ACCOUNTING (7707)

BOOKS OF ORIGINAL
ENTRIES
These are the books of first entry.
The transactions are first recorded
in these
books before being entered in the
ledger books. These books are also
called as
books of Prime entry or Subsidiary
books. They are six in number.

1. Purchases Journal (or Purchases Book) used to record all credit

purchases of
goods. It is written up from invoice.

2. Sales Journal (or Sales Book) is used to record all the credit sales of
goods. It
is written up from the invoice.

3. Sales Returns Journal (or Return Inwards Book): It is used to record

all
returns inwards. It is written up from the copies of the credit notes send to
customers.

4. Purchases Return Journal (or Returns Outwards Book):It is used to

record
all purchases returns. It is written up from the credit notes received from the
suppliers.

5. Cash Book: It is used to record all receipts and payments of cash and
cheques.
It is been given the ruling in such a way that it acts both as a book of original
entry and ledger account.

6. General Journal (or Journal): This book is used to record all those items

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or
transactions that can not be recorded in any other book of original entry like
i. Correction of errors
ii. Opening entries
iii. Purchase or Sale of Assets on
Credit etc.

BOOKS OF FINAL
ENTRY

LEDGER BOOKS

Ledger books are the books of final

entry which contains the various
accounts to which the entries made in the Books of Original entry are
transferred.

DIVISION OF LEDGER BOOK

1. Purchases Ledger Book: This book contains all the accounts of Suppliers.

2. Sales Ledger Book: This book contains all the accounts of Customers.

3. General Ledger Book: This book contains all the rest of the accounts like,
Assets Accounts, expenses account, losses account, etc., and also the Total
purchases account, Total sales account, Total Sales returns account,
Purchases Returns account. It is also called as Nominal ledger.

Advantages Of Dividing The Ledger:

1. It facilitates division of labour in the maintenance of ledger.

2. It becomes easy to locate errors in ledger accounts.

3. It helps the ledger clerks to complete their respective work in time with
perfection.

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4. It becomes easy to refer to any particular account.

BUSINESS
DOCUMENTS
1. Invoice: Whenever there is a
credit sale, the selling business will
send a
document to buyer showing full
details of the goods sold. This
document is
called as Invoice. It is known to the buyer as a “Purchases invoice”. And to
the
seller as a “Sales invoice”.
Note: Entries in the sales book and the purchases Book are made with the
help
of an invoice.

2. Debit Note: This document is prepared by the purchaser and it is sent to

the
supplier to report him if any faulty goods are been sent or shortages or
overcharges are been made.

3. Credit Note: When goods are returned, or there has been an over-
charge, a
supplier may issue a credit note to the buyer. This reduces the amount owed
by
the customer.
Note: This document is used to make the entries in both the purchases
returns
Book and the sales returns Book.

4. Statement of Account: This document is prepared and sent to the

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customer by
the supplier. It is issued to remind the customer about his due amount. It is
basically a summary of the transaction of a customer during the month like
sales made, Returns received and Cash received

CASH BOOK
Cash book is the only book of original
entry which is given ruling in such a way
that it could act at the same time as a book of original entry and as a ledger
account.

1. Trade Discount: It is an allowance or deduction given by the supplier to

the
retailer on the catalogue price or list price.

i. It is given to encourage him to buy in bulk.

ii. It is given so that retailer could make some profit.

Note: It is not recorded in the books either by the seller or the buyer.

2. Cash Discount: It is an allowance or deduction given by the receiver of

cash to
the payer of cash for prompt payment.
It is of two types discount allowed and discount received.

i. It is given to encourage the payer to pay on or before the due date.

ii. Note: This discount is recorded in the Cash Book. Discount allowed is
recorded at the debit side and discount received on the credit side.

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iii. Note: Discount columns are never balanced. It is just totalled.

iv. Note: Every month the Total’s of discount allowed column is transferred
to
debit side of Discount allowed account in
General ledger and the total of discount-
received column is transferred to the
credit side of Discount received
account in the General ledger.

3. Contra Entry: When a transaction

effects both cash and bank accounts at
the
same time, such entries are called as
Contra Entries.

PETTY CASH BOOK

Imprest System: It is a system where a reimbursement is made of the total

amount
paid in a period or it can also be called as a system where petty cashier
begin each
new accounting period with the same amount of petty cash.

Advantages Of Petty Cash Book:

1. The number of entries in the main cashbook is reduced.

2. The main cashier’s burden is reduced.

3. The chances of mistakes in recording is minimised.

4. Posting become more easy with the Total’s Analysis Columns.

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Advantages of using Analysis columns:

It let us know the money spent on each different nature of small expense.
The double entry for each analysis column by transferring the totals of the
analysis
columns to their respective accounts
which are available in the General
ledger.

TRIAL BALANCE
Trial balance may be defined as a statement or a list of all ledger account
balances taken from various ledger books on a particular date to check the
arithmetical accuracy.

Objectives Or Advantages Of Trial Balance

1. It checks the arithmetical accuracy of ledger accounts.

2. It gives material for preparing Final accounts.

3. To have a proof that the double entry of each transaction is made.

Important Points To Prepare Trial Balance:

1. It should be remembered that all the Assets and expenses accounts are
always
debited.

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2. All liabilities and incomes are always credited.

3. All provisions are always credited.

4. Closing stock is never taken in trial balance. (it is to be shown out of the
trial
balance).

CAPITAL AND REVENUE EXPENDITURE

I. Capital Expenses:

1. All expenses for acquiring the fixed Assets like, Machinery, Building,
Furniture etc;

2. All expenses incidental to the acquisition of Fixed Assets.

Examples: Transporting of Machinery and Fixing and Registration of Land
and Building or Business.

3. All expenses to improve the existing Assets to increase Profit earning

capacity.

4. Major repairs and renewals to increase the efficiency of the business.

II. Revenue Expenses:

1. All regular expenses which are incurred in the daily course of business.
Example: Wages, Salaries, Repairs, Administration expenses.

2. Purchase of Raw Material and goods.

3. Losses through bad debts and depreciation.

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4. Interest paid on borrowed funds. Etc.

III. Capital Income/ Capital Receipt:

The receipt of money, which arise not from regular source of income
Examples: i. Capital bought in to the business.
ii. Income through bank loan.
iii. Income through sale of fixed
Assets.

IV. Revenue Incomes/Revenue

Receipts:
The receipt of money, which arises
in regular course of business.

1. Sales proceeds of business

2. Commission or Interest received
3. Discount received. etc.

FINAL ACCOUNTS
I. Trading Account:

As the name itself implies this account deals with

trading i.e. buying and selling of goods. This account shows the Gross Profit
earned or loss incurred on the goods sold.

II. Profit and Loss Account:

As the name implies this account deals with

profits and losses, gains and expenses. This shows the calculation of Final
Profit or loss of a business.

III. Balance Sheet:(SOFP)

“This is not an account” but it is a statement of financial

position of a business on a certain date.

ADJUSTMENTS

Accruals:

It is the due, which has to be paid for the benefit or service enjoyed

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during an accounting period. It can also be called as due, an outstanding or
an
arrears.

Prepayments:

It is a payment for the benefit which has

not yet been enjoyed.

Bad Debts:

It is a debt which is deemed to be

irrecoverable.

Bad Debts Recovered:

It is a debt which was previously written
off and is now
paid to us.

Provision For Bad Debts: It is a saving from profit for a possible future loss
that
may or may not occur.

MANUFACTURING ACCOUNT

Manufacturing businesses prepare manufacturing account in addition to the

usual final Accounts. Manufacturing account shows how much does it cost
the
business to manufacture the goods in a financial year.

Cost Of Raw Material Consumed:

It is the value of Raw material used in production. It consist of net purchases

of Raw Material, carriage on raw material opening stock of raw material
closing stock of Raw material.

Prime Cost:

It is the basic cost of manufacturing the goods. It consists of direct raw

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material direct labour and direct expenses.

Production Cost: It is the total cost of manufacturing the goods. It consist

of prime cost plus factory expenses, and it is after any adjustment for work-
inprogress.

Work-in-progress:
These are the goods which are partly
made, but which are not yet completed
are known as work-in-progress.

PARTNERSHIP BUSINESS

A partnership business is an Association of two or more persons formed

with
the object of sharing profits arising out of business.

Advantages

1. Huge Capital: More capital can be secured than in the case of a sole
trading business.

2. Wise decision: It enjoys the benefit of combined ability.

3. Introduction of Division of labour: Partnership enjoys all advantages

of Division of labour. Duties can be assigned to different partners according
to their qualifications and specialization.

4. Greater borrowing capacity:

5. Diffusion of risk.

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6. More contact with the customers.

Disadvantages

1. Unlimited liability

2. Delay in decision.

3. Difference in opinions.

4. No perpetual existence.

5. Secrets cannot be maintained.

Accounts of Partnership Firm

Partnership firms prepare the following final accounts:

1. Trading A/c

2. Profit & Loss A/c

3. Profit & Loss Appropriation A/c

4. Current Accounts

5. Partners Capital Accounts

6. Balance sheet.

1) Trading and 2) Profit & Loss A/c is prepared in the usual form.

Profit and Loss Appropriation Account

This account is a continuation of the profit and loss account and it is
prepared to show the appropriation of profits and losses among the partners.

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Current Accounts
In a partnership business amount withdrawn by a partner is generally
accounted
for separately by debiting the current accounts of the partner who withdraws
the
amount from the business.

Capital Accounts
In a partnership business there are
as many capital accounts as are
partners. A
partner’s contribution to the business
is called his capital. It always shows a
credit
balance which is always fixed. It has
changes only when extra capital is
bought in
to the business are a new partner enters into the business.

Goodwill
Goodwill means the good reputation of the business which enables it to
enjoy
regular flow of customer. It is an intangible fixed Asset.

INCOMPLETE RECORDS/SINGLE ENTRY

SYSTEM

It is a system which is defined as any system which is not exactly the double
entry system. It is developed by certain small business people.

Computation of Profit:

Net Profit:

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(Closing Capital + Drawings) – (Opening Capital + Additional Capital)

Mark-up: gross profit calculation as a percentage of cost price

Mark-up = Profit x 100

Cost price

Margin: The calculation of Gross Profit

as a percentage of Selling price.

Margin = Profit x 100

Selling price

CONTROL ACCOUNT

Control accounts are sometimes known as total accounts. A control account

act as a summary of the ledger which it controls. There are two control
accounts.

1. Sales ledger control account / Total debtors account

2. Purchases ledger control account / Total creditors account.

1. Sales Ledger Control Account: It resembles the account of an

individual
debtor. It is an account recording in total the transactions affecting all the

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debtors.

Sources Of Information For Sales Ledger Control Account:

Sales Sales Book

Cash and Cheques received Cash Book
Dishonoured Cheques Cash Book
Discount allowed Cash Book
Bad debts Journal

2. Purchases Ledger Control Account:

It resembles the account of an individual creditor. It records the transactions

effecting all the creditors.

Sources Of Information For This Account

Purchases Purchase Book
Purchases Returns Purchase Returns Book
Cash and cheque paid Cash Book
Discount received Cash Book
Cash refund’s from creditors Cash Book

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Note: Sometimes it can happen that there is a small opening Debit balance
on a
purchases ledger control account in addition to the usual credit balance. It
happens when the business has
overpaid a creditor, or has returned
the goods
after paying the due amount.

Note: Sometimes sales ledger

control account too also has small
opening credit
balance b/d on a sales ledger control
account, in addition to the usual
opening debit balance. It happens
when a debtor has over paid his
account or
has returned goods after paying his account or due amount.

Advantages Of Control Account:

1. It helps in locating errors.

2. It helps in checking the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger it controls.

3. It gives us readymade figures for Total debtors and Total creditors on a

certain date.

4. Fraud is made more difficult by the use of control account.

BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT

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The purpose of bank reconciliation statement is to explain any difference
between the bank balance appearing on the bank statement provided by the
bank..

Reasons For Difference:

Sometimes it so happen that some

entries are made in cash book but
they are
not recorded in the bank. Like.

1. Cheques deposited but not credited

in the Bank.

2. Cheques issued but are not

presented in the bank.

Sometimes it so happens that some

entries are made in bank statement but
they are not recorded in cashbook. Like.

1. Direct deposits in the bank by our customers

2. Direct collections made by the bank on our behalf

3. Direct payments made by bank

4. Interest allowed by the bank and charged by the bank

5. Dishonoured cheques.

Therefore a statement is prepared to reconcile this difference. This

statement
is called as “Bank Reconciliation statement”.

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Methods Of Preparing Bank Reconciliation Statement:

Step I: Compare the bank column of the cashbook with the bank statement.
Tick
all those receipts and payments which can be found in both the cash
book and the bank statement, when
this has been done, there remains
some unticked items in cash book
and the bank statement.

Step II: Make Adjusted cash book

by taking into account all the
existing cash
book entries plus the unticked bank
statement items into the cash book
and calculate the new balance. This balance is considered as the true
bank balance of the business and this figure will be shown in the balance
sheet as bank balance.

Step III: Prepare Bank Reconciliation Statement.

Note: When we prepare B.R.S. we do not look at the entries of bank

statement.
We just take into account the entries which are in Cash Book but not in
Bank Statement.

1. Start with the balance shown in the Adjusted cash book..

2. Add the entries that are credited in the cash book but not debited on
the bank statement. (unpresented cheques)

3. Deduct any items that are debited in the cash book but are not
credited in the bank statement.
The resulting figure should be equal to Bank Statement balance.

Reasons For Preparing bank Reconciliation Statement:

1. To ensure that the cash book entries are complete.
2. To discover bank errors.
3. To discover errors in cash book.

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4. To check Fraud and embezzlement.
5. To discover dishonoured cheques.

DEPRECIATION
“Depreciation is the gradual and
permanent decrease in the value of an
asset
from any cause.”

Causes Of Depreciation:

1. Some Assets get worn or torn out

due to its constant use in production.

2. Some Assets get decreased in their

value with the passage of time.

3. Some Assets may meet an accident and therefore it may get depreciated
in its value.

Reasons For Providing Depreciation:

1. To reveal the correct profit or loss of a business.

2. To show correct financial position of a business.

3. To make provision for replacement of an asset.

Methods Of Providing Depreciation:

There are three methods of providing depreciation

1. Straight Line Method: This is also termed as Fixed instalment method.

Under
this method Fixed Percentage on original cost is written off the asset every
year.
The amount of depreciation is calculated as follows.

Annual Depreciation = Cost of the Asset - Scrape Value

No. of years in use
Rate of Depreciation = Annual Depreciation x 100
Cost of Asset - Scrape Value

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2. Reducing Balance Method: This method is also known as Diminishing
balance method or written down value method. Under this method
depreciation is charged at a fixed rate on the reduced balance every year.

3. Revaluation Method:

Sometimes it is not possible to

maintain detailed records
of certain types of fixed Assets, such as
very small items of equipment packing
cases and hand tools. In such case the
revaluation method is used. under this
method the assets are revalued at the
end of each year and this value is
compared with the value at the beginning of the period. The difference is
treated as depreciation.

Formula = Value of Assets beginning + Purchases of Assets during the

period – value of Asset at the end.

Provision For Depreciation: It means saving a part of profit for the

replacement
of the Asset.

Prudence Concept: According to this concept all the losses incurred or

expected
to be incurred are to be taken in to account but not all anticipated profits to
be
taken into consideration while finding the profit. To apply this concept that
we take
depreciation in the profit and loss account.

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 CONCEPTS OF
ACCOUNTING
These are the basic assumptions or
rules to be followed while recording
and
presenting accounting information.
1. Business Entity Concept: This
concept explains that the business is
distinct
from the proprietor. Thus, the transactions of business only are to be
recorded in
the books of business.

2. Duality Concept: According to this concept every transaction has two

aspects
i.e. the benefit receiving aspect and benefit giving aspect. These two aspects
are
to be recorded in the books of accounts.
3. Money Measurement Concept: According to this concept only those
transactions which are expressed in money terms are to be recorded in
accounting books.

4. Going Concern Concept: This concept assumes that the business has a
perpetual succession or continued existence.

5. Realisation Concept: This concept speaks about recording of only those

transactions which are actually realised. For example Sale or Profit on sales
will
be taken into account only when money is realised i.e. either cash is
received or
legal ownership is transferred.

6. Matching Concept: It is referred to as matching of expenses against

incomes.
It means that all incomes and expenses relating to the financial period to

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which
the accounts relate should be taken in to account without regard to the date
of
receipts or payment.

7. Consistency Concept: This Concept says that the Accounting practices

should
not change or must remain unchanged
over a period of several years.

8. Prudence Concept: According to

this concept all the losses incurred or
expected to be incurred are to be
taken in to account but not all
anticipated
profits to be taken into consideration
while finding the profit. Similarly while
finding the value of closing stock, least
of the two values i.e. Market price or
Cost price is to be taken into account.
“Lower of the cost or net realisable
value”

ACCOUNTS OF CLUBS AND SOCIETIES

Receipts and Payments Accounts: It is a summary of cashbook, i.e. all
cash and
bank transactions during a given period of time. It starts with an opening
balance
and debited with all items of receipts irrespective of whether they are of
capital
nature or revenue nature and whether they are pertaining to the current
period or
not. It is credited with all payments made during the year. Those payments
may be
of Capital or Revenue nature whether pertaining to the current year or not

Note: This account does not take into account outstanding and
prepayments.

Income and Expenditure Account: Income and expenditure account is a

nominal
account. It is debited with all expenses and losses and credited with all
incomes

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and gains. This account serves exactly the same purpose as the profit and
loss
account in a trading concern.

Accumulated Fund: It is the surplus

accumulated within the organization.

Difference Between The Terms

Used In

Trading Business
Non-Trading Business
1. Cash Book
Receipts and payments account
2. Profit and Loss Account
Income and expenditure account
3. Net Profit
Surplus
4. Net Loss Deficit
5. Capital Accumulated fund
Sources Of Income To Club:
1. Donations

2. Subscriptions

3. Entrance fees

4. Sales of Old Assets

CORRECTION OF ERRORS
Type of error Nature of error Examples
1. Error of Omission
2. Error of Commission
3. Error of Principle
4. Error or Original Entry
5. Compensating Errors
6. Reversal of Entries
7. Entries Done twice
.
Effect of Errors on Profit or Loss

Some errors affect the profit while others do not. This distinction does not
always

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coincide with whether or not the trial balance balances.

Errors affecting Profit or Loss

These errors affect those accounts

which are included in the Trading and
Profit and
Loss Account eg purchases, sales,
expenses etc. We must ask the
following
questions:

1) Does the error affect the gross

profit, the net profit or both?

(a) Errors which affect items that go

into the trading account affect gross
profit
and net profit to the same extent and in the same direction. Such items are
sales, purchases, returns, stock, carriage inwards etc.

(b) Errors which affect items that are entered in the profit and loss section of
the
account, i.e. operating expenses, affect only net profit. Purchases of fixed
assets affect profit only indirectly through provisions for depreciation.

(a) If sales are overstated or purchases understated, both gross profit and
net
profit are too high and must be reduced by the relevant amount. The same
applies if sales returns are understated or purchases returns overstated.

(b) If sales are understated or purchases overstated, both gross profit and
net
profit are too low and must be increased by the relevant amount. The same
applies if sales returns are overstated or purchases returns understated.

(c) If miscellaneous receipts are overstated or if expenses are understated,

gross
profit is not affected but net profit will be high and must be reduced.

(d) If miscellaneous receipts are understated or if expenses are overstated,

again
gross profit is not affected but net profit is too low and must be increased.

(e) If capital expenditure is wrongly treated as revenue expenditure, eg if the

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purchase of a fixed asset is treated as an expense, then net profit will be too
low and must be increased. The opposite applies if revenue expenditure is
treated as capital expenditure.

3) Does the errors that affect items in the balance sheet affect profit as well?

The answer is only those that were adjusted after the trial balance was
prepared. Errors
affecting fixed assets, current assets and liabilities do not normally affect
profit but
if one of these items has changed as a result of an adjustment, then profit is
affected. For example:

(a) If the closing stock has been overvalued, the stock figure in the balance
sheet is too high and so are the gross profit and the net profit. The
opposite is true of a closing stock which is undervalued. Remember that
closing stock adds on to gross profit and opening stock takes away from
it.

(b) If an accrued or prepaid expense is the wrong amount, both profit and
the
item in the balance sheet are wrong. If an amount owing is overstated or
a prepayment is understated, profit is too low and must be increased, and
vice versa.

(c) The opposite to (b) applies in the case of accrued or prepaid receipts.
Estimating the effects of errors can be confusing and you must keep a clear
mind.
Think how the original figure has affected profit and then try to see in which
direction the error is affecting the profit.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

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1. What is the other name of Gross Profit Ratio?

Gross profit as a percentage of Turnover.

2. What is the formula to find out

the GP%?

GP x 100
Sales

3. What would be the reason for

the increase in GP%? Give 2
reasons.

(a) Selling goods, at higher prices.

(b)Buying the goods at cheaper prices.

4. What would be the reason for decrease in the GP%? Give 2

reasons.

(a) Selling goods at higher prices.

(b) Offering Trade discounts.

(c) Not passing on increase prices.

(d) Holding seasonal sales.

5. What is the formula to find out NP Ratio?

NP x 100;
Sales

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6. What is the other name of NP Ratio?

NP as a % of sales

7. What is meant by liquidity?

It is the ability of the business to

convert its assets into cash.

8. What is meant by working

capital?

It is the money required to meet its

every day expenses.

9. What does current Ratio

measure?

It measures the ability of the business to meet its current liability as they fall
due.

10. What is the standard current Ratio for a business?

Somewhere between 1.5 – 2:1.

11. What are the effects of not having enough working capital?

(i) Problems in meeting debts as they fall due.

(ii) Inability to take advantage of cash discount.

(iii) Difficulty in obtaining further supplies.

(iv) Inability to take advantage of business opportunity as they arise.

12. Quote 4 ways of improving working capital.

(i) Introduction of further capital.

(ii) Obtaining long-term loan.

(iii) Reducing owners drawings

(iv) Selling out useless fixed assets.

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13. What is the other name of Quick ratio?

Acid test Ratio

14. What is the formula to find out Quick Ratio?

CA – stock
CL

15. What is the standard quick

ratio?

1:1

16. What is the formula to

calculate stock turnover ratio?

Cost of goods sold

Average stock

17. In what way knowing the rate of stock turnover will be useful to
the
businessmen.

(i) For stock replacement.

(ii) For comparison.

(iii) For corrective action.

(iv) For identifying causes of changes.

18. What are the other names of debtors ratios?

Debtors Ratio/ Sales Ratio.

19. Give 4 ways of improving the collection period from debtors.

(i) Offer cash discount.

(ii) Charge interest on over dues.

(iii) Refuse further supplies.

(iv) Send regular reminder.

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20. Give four ways of reducing
the risk of bad debts.

(i) Obtain reference from new

customers.

(ii) Fix a limit for each credit

customer.

(iii) Follow up over dues promptly.

(iv) Refuse further supplies until old

dues are paid.

21. Give two problem of inter-firm comparison.

1. All businesses are not same in all sense.

2. Different businesses follow different accounting policies.

3. One business may not be of the same size like the other.

4. Location of the business may not be at the same place.

5. They might have started at different dates.

22. Give four users of accounting information.

1. owner.

2. bank manager

3. business manager.

4. creditor

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23. What are the limitations of ratio analysis?
Answer:
Accounting statements and ratio
analysis provide valuable
information about
the business’s performance but it’s
important to remember, however
that
they do have limitations. The
comparison with other firms or
previous years
should be undertaken with caution
for the following reasons:

(i) Difference in the type of stock which affects the rate of stock
turnover and the gross profit margin.

(ii) Difference in the firm’s policy pcash and on credit terms. Others do not
use the same policy.

(iii) Difference in experience because some firms may not operate

profitably in their early years of trading but this should not
necessarily be the case expected in future years.

(iv) Difference in management: Because small firms such as a sole

trader are not expected to use an efficient managers as well as large

(v) Difference in location: because income and tastes and perhaps

government policies may vary from one area to another, which will
affect the performance of the firm.

(vi) Different accounting periods: because different firms are not

expected to start their trading activities at the same date.

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(vii) Difference in capital employed because some firms may have
enough capital employed to finance purchases of premises and
machinery while others do not and forced to pay more expenses.

(viii) Difference in accounting policies such as the application of the

accounting concepts and methods of depreciation.

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