Output Devices

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Introduction
Types of Output
Classification of Output Devices
Printers
Plotters
Computer Output Microfilm
Monitors
Voice Response Systems
Projectors
Electronic Whiteboard
Headphones and Headsets
Terminals

7.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 6, we discussed that a computer system essentially consists of three

components: input devices, central processing unit and output devices. The input devices
are used to provide data to the central processing unit (CPU) for processing. After
processing, the input data are converted into meaningful information and this output is
presented to the user with the help of output devices.

An output device is an electromechanical device, which converts machine-readable

information into human-readable form. The basic functioning of output device is just the
opposite of the input device, that is, the data are ‘fed into’ the computer system through the
input device, while the output is ‘taken out’ from the computer through the output device.
However, the output, which comes out from the CPU, is in the form of digital signals. The
output devices display the processed information by converting them into graphical,
alphanumeric or audio-visual form. The aim of this chapter is to familiarize you with various
types of output devices along with their advantages, disadvantages and applications.
7.2 TYPES OF OUTPUT

Output is the data that has been processed into useful information. It can be displayed or
viewed on a monitor, printed on a printer or listened through speakers or a headset. The
output produced by the output devices can be of the following forms (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1 Forms of Output

Text: Textual form of output consists of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks,
or any other symbol that are used to create words, sentences and paragraphs).
Graphics: Graphics are digital representations of non-textual information such as
drawings, charts, photographs and animation (a series of still images in sequence that gives
the illusion of motion).
Audio: Audio includes music, speech or any sound.
Video: Video consists of images that are played back at a speed that provide the illusion of
full motion. The images are often captured with a video input device like a video camera.

Generally, there are two basic categories of output: the output, which can be readily
understood and used by the individuals, and which is stored on secondary storage devices
so that the data can be used as input for further processing. The outputs, which can be easily
understood and used by the individuals, are of the following two forms.

Hard Copy: The physical form of output is known as hard copy. In general, it refers to the
recorded information copied from a computer onto the paper or some other durable surface
such as microfilm. Hard copy output is permanent and a relatively stable form of output. This
type of output is also highly portable. Paper is one of the most widely used hard copy output
media. The principal examples of output are printouts, whether text or graphics from
printers.
Soft Copy: The electronic version of an output, which usually resides in the computer
memory and/or on the disk, is known as soft copy. Unlike hard copy, soft copy is not a
permanent form of output. It is transient and is usually displayed on the screen. This kind of
output is not tangible, that is, it cannot be touched. Soft copy output includes audio and
visual form of output, which is generated using a computer. In addition, textual or graphical
information displayed on a computer monitor is also soft copy form of output.
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF OUTPUT DEVICES

Based on the hard copy and soft copy outputs, the output devices are classified into: hard
copy and soft copy output devices. Printers, plotters, and microfilms are the most commonly
used hard copy output devices while monitors, voice response systems, projectors,
electronic whiteboards, and headphones and headsets are some commonly used soft copy
output devices (Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3 Classification of Output Devices

7.3.1 Printers

Ever since the dawn of computer age, producing printed output on paper has been one of
the computer's principal functions. A printer prints information and data from the computer
onto a paper. Generally, the printer prints 80 or 132 columns of characters in each line, and
prints either on single sheets, or on a continuous roll of paper, depending upon the printer
itself. The quality of a printer is determined by the clarity of a print it can produce, that is, its
resolution. Resolution is used to describe the sharpness and clarity of an image. The higher
the resolution, the better the image. For printers, the resolution is measured in dots per inch
(dpi). The more dots per inch, the better will be the quality of image. The dots are so small
and close together that they project the image as a solid one. If a printer has a resolution of
600 dpi, it means that the printer is capable of printing 360,000 dots per square inch. Printers
are divided into two basic categories: impact printers and non-impact printers. Impact
printers use some sort of physical contact with the paper to make a mark onto it, while non-
impact printers use techniques other than physically striking the page to transfer ink onto it.
7.3.1.1 Impact Printers
An impact printer uses pins or hammers that press an inked ribbon against the paper to make
a mark on the paper. Each hammer is embossed with a specific shape, which is transferred
onto the paper through the inked ribbon thereby producing a printed character. Some impact
printers can print only one character at a time, while others can print an entire line. The three
most commonly used impact printers are dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printers and drum
printers.

Some characteristics of impact printers are as follows:

In impact printers, there is physical contact with the paper to produce an image.
They are relatively cheap. The primary recurring costs for these printers are the ink ribbons
and paper.
Due to being robust and low cost, they are useful for bulk printing.
They can withstand dusty environment, vibrations and extreme temperature.
They are ideal for printing multiple copies (i.e. carbon copies) because they can easily print
through many layers of paper.
Due to its striking activity, the impact printers are very noisy.
Since they are mechanical in nature, they tend to be slow.

7.3.1.1.1 Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printer (also known as the wire matrix printer) uses the oldest printing technology
and it prints one character at a time. It prints characters and images as pattern of dots. The
speed of dot matrix printers is measured in characters per second (cps). Most dot matrix
printers offer different speeds depending upon the quality of the print desired. The speed
can vary from about 200 to more than 500 CPS. The print quality is determined by the number
of pins (the mechanisms that print the dots), which can vary from 9 to 24. The more pins per
inch, the higher the print resolution. The best dot matrix printers (24 pins) can produce near
letter-quality type image. Most dot matrix printers have a resolution ranging from 72 to 360
dpi (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4 Dot Matrix Characters

Dot matrix printers are inexpensive and have low operating costs. These printers are able to
use different types of fonts, different line densities and different types of papers. Many dot
matrix printers are bi-directional, that is, they can print the characters from either direction,
i.e. left or right. The major limitation of these printers is that they print only in black and white.
In addition, as compared to printers like laser printers, they produce low- to medium-quality
printing. The image printing ability is also very limited. These printers may not be able to print
graphic objects adequately but can handle applications such as accounting, personnel and
payroll very well. Dot matrix printers are commonly used in low-cost, low-quality
applications like cash registers. These printers are limited to situations where carbon copies
are needed and the quality is not too important (Figure 7.5).

Figure 7.5 Dot Matrix Printer

WORKING OF A DOT MATRIX PRINTER The technology behind dot matrix printing is quite
simple. The paper is pressed against a rubber-coated cylinder and is pulled forward as
printing progresses. The printer consists of an electro-magnetically driven print head, which
is made up of numerous print wires (pins). The characters are formed by moving the
electromagnetically driven print head across the paper, which strikes the printer ribbon
situated between the paper and the print head pin. As the head stamps onto the paper
through the inked ribbon, a character is produced that is made up of these dots. These dots
seem to be very small for the normal vision and appear like solid human-readable characters
(Figure 7.6).
Figure 7.6 Working of a Dot Matrix Printer
7.3.1.1.2 Daisy Wheel Printer

The major drawback of dot matrix printer is that the patterns of dots that make up each
character are visible on the print produced by it, making it look unprofessional. So, to
produce professional letter quality documents, a daisy wheel printer is useful. Daisy wheel
printer is named so because the print head of this printer resembles a daisy flower, with the
printing arms that appear like the petals of the flower. These printers are commonly referred
to as letter quality printers as the print quality is as good as that of a high-quality typewriter.

Daisy wheel printers produce high-resolution output and are more reliable than dot matrix
printers. They can have speed up to 90 cps. These printers are also called smart printers
because of its bidirectional printing and built-in microprocessor control features. However,
daisy wheel printers give only alphanumeric output. They cannot print graphics and cannot
change fonts unless the print wheel is physically replaced. These printers are usually very
slow because of the time required to rotate the print wheel for each character desired. Daisy
wheel printers are slower and more expensive than dot matrix printers. However, if the
appearance of the correspondence is important and you do not need graphics, a daisy wheel
printer is a better choice.

WORKING OF A DAISY WHEEL PRINTER These printers have print heads composed of
metallic or plastic wheels. A raised character is placed on the tip of each of the daisy wheels
‘petals’. Each petal has an appearance of a letter (upper case and lower case), number or
punctuation mark on it. To print, the print wheel is rotated around until the desired character
is under the print hammer. The petal is then struck from behind by the print hammer, which
strikes the character, pushing it against the ink ribbon, and onto the paper, creating the
character.
7.3.1.1.3 Drum Printers

The dot matrix and daisy wheel printers are character or serial printers, that is, they print one
character at a time. However, drum printer is a line printer; it can print a line in a single
operation. Generally, line printer is used because of its speed as it uses special tractor-fed
paper with pre-punched holes along each side. This arrangement allows a continuous high-
speed printing. Its printing speed varies from 300 to 2000 lines/min with 96–160 characters
on a 15-inch line. Although such printers are much faster than character printers, they tend
to be quite loud, have limited multifont capability and often produce lower print quality than
most recent printing technologies. Line printers are designed for heavy printing applications.
For example, in businesses, where enormous amounts of materials are printed, the low-
speed character printers are very slow; therefore, the users need high-speed line printers.
Although, drum printers have high speed of printing, they are very expensive and their
character fonts cannot be changed. Moreover, the strike of the hammer should be precise.
A single mistimed strike of the hammer may lead to wavy and slightly blurred printing (Figure
7.9).

Figure 7.9 Drum Printer

WORKING OF A DRUM PRINTER The basics of a line printer like drum printer are similar to
those of a serial printer except that the multiple hammers strike multiple type elements
against the paper almost simultaneously, so that an entire line is printed in one operation. A
typical arrangement of a drum printer involves a large rotating drum mounted horizontally
and positioned in front of a very wide, inked ribbon, which, in turn, is positioned in front of
the paper itself. The drum contains characters moulded onto its surface in columns around
its circumference; each column contains a complete set of characters (e.g. letters and digits
) running around the circumference of the drum. The drum spins continuously at high speed
when the printer is operating. To print a line, hammers positioned behind the paper ram the
paper against the ribbon and against the drum beyond it at exactly the right instant, such that
the appropriate character is printed in each column as it spins past on the drum. Once every
column has been printed, the paper is advanced upward so that the next line can be printed.

7.3.1.2 Non-impact Printers

Unlike impact printers, a non-impact printer forms characters and images without making
direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and the paper. In this printer, the
print head does not make any contact with the paper, and no inked ribbon is required. Ink
can be sprayed against the paper and then heat and pressure are used to fuse a fine black
powder into the shape of a character. The major technologies competing in the market of
non-impact printers are ink-jet and laser.

Some characteristics of non-impact printers are as follows:

They are faster than impact printers because they have fewer moving parts.
They are quieter than impact printers because there is no striking mechanism involved and
only few moving parts are involved.
They possess the ability to change typefaces automatically.
They produce high-quality graphics.
They cannot print carbon copies.

7.3.1.2.1 Ink-jet Printers

The most common type of printer purchased by home users today is the ink-jet printer. An
ink-jet printer is a printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an
image. Being a non-impact printer, it does not touch the paper while creating an image.
Instead, it uses a series of nozzles to spray drops of ink directly onto the paper. Ink-jets were
originally manufactured to print in monochrome (black and white) only. However, the print
head has now been expanded and the nozzles increased to accommodate cyan (C),
magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black (K). This combination of colours is called CMYK. It allows
for printing images with nearly the same quality as a photo development lab using certain
types of coated paper.

Ink-jet printers are costlier than dot matrix printers, but the quality is much better. These
printers can print any shape of character, which a user can specify as they produce printed
output as pattern of tiny dots. This allows the printer to print many special characters,
different sizes of prints and enables it to print graphics such as charts and graphs. Ink-jet
printers typically print with a resolution of 600 dpi or more. Due to the high resolution, these
printers produce high-quality graphics and text printouts. They are also affordable, which
appeals to small businesses and home offices. These printers print documents at a medium
pace, but slow down if printing a document with multicolours. These printers can print about
6 pages a minute and can also be programmed to print symbols such as Japanese or Chinese
characters.

WORKING OF AN INK-JET PRINTER An ink-jet places extremely small droplets of ink onto
the paper to create a character or an image. It has a print cartridge with a small series of
electrically heated chambers. These chambers are attached to the print head with a series
of small nozzles that spray ink onto the surface of the paper. As print head moves back and
forth across the page, the software gives instructions regarding the type and the quantity of
colours. It also instructs the position where the dots of ink should be ‘sprayed’. There are two
main ways to drop the ink droplets: the bubble-jet and piezo-electric technology.

Bubble-jet printers use heat to fire ink onto the paper. There are three main stages with this
method. The squirt is initiated by heating the ink to create a bubble until the pressure forces
it to burst and hit the paper. The bubble then collapses as the element cools, and the
resulting vacuum draws ink from the reservoir to replace the ink that was ejected.

Piezo-electric technology uses a piezo crystal at the back of the ink reservoir. It flexes when
an electric current flows through it. Therefore, whenever a dot is required, a current is applied
to the piezo element, the element contracts and in doing so forces a drop of ink out of the
nozzle.

7.3.1.2.2 Laser Printers

A laser printer provides the highest quality text and images for personal computers today. It
is a very fast printer, which operates on the same principle as that of a photocopy machine.
Most laser printers can print text and graphics with a very high quality resolution. They are
also known as page printers because they process and store the entire page before they
actually print it. They produce sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics, providing
resolutions from 300 to 2400 dpi. Today, the resolution of most printers is 600 dpi. They are
quiet and fast, able to print 4–32 text-only pages per minute for individual microcomputers
and up to 200 pages/min for mainframes. Laser printers can print more than 2000 lines/min.
Furthermore, they can print in different fonts, that is, type styles and sizes. Laser printers are
often faster than ink-jet printers but are more expensive to buy and maintain than the other
printers. The cost of these printers depends on a combination of costs of paper, toner
replacement and drum replacement. These printers are useful for volume printing because
of their speed (Figure 7.14).

Figure 7.14 Laser Printer

WORKING OF A LASER PRINTER The core component of a laser printing system is the
photoreceptor drum. A rotating mirror inside the printer causes the beam of a laser to sweep
across the photoconductive drum. Initially, the beam of laser charges the photoconductive
drum positively. When the charged photo-conductor is exposed to an optical image through
a beam of light to discharge, a latent or invisible image is formed. At the point where the laser
strikes the surface of the drum, it creates a dot of positive charge. These points are
represented by a black dot, which will be printed on the paper. After this, the printer coats
the drum with a container, which contains a black powder called toner. This toner is
negatively charged, and so it clings to the positive areas of the drum surface. When the
powder pattern gets fixed, the drum is rotated and the paper is fed into the drum surface via
a pressure roller. This pressure roller transfers the black toner onto the paper. Since the
paper is moving at the same speed as the drum, the paper picks up the image pattern
precisely. Finally, the printer passes the paper through the fuser, a pair of heated rollers. As
the paper passes through these rollers, the loose toner powder gets melted and fuses with
the fibres in the paper. The paper is then brought out of the printer (Figure 7.15).

Figure 7.15 Working of a Laser Printer

7.3.1.2.3 Hydra Printer

Hybrid document reproduction apparatus (HYDRA) printer, popularly known as all-in-one

printer, is a device that consolidates the capabilities of multiple devices in one machine. It
may include some or all of the devices like printer, scanner, photocopier and fax machine.
Apart from these devices, some hydra printers contain memory card slots, which facilitate
easier printing of photos and also have the in-built wireless capabilities that make sharing of
this printer with other systems easier.

Following are the features that must be considered while evaluating these printers:

Print speed
Maximum resolution
Memory card compatibility
Scanner resolution
Fax speed

Hydra printers are useful for small organizations due to their small size, less space
requirement and cost effectiveness. The costs of these printers depend on the technology
(ink-jet or laser) being used. They save power to a great extent as only one power outlet is
required for performing various operations. They are easy to install and maintain and have
easy-to-use graphical user interface (GUI) that helps the user to understand its functions
easily.
7.3.2 Plotters

A plotter is a pen-based output device that is attached to a computer for making vector
graphics, that is, images created by a series of many straight lines. It is used to draw high-
resolution charts, graphs, blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams and other line-based diagrams.
It is similar to a printer, but it draws lines using a pen. As a result, it can produce continuous
lines, whereas printer can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots.
Multicolour plotter uses different-coloured pens to draw different colours. Colour plots can
be made by using four pens (cyan, magenta, yellow and black) and need no human
intervention to change them.

Being vector-based, a plotter tends to draw much crisper lines and graphics. The lines drawn
by these devices are continuous and very accurate. However, the plotter is considered a very
slow output device because it requires excessive mechanical movement to plot.
Furthermore, it is unable to produce solid fills and shading. Plotters are relatively expensive
as compared to printers, but can produce more printouts than standard printers. They are
mainly used for computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM)
applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts. These are also used with
programs like AUTOCAD (computer-assisted drafting) to give graphic outputs.
7.3.2.1 Types of Plotters

There are two different types of plotters: drum plotter (where the paper moves) and flat-bed
plotter (where the paper is stationary).

Drum Plotter: In drum plotters, the paper on which the design is to be printed is placed
over a drum. These plotters consist of one or more pen(s) that are mounted on a carriage,
which is horizontally placed across the drum. The drum can rotate in either clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction under the control of plotting instructions sent by the computer. In case,
a horizontal line is to be drawn, the horizontal movement of a pen is combined with the
vertical movement of a page via the drum. The curves can also be drawn by creating a
sequence of very short straight lines. In these plotters, each pen can have ink of different
colours to produce multicolour designs. Drum plotters are used to produce continuous
output such as plotting earthquake activity or for long graphic output such as tall building
structures.
Flat-bed Plotter: Flat-bed plotters consist of a stationary horizontal plotting surface on
which the paper is fixed. The pen is mounted on a carriage, which can move horizontally,
vertically, leftwards or rightwards to draw lines. In flat-bed plotters, the paper does not move,
and the pen-holding mechanism provides all the motion. These plotters are instructed by
the computer about the movement of pens in the X-Y coordinates on the page. These plotters
are capable of working on any standard, that is, from A4 size paper to some very big beds.
Depending upon the size of the flat-bed surface, these are used in designing of ships,
aircrafts, buildings and so on. The major disadvantage of this plotter is that it is a slow output
device and can take hours to complete a complex drawing (Figure 7.17).

Figure 7.17 Plotters

7.3.2.2 Working of a Plotter

The heart of the plotter is the printer head assembly, which consists of a horizontal bar and
the pen in use, attached to the head assembly holding. The pen can be positioned
horizontally by moving the pen assembly along the bar. The vertical positioning is achieved
by either moving the bar (flatbed plotter) or the paper (drum plotter). The combinations of
horizontal and vertical movements are used to draw arbitrary lines and curves in a single
action, in contrast to printers, which usually scan horizontally across the page. Plotters
create plots by moving a pen under computer control over a drafting paper. The instructions
that a plotter receives from a computer consist of a colour and beginning and end
coordinates for a line. When an image is to be drawn, a specially designed holder picks up a
pen and takes it over to the start position. The pen is pushed down onto the paper and
dragged over the surface to produce straight or curved lines. If the product is to be in colour,
the pen is replaced with a new pen of different colours, and the process continues until the
image is complete (Figure 7.18).

Figure 7.18 Working of a Flat-bed Plotter

7.3.3 Computer Output Microfilm

Computer output microfilm (COM) is an extremely high-speed, low-cost process, which

records computer-generated information directly from the computer tape or cartridge to a
miniaturized microfilm media. The microfilm product is in fiche or roll format, which can be
duplicated rapidly and inexpensively. This process can produce data in microfilm form at a
highly significant speed from that of a paper printer. The image area of the copy is
dramatically reduced, up to 1/40 of its original size; yet, it retains its original clarity.
Traditional roll microfilm is 16 mm wide, with a film image that is 1/24 of the size of the
original document, often called 24x. Images are normally side by side on the film. Therefore,
a letter size image is a little over 1/3 inch. wide, and a ledger sheet can be well over ½ in..
Some cameras and computer output systems create an image 1/42 or 1/48 of the document
original size, with a few systems using even smaller or larger sizes. A jacket microfilm
(microfiche), plastic sleeves with small pieces of film, represents individual document (cut
from roll microfilm). All the documents for a particular context are placed in a single jacket,
much like a file folder. Each 105 × 148 mm jacket typically has five horizontal rows, with an
opening at the right end of each row, where the film is inserted. Each row can hold 10–15
pages. Microfiche can be indexed to locate necessary information quickly and easily and
have a life expectancy of more than 500 years. To retrieve the images, the microfilm images
may be enlarged on a viewing screen with the help of a microfilm reader for comfortable
reading.

COM results in material, space and equipment savings along with mailing costs and
information retrieval savings. In addition, hard copy prints can be made without loss of
detail, when compared with the original document. It facilitates indexing to access
information. Furthermore, it provides an inexpensive way to preserve records from a variety
of electronic sources. Such records might need to be stored for long periods and referenced
only occasionally. The main disadvantage, however, is that it is expensive to install COM and
microfilms cannot be read without the assistance of a special reader device. Moreover, the
development of secondary-storage techniques such as the use of removable, high-capacity
hard disks had lessened their appeal as output and storage method.

Generally, a COM system is ideal for the applications where there is a large amount of
information to be retained and therefore very useful for manuals, industrial catalogues and
archives. A microfilm output is used for distribution of airline schedules, medical X-rays and
list of books in print. Banking and insurance companies, government agencies, public
utilities and many other types of organizations are regular users of COM.
7.3.3.1 Creating Microfilms

Microfilms can be created in the following ways:

Photographic Process: It is the oldest method of creating microfilms. Essentially, it is a

form of miniature photography, which uses a microfilm camera for producing microfilms.
When the original documents are fed through a microfilm camera, it captures the document
into a reduced-size photo. Once all the photographs are taken, the rolls of films are removed
from the camera for further processing and development. The processed images can be
rolled on film rolls, or cut into sections and loaded to flat microfiche holders.
Non-photographic Process: In this process, the user can entirely avoid the film developing
process. This process uses a monitor and the computer output is read onto the magnetic
tape. After this, the data are printed on microfilm by using a microfilm recorder. Moreover, it
is possible to couple a microfilm machine directly to a computer; therefore, the recorder can
directly receive information from the computer. As the recorder projects the computer
information onto the screen, a high-speed camera photographs the displayed information.
The process of creating microfilm from magnetic tape is illustrated in Figure 7.20.

Figure 7.20 Creating Microfilm from Magnetic Tape

7.3.4 Monitors

The monitor is the most frequently used output device for producing soft copy output. A
computer monitor is a TV-like display attached to the computer on which the output can be
displayed and viewed. The computer monitor can either be a monochrome display or a
colour display. A monochrome screen uses only one colour (usually white, green, amber or
black) to display text on contrasting background. Colour screens commonly display 256
colours at one time from a selection of over 2,56,000 choices. Monitors are available in
various sizes like 14, 15, 17, 19 and 21 inches. Notebook computer screen sizes are usually
smaller, typically ranging from 12 to 15 inches. The larger the size of the monitor, the more
expensive it is. The size of the display is described based on two parameters: aspect ratio
and screen size. Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width of the display screen to the height, that
is, the ratio of vertical points to the horizontal points necessary to produce equal-length lines
in both directions on the screen. Generally, computer displays have an aspect ratio of 4:3.
Like televisions, screen sizes are normally measured diagonally (in inches), the distance
from one corner to the opposite corner.

Sometimes, while watching television, you may notice that the picture looks a bit blurred.
The reason behind this is that the displayed image is not solid, but is created by the
configurations of dots. These dots are known as picture elements, pels or simply pixels. The
golden rule of a sharp image is that the more the pixels, the sharper the picture.

The screen clarity depends on three basic qualities, which are as follows:

Resolution: It refers to the number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions on the
screen. In medium-resolution graphics, pixels are large, whereas in high-resolution graphics,
pixels are small. The average CRT display is currently 800 × 600 or 1024 × 768. The more dots
or pixels, available to create the image, the sharper it will be. Therefore, a resolution of 1024
× 768 will produce sharper images (e.g. smaller icons and more information) than one of 640
× 480.
Dot Pitch: It is the measurement of the diagonal distance between the two like-coloured
(red, green or blue) pixels on a display screen. It is measured in millimetres and common dot
pitches are 0.51, 0.31, 0.28, 0.27, 0.26 and 0.25 mm. Smaller the dot pitch, sharper will be
the image when displayed on the monitor. Generally, a dot pitch of less than 0.31 mm
provides clear images. Multimedia and desktop-publishing users typically use 0.25 mm dot
pitch monitors (Figure 7.22).
Refresh Rate: It is the number of times per second the pixels are recharged so that their
glow remains bright. Normally, screen pixels are made from phosphor. An electron beam
strikes the phosphor and causes it to emit light, resulting in the display of the image.
However, it needs to be refreshed periodically because the phosphors hold their glow for just
a fraction of a second. The refresh rate for a monitor is measured in Hertz (Hz) and varies
from 60 to 75 Hz. A refresh rate of 60 Hz means the image is redrawn 60 times a second. The
higher the refresh rate, the more solid the image looks on the screen, that is, it does not
flicker.

Figure 7.22 Dot Pitch

7.3.4.1 Colour Depth

Colour depth, also referred to as bit depth, refers to the number of bits assigned to each pixel
in the image and the number of colours that can be created from those bits. In simple words,
it refers to the number of colours that a monitor can display. Different colour depths depend
on the amount of display memory dedicated to each pixel. One byte is used to represent 256
colours for each pixel, 16 bits (or 2 bytes) per pixel allows up to 65,535 colours and 24-bit (or
3 bytes) colour can display 16.8 million different colours per pixel. An 8-bit colour is better
known as pseudocolour, 16-bit mode as high colour and 24-bit mode is called true colour. A
video display unit consists of a video card or adapter that is fitted into an expansion slot and
a compatible visual display, which is compatible with the video adapter. The combination of
the display modes supported by the graphics adapter and the colour capability of the
monitor determine the number of colours that can be displayed.

Early personal computing video systems were monochrome, that is, they were capable of
displaying a single colour only with a contrasting background. In 1981, IBM introduced the
colour graphics adapter (CGA). These monitors had four colours and a very low resolution of
320 × 200 pixels, that is, 320 pixels horizontally by 200 pixels vertically. Although, CGA was
adequate for simple computer games such as solitaire and checkers, it was not sufficient
for sophisticated graphics applications. In 1984, IBM introduced the enhanced graphics
adapter (EGA) display, which enabled the monitors to display 16 different colours, with a
resolution of 640 by 350 pixels. This resulted in improved appearance of the display and thus
made it easier to read the text. However, EGA was still not sufficient for high-level
applications. Later on, in 1987, IBM introduced the video graphics array (VGA) display
system. Even today, most computer systems support the VGA standard. Nowadays, the VGA
mode is the lowest common denominator of display modes. Generally, these monitors are
available two types: monitor having 16 colours and a resolution of 640 × 480 pixels and the
other one having 256 colours and a lower resolution of 320 × 200 pixels. In 1990, IBM
introduced the extended graphics array (XGA) display. These monitors provide 800 × 600
pixel resolution in true colour, and 1024 × 768 pixel resolution in 65,536 colours. Nowadays,
most personal computer displays are described as super video graphics array (SVGA)
displays. These monitors have very high resolution. Typically, an SVGA display can support
around 1,60,00,000 colours. Small SVGA monitors usually display 800 × 600 pixels, while the
large monitors display 1280 × 1024 or even 1600 × 1200 pixels (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1 Bit-depths and Colours Offered by Various Video Standards

7.3.4.2 Cathode Ray Tube Monitors

Nowadays, most computer monitors are based on cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. The
basic operation of these tubes is similar to that in television sets. Figure 7.23 illustrates the
basic components of a CRT.

Figure 7.23 Cathods Ray Tube

A beam of electrons (cathode rays) emitted by an electron gun passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct the beam towards specified positions on the phosphor-
coated screen. The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by
the beam. When the electron beam strikes the phosphors, the light is emitted for a short
period of time, and this condition is known as persistence. Technically, persistence is
defined as the time taken by the emitted light from the screen to decay to 1/10 of its original
intensity. Graphics monitors are usually constructed with persistence in the range from 10
to 60 μs. Since the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is needed
for maintaining the screen picture. One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the
picture repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points. This
type of display is called a refresh CRT.

The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a
control grid. Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire,
called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure. This causes electrons to be
‘boiled off’ the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free,
negatively charged electrons are then accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a highly
positive voltage. The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal
coating on the inside of the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating
anode can be used, as in Figure 7.23. Note that sometimes the electron gun is built to
contain the accelerating anode and focusing system within the same unit.

Before reaching the phosphor-coated screen, the electrons have to be passed through the
monitor's focusing system. The focusing system is initially set up to focus the electron flow
into a very thin beam and then in a specific direction. Focusing can be accomplished either
by electric or magnetic fields.

When the electrons in the beams collide with the phosphor coating, their kinetic energy is
absorbed by the phosphor. Some of this energy is converted into heat, while rest of the
energy causes the electrons in the phosphors to move up to the higher energy levels. After
this, when these electrons begin to return to the ground state, they emit light at certain
frequencies. These frequencies are proportionate to the energy difference between the
higher state and the ground state. As a result, the image, which we see on the screen, is the
combination of all the electron light emissions.

7.3.4.2.1 Displaying Graphics on a CRT

Nowadays, two classes of computer graphics displays are used: raster scan and random
scan display.

RASTER SCAN DISPLAY This is the most common type of graphics monitor employed in a
CRT. In this system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from
top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned
ON and OFF to create a pattern of illuminated spots. The picture definition is stored in a
memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer, which holds the set of intensity values
for all the screen points. These values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and ‘painted’
on the screen one row (scan line) at a time. Since raster scan CRTs are capable of storing
intensity information for each screen point, they are well suited for the realistic display of
images containing subtle shading and colour patterns like that in television (Figure 7.24).

Figure 7.24 Raster Scan Display

Intensity range for pixel positions depends on the capability of the raster system. In a simple
black-and-white system, since each screen point is either ON or OFF, it requires only 1 bit
per pixel to control the intensity of the screen positions. When colour and intensity variations
are to be displayed, additional bits are required. Depending upon the resolution of the
system, in high-quality systems, up to 24 bits per pixel are required, which may need several
megabytes of storage for the frame buffer. Hence, a system with 24 bits per pixel and a screen
resolution of 1024 × 1024 requires 3 megabytes of storage for the frame buffer. On a black-
and-white system with 1 bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a bitmap. For
systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred to as a pixmap.

Normally, refreshing on raster scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60–80 frames per
second (i.e., 60–80 Hz). At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left
side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen,
after refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam. At the
end of each frame, the electron beam returns to the top left corner of the screen to begin the
next frame. This is known as vertical retrace. On some raster scan systems, each frame is
displayed in two passes using an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam
sweeps across every other scan line from top to bottom. Then, after the vertical retrace, the
beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines. The interlacing of the scan lines in this way
allows us to see the entire screen displayed in half the time it would have taken to sweep
across all the lines at once from top to bottom. This is an effective technique for avoiding
flicker, provided the adjacent scan lines contain similar display information (Figure 7.25).

Figure 7.25 Raster Scanning

RANDOM SCAN DISPLAY In this system, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the
parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn. Random scan monitors draw a picture
one line at a time and hence they are referred to as vector, stroke-writing or calligraphic
displays. The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random scan
system in any specified order. Refresh rate on a random scan system depends on the number
of lines to be displayed. Picture definition is stored as a set of line drawing commands in an
area of memory referred to as the refresh display file (also known as display list, display
program, or simply refresh buffer). To display a specified picture, the system cycles through
the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all line
drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles back to the first line command
in the list (Figure 7.26).
Figure 7.26 Random Scan Display

Random scan systems are designed for line drawing applications and cannot display
realistic shaded scenes. Since picture definition is stored as a set of line drawing
instructions and not as a set of intensity values for all screen points, vector displays
generally have higher resolution than raster systems. Moreover, vector displays produce
smooth line drawings because the CRT beam directly follows the line path. A raster system,
in contrast, produces jagged lines that are plotted as discrete point sets.
7.3.4.2.2 Colour Display on a CRT

A CRT monitor displays colour pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit
different coloured lights. By combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a
range of colours can be generated. The two basic techniques for producing colour displays
with a CRT are as follows:

Beam Penetration: The beam-penetration method for displaying colour pictures is

commonly used with random scan displays. In this system, two layers of phosphor (usually
red and green) are coated on the inner side of the CRT screen. The displayed colour depends
on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layers. A beam of slow electrons
excites only the outer red layer, while a beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the
red layer and excites the inner green layer. At intermediate beam speeds, the combinations
of red and green lights are emitted to show two additional colours, i.e. orange and yellow.
The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen colour at any point, is controlled by the
beam-acceleration voltage. Beam penetration is an inexpensive way to produce colour in
random scan monitors. However, with this method, only four colours are possible, and the
quality of pictures is not as good as compared to other methods (Figure 7.27).
 Figure 7.27 Beam Prenetration

Shadow Masking: Shadow-mask method is commonly used in raster scan systems because
it produces a much wider range of colours than the beam-penetration method. A shadow-
mask CRT has three phosphor colour dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a
red light, another emits a green light and the third emits a blue light. This type of CRT has
three electron guns, one for each colour dot and a shadow-mask grid just behind the
phosphor-coated screen. Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto
the shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.
When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle,
which appears as a small colour spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the triangles are
arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its corresponding colour dot when it
passes through the shadow mask (Figure 7.28).

Figure 7.28 Shadow Masking

Colour variations in a shadow-mask CRT can be obtained by varying the intensity levels of
the three electron beams. For example, a white (or grey) area is the result of activating all
three dots with equal intensity. Yellow is produced with the green and red dots only, magenta
is produced with the blue and red dots and cyan is displayed when blue and green are
activated equally.
7.3.4.3 Liquid Crystal Display Monitors

In the previous section, we discussed the most popular CRT monitors that are used as the
display devices. With the widespread use of smaller computers like PDAs and laptops, a new
type of display liquid crystal display (LCD) has made a big impact on computer market. The
LCD screens have been used since long on notebook computers but are also becoming
popular as a desktop monitor.

The term liquid crystal sounds like a contradiction. We generally conceive a crystal as a solid
material like quartz and a liquid as water-like fluid. However, some substances can exist in
an odd state, that is, semiliquid and semisolid. When they are in this state, their molecules
tend to maintain their orientation like the molecules in a solid, and also move around to
different positions like the molecules in a liquid. Thus, liquid crystals are neither a solid nor
a liquid. The manufacturers use this amazing ability of liquid crystals to display images.

An LCD screen is a collection of multiple layers. A fluorescent light source, known as the
backlight, makes up the rearmost layer. The light passes through the first of the two
polarizing filters. The polarized light then passes through a layer that contains thousands of
liquid crystal blobs aligned in tiny containers called cells. These cells are aligned in rows
across the screen; one or more cells make up one pixel. Electric leads around the edge of
the LCD create an electric field that twists the crystal molecule, which lines the light up with
the second polarizing filter and allows it to pass through.

The process illustrated in Figure 7.29 is followed for a simple monochrome LCD. However,
colour LCD is more complex. In a coloured LCD panel, each pixel is made up of three liquid
crystal cells. In front of each of these cells, there is a red, green or blue filter. Light passing
through the filtered cells creates the colours on the LCD. Nowadays, nearly every colour LCD
uses a thin-film transistor (TFT), also known as an active matrix, to activate each cell. TFT-
based LCD creates sharp, bright images as compared to previous LCD technologies. The
oldest of the matrix technologies, passive-matrix, offers sharp text but leaves ‘ghost images’
on the screen when the display changes rapidly, making it less than optimal for moving video
(Figure 7.30).
Figure 7.29 Coloured Liquid Crystal Screen

Figure 7.30 Active Matrix LCD

An LCD addresses each pixel individually. As a result, they can create sharper text than CRTs.
However, LCD has only one ‘natural’ resolution, which is limited by the number of pixels
physically built into the display. If you want to move up to, say, 1024 by 768 LCD on an 800
by 600 LCD, you have to emulate it with software, which will work only at certain resolutions.
7.3.4.4 Differences Between LCD and CRT

Although both CRT and LCD monitors are the most frequently used types of displays in
computers, they are worlds apart in terms of importance when making a purchase decision.
Here is a brief discussion of the differences between CRT and LCD monitors.

Size: An LCD is lightweight and compact, which saves desktop space as compared to a
CRT.
Resolution: An LCD is designed to work in a single resolution, while CRT is designed for
many resolutions.
 Pixel Density: Pixel density of LCD is generally not as tight as the dot pitch in CRT, but for
most applications, the density is acceptable.
Brightness: The illuminated phosphor of a CRT is not nearly as bright as what the LCD can
produce with its florescent backlight.
Power Consumption: An LCD consumes significantly less power than CRT and has a low
emission risk. Typically, the LCD consumes approximately half of the power of a typical CRT.
Flicker: With CRT monitors, the aim is to get a faster refresh rate of at least 85 Hz, but LCD
monitors are designed to run at a much slower refresh rate (usually about 60 Hz) and the
flicker is never an issue.
Pixel Response Time: The time taken by a pixel to change its state is called pixel response
time. A CRT has extremely fast pixel response time but an LCD can be quite slow. As a result,
the user might see ‘ghost images’ when there is movement on the screen. The fastest LCD
monitors today have a response time of 25 ms, which is still only about half the speed of a
CRT monitor.
Viewing Angle: A CRT can be viewed at almost any angle, but an LCD is best viewed ‘head
on’. Even when viewing an LCD head on, narrow viewing angles can appear to have
inconsistent colour and brightness.
Viewing Area: The viewing area of a CRT is usually less than its advertised area. Most 19-
inch CRT monitors, for example, typically have about 18 inches of viewable area. However,
the LCD monitors are measured exactly, that is, if an LCD monitor is advertised as 17.4
inches, it is exactly the same size.
Cost: Prices for LCD screens are quite high but they are coming down. They are still much
more expensive than a CRT.

7.3.4.5 Other Types of Monitors

Although CRT and LCD displays are the most commonly used, other kinds of displays also
exist. Some of them are as follows:

Plasma Display: A plasma display (also known as thin-panel) is constructed by filling a gas
(neon or xenon) between the two glass plates. One glass plate consists of vertical
conductors and the other consists of horizontal conductors. When the voltage is applied to
the pair of horizontal and vertical conductors, the gas at the intersection of two conductors
glows. The advantage of plasma display is that it has the capability of producing more than
16 million colours and is lighter and less bulky than CRT. However, it is heavier than LCD
display and requires more power.
Thin-film Electroluminescent Display: This display is similar to the plasma display except
the fact that the space between the glass plates is filled with phosphorescent substance
(usually zinc sulphide doped with manganese) instead of gas. When a high voltage is applied
to the crossing conductors, the phosphoric substance at the intersection of two conductors
becomes conductor and generates the electrical energy. This energy is absorbed by the
manganese atoms and then released as a spot of light. The main problem with thin-film
electroluminescent displays is that they require more power.

7.3.5 Voice Response Systems

In Chapter 6, we discussed that voice (in speech recognition) can be taken as an input by the
computer system. Similarly, the computer can also give output in the form of audio. Voice
response system has an audio-response device, which produces audio output. These
sounds are prerecorded in a computer system. Each sound has a unique code. Whenever an
enquiry is sought from the system, the computer responds in digital form, which is sent to
voice devices that unscramble the digital information and produces sound messages to the
requesting computer.

There are two basic approaches to get a computer to talk to the user. The first is synthesis by
analysis, in which the device analyses the input of a actual human voice speaking words,
stores, and processes the spoken sounds and reproduce them as needed. The process of
storing words is similar to the digitizing process we discussed while considering voice input.
In essence, synthesis by analysis uses the computer as a digital tape recorder. The second
approach to synthesizing speech is synthesis by rule, in which the device applies a complex
set of linguistic rules to create artificial speech. Synthesis based on the human voice has the
advantage of sounding more natural, but is limited to the number of words stored in the
computer.

The standard computer system can provide audio output with the addition of two
components: a speech synthesizer that does the speaking and a screen reading software
that instructs the synthesizer what to say. The synthesizer can be a computer card inserted
into the computer or a software that works with the sound card of the computer. Screen
reader is a software program that allows the user to control the synthesizer so that the user
can access text, which is displayed on the computer monitor, with combinations of
keystrokes. Some screen review software use the standard computer keyboard keys, some
use the numeric keypad and some use special external keypads. A visually impaired user
can use a screen reader to read anything on the screen. The screen reading software can
even notify a user about various computer messages that ‘pop up’ on the monitor from time
to time (Figure 7.31).
Figure 7.31 Audio Output

Voice output has become common in many places like airline, bus terminals, banks and
brokerage houses. It is typically used when an inquiry is followed by a short reply (such as a
bank balance or flight time). Many businesses have found other creative uses for voice
output, for example, the telephone. Automatic telephone voices take surveys, inform
customers that catalogue orders are ready to be picked up and perhaps remind consumers
that they have not paid their bills. Moreover, people with a total or partial speech disability
are faced with the problem of communicating their wishes and needs to others. Speech
output systems are a valuable aid in this case.
7.3.6 Projectors

Projectors have an important place in the history, as their growth led to the first moving
pictures of the late nineteenth century, and soon to television. They have allowed the world
to share greater information pertaining to culture, technology, medicine and community.
Screen image projector is an output device, which is used to project information from a
computer onto a large screen, so that it can be simultaneously viewed by a large group of
people. Projection display is commonly used for classroom training or conference room or
for multimedia presentations with a large audience. Like projectors provide a temporary, soft
copy output.
7.3.6.1 Types of Projectors

There are mainly two types of projectors:

LCD Projectors: LCD refers to liquid crystal display. It is the established technology used
by most of the leading manufacturers. Most of today's LCD projectors contain three separate
LCD glass panels, one each for red, green and blue components of the image signal being
fed into the projector. As light passes through the LCD panels, individual pixels can be
opened to allow light to pass, or closed to block the light. This activity modulates the light
and produces the image that is projected onto the screen (Figure 7.32).
DLP Projectors: DLP stands for digital light processing. It is a proprietary technology
developed by Texas Instruments. It uses a single digital mirror device (DMD) chip that has
thousands of tiny mirrors, each representing a single pixel. These mirrors tilt back and forth,
directing the light either into the lens path to turn the pixel ON, or away from the lens path to
turn it OFF and create the image. DLP is a newer technology than LCD and is used in some
of the smallest, lightest projectors currently available. DLP projectors handle video images
extremely well (Figure 7.33).

Figure 7.32 LCD Projector Display

Figure 7.33 DLP Projector Display

7.3.6.2 LCD Versus DLP

Following are the major differences between LCD and DLP:

 An LCD controls red, green and blue independently through three separate LCD panels. As
a result, the user can adjust the brightness and contrast of each colour channel individually.
In most single-chip DLP projectors, colour is fixed and defined to a large degree by the
physical colour wheel and the colour temperature of the lamp, which changes over its usable
life.
LCD delivers a sharper image than a DLP at any given resolution. However, it does not
mean that DLP is fuzzy. It is just that when a DLP is placed side by side with an LCD, the LCD
typically looks a little bit sharper in comparison.
LCD is more light-efficient. LCD projectors produce significantly higher lumen outputs
than DLP projectors with the same wattage lamp.
The DLP light engine consists of a single chip rather than three LCD panels. Hence, DLP
projectors tend to be more compact.
LCDs are known for their visible pixel structure, often referred to as the ‘screen door’ effect
because it appears as though the picture is being viewed through a screen door. Historically,
LCD technology has not being taken seriously among home theatre enthusiasts because of
this flaw in the image.

Overall, LCD projectors invariably give sharper, clearer data images than DLP units. However,
DLP projectors normally produce smoother video images with less pixelation (an effect seen
when a digital image is enlarged too much and the pixels become obvious), compared to
LCD projectors. Despite the often slightly smaller size of DLP projectors, the better data
quality of LCD projectors means that LCD technology accounts for around 80 per cent of
projector sales. Even so, if a presentation needs extensive use of video, a projector with DLP
technology will be more suited.
7.3.7 Electronic Whiteboard

Electronic whiteboard is an interactive presentation device that works electronically to

display digital images, drawings and text in different colours. The whiteboard is generally
mounted on the wall and is connected to a computer (through USB, serial port or wireless
technology like Bluetooth) and a projector. The projector projects the computer desktop on
the whiteboard and the user can interact with it using electromagnetic pens, fingers or other
pointing devices. The electromagnetic pens can be configured to any colour or width.

Figure 7.34 Electronic Whiteboard

A user can activate programs, applications and menus, as well as can enter text using either
onscreen keyboard or handwriting recognition utility. Nowadays, most whiteboards are
equipped with software that provides various tools and features to create virtual versions of
paper flipcharts with pen, highlighter and so on, which enhance the use of electronic
whiteboard to a great extent. The electronic whiteboard is widely used for various purposes
such as to display presentations, for teaching in classrooms, in corporate meetings,
professional sports coaching and so on.

An interactive electronic whiteboard can be classified into one of the following categories:

Touch-based Whiteboard: A touch-based whiteboard allows the user to use their fingers
or other pointing devices to interact with it. The working on these whiteboards is easy as
anything can be used as a pointer, for example, a stick or a finger, where touch of a finger on
the whiteboard is considered as a left click of the mouse.
Pen-based Whiteboard: A pen-based whiteboard mainly uses an electromagnetic pen that
alters electrical signals produced by the board and does not require batteries or power
source for its operation. When the tip of the pen is pressed to the whiteboard, it results in
activation of switch in the pen, which signifies a mouse click to the computer. These
whiteboards are widely used by professional digital artists and designers as they help in
providing more accurate information.
Wii Remote, IR Pen-based Whiteboard: A Wii Remote, infrared (IR) pen-based whiteboard
works on sound electronic and optical principles. It uses Wii remote control with an IR
camera placed in front of the remote control to track dots of an infrared light, which is
created by an IR pen. These whiteboards have become much popular due to their portability
and reduced cost.

Note: The device driver software installed on the computer enables the whiteboard to act as
a human input device (HID) just like a mouse to help the user with easy interaction.
7.3.8 Headphones and Headsets

Headphone is an audio device equipped with a pair of speakers, which are attached to a
headstrap worn by the users. Headphones are used with almost all electronic devices such
as portable computers, CD/DVD players, mp3 player and iPod. They comprise high-quality
speakers, are light in weight and very comfortable to wear. They can be easily connected to
a computer via a mini stereo plug.

The headphones allow the users to listen only; however, some applications like live chats,
videoconferencing and telecalling services demand the user to speak also at the same time.
For such applications, headset is used instead of headphone. A headset is a combination of
one or two speakers and a microphone with both the speaker and the microphone attached
to a headstrap. The speaker(s) allows the person to hear the conversation and the
microphone allows to communicate with the person on the other end.

7.4 TERMINALS

Computer terminal is a special unit that can perform as both input and output. A terminal is
an I/O device that uses a keyboard for input and a monitor for output. Hence, a terminal is
also known as video display terminal (VDT). The terminals can be categorized into the
following types.

Dumb Terminal: It refers to a terminal that has no processing or programming capabilities.

It is designed to communicate exclusively with a host computer. Usually, it consists of a
screen and keyboard used to access a host computer. It has electronics circuitry enough to
interpret incoming instructions from the host computer, to display characters on the screen,
to interpret keystrokes on the keyboard and pass them onto the host computer. Generally,
dumb terminals are used for simple data entry or retrieval tasks. An example of a dumb
terminal is one used by airline clerks at airport ticket and check-in counters.
Smart Terminal: Smart terminal has built-in processing capability and memory, but does
not have its own storage capacity. In comparison to the dumb terminal, smart terminal can
communicate and retrieve the data and can perform a limited processing of its own, that is,
editing or verification of the data. However, this kind of terminal cannot be used for
programming. They are often found in local area networks in offices.
Intelligent Terminal: An intelligent terminal has memory and in-built microprocessors,
hence also known as user-programmable terminal. This terminal can independently perform
a certain number of jobs without even interacting with the mainframe. Although they are
intelligent terminals, some workstations are designed without disk drives. Due to this, the
restricted data cannot be downloaded or copied.