waits until after she gets married to give her a name.

5. “Instead of being delighted, as her husband hoped, she flung the invitation petulantly
across the table, murmuring: “What do you want me to do with this?”

That one statement says a lot about Madame Loisel and how she and her husband interact.
She had always wanted to go to an event like this, and her husband made a big effort to get
her an invitation so that he could impress her and improve his standing in her eyes.
Nonetheless, that is not sufficient.

6. “No...there's nothing so humiliating as looking poor in the middle of a lot of rich

women.”

Madame Loisel is all about appearances. She makes this statement when her spouse proposes
she wear flowers instead of jewellery to the event. For Madame Loisel wearing flowers is an
indication she has no jewels, and despite her new and expensive attire she feels the need to
adorn herself even more with shows of money, which is all-important to her. She is incapable
at this point of fulfilment.

7. “Suddenly she discovered, in a black satin case, a superb diamond necklace; her heart
began to beat covetously. Her hands trembled as she lifted it. She fastened it round her
neck, upon her high dress, and remained in ecstasy at sight of herself.”

Madame Loisel, who is never content, borrows a diamond necklace from a friend after
searching through all of her other jewellery and coming up empty. Madame Loisel, who is
conceited even when not wearing her jewellery, delights in gazing at her reflection as if it
were studded with diamonds because she thinks it makes her look more attractive.
Unfortunately for Madame Loisel, she borrowed the jewellery to satiate her vanity and create
a false impression of affluence.

8. “How strange life is, how fickle! How little is needed to ruin or to save!”

The narrative focuses on Madame Loisel for the most part, but it takes a step back to provide
some universal insights that make her dramatic turn of luck seem like it might happen to
anybody. Because of what happened to her that night, Madame Loisel still places a higher
importance on outward appearances than she does on the truth, and Maupassant placed this
thought just after explaining her habit of occasionally reflecting back on her one amazing
night.

9. “Yes, I've had some hard times since I saw you last; and many sorrows...and all on your
account.”

After borrowing and losing a necklace from her friend 10 years prior, Madame Loisel
"returned" it to Madame Forestier by giving her a new one. The quote exemplifies the
transformation that has taken place in Madame Loisel during the past decade of dedicated
labour. Since she and her husband have finally paid off their large debt, she is more forthright
and happy to disclose what she done; she even takes some joy in it. However, Madame Loisel
retains a passive-aggressive quality despite her development and maturity. Choosing not to
wait for a cab at the ball for fear that other women would see her poor coat, Madame Loisel
lost the jewellery she had borrowed. She knows her friend had nothing to do with what
happened to her, yet she still holds that grudge.

10. “Oh, my poor Mathilde! But mine was imitation. It was worth at the very most five
hundred francs!”

By disclosing the awful truth of the necklace and then quickly terminating the story,
Maupassant pulls the reader into the story to complete it. Readers can only picture Madame
Loisel's reaction to one of literature's most renowned examples of situational irony and can
only ask why neither friend was direct enough to disclose the truth.

The Necklace
• Glossary:
• Ardor - feelings of great warmth and intensity
• Attache - a specialist assigned to the staff of a diplomatic mission
• Breton - an inhabitant of Brittany, a region in France.
• Bric-a-brac - miscellaneous objects and ornaments of little value
• Chagrin – feel distressed or humiliated
• Chic - stylish; fashionable
• Convent - a religious residence especially for nuns
• Coquettish - behaving in such a way as to suggest a playful sexual
attraction; flirtatious. Vexation - the state of being annoyed, frustrated, or worried
• Coupes - an old style of car
• Dowry – an amount of property or money brought by a bride to her
husband on their marriage
• Ecstasy - an overwhelming feeling of great happiness or joyful
excitement.
• Frugal - avoiding waste
• Immoderate - not sensible or restrained; excessive
• M. – Monsieur (Sir in French)
• Mme – Madame (usually used as a title equivalent to Mrs.)
• Mansard roof - a roof that has four sloping sides, each of which
becomes steeper halfway down
• Mantle - a loose, sleeveless cloak or shawl
• Odious - extremely repulsive or unpleasant
• Pot-au-feu – Soup in French
• Quay - a platform lying alongside or projecting into water for loading
and unloading ships
• Repast - the food served and eaten at one time, a meal
 • Salon - a reception room
• Stupefied - astonished, shocked; unable to think properly
• The Seine - a long river in France, passing through Paris
• Tureen - large deep serving dish with a cover
• Usurer - a person who lends money at unreasonably high rates of
interest
• Vestibule - a large entrance or reception room or area

• Synonyms - Antonyms:
Sr. No.
Word
Synonym
Antonym
•
Ardor
Passion
Dullness
•
Chagrin
Annoyance
Comfort
•
Coquettish
Coy, flirty
Uncoy
•
Desolate
Abandoned
Befriended
•
Ecstasy
Elation
Misery
•
Frugal
Meticulous
Careless
•
Odious
Repulsive
Attractive
•
Stupefied
Bewildered
Oriented
•
Magnificent
Elegant
Ordinary
•
Deserted
Unoccupied
Populated

• Figurative Language:
Sr. No.
Phrase
Figure of Speech
•
The Necklace
Metaphor (Mathilde’s excessive pride) and Irony
•
Drunk with pleasure
Metaphor
•
The Party
Imagery

•
Madame Loisel’s Imagination

•
Fate had blundered over her
Personification
•
A sphinx like smile
Simile

The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant

• Elegance /ɛlɪɡ(ə)ns/
 • Nimbleness /nɪmblnəs/

• Antechamber /antɪtʃeɪmbə/

• Exquisite /ɛkskwɪzɪt/, /ɪkˈskwɪzɪt/

• envious /ɛnvɪəs/

• longings ˈ /lɒŋɪŋ/

• inscrutable /ɪnˈskruːtəb(ə)l/

• asparagus /əˈsparəɡəs/

• exultant /ɪɡˈzʌltənt/, /ɛkˈzʌltənt/

• petulantly /pɛtjʊl(ə)ntli/

• murmuring /məːmərɪŋ/

• stupefy /stjuːpɪfʌɪ/

• covetous /kʌvɪtəs/

• ecstasy /ɛkstəsi/

• triumph /trʌɪʌmf/

• dumbfound /dʌmˈfaʊnd/

• volition /vəˈlɪʃ(ə)n/

• catastrophe /kəˈtastrəfi/

• anguish /aŋɡwɪʃ/

• ruinous /ruːɪnəs/

• wretch /rɛtʃ/

Root Words (Diamond Necklace)

Root
Meaning
Examples
Aesthet
Feeling, sensation
Aesthetics, anesthetics
Anti
against
Antipathy, antithesis
Bene
good
Beneficial, benevolent, benefactor
Cata
down
Catalyst, catastrophe, catabolic
Mis
Hate
Misery, Misandry, Misogyny
Mir
Wonder, amazement
Admire, mirror
Per
thoroughly, through
Perfection, persistence, pervade
Tor
Hard and difficult
Torment, torture, distort
Trem
tremble
Tremor, tremendous