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Chapter 2

The document discusses the concepts of normal and shear strain in engineering, defining normal strain as the elongation or contraction of a line segment per unit length and shear strain as the change in angle between two originally perpendicular line segments. It outlines the mathematical formulations for calculating these strains, their units, and their significance in engineering applications. Additionally, the document emphasizes that strain is a geometrical quantity that can be measured using techniques such as strain gauges and extensometers.

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mohammad saleem
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10 views

Chapter 2

The document discusses the concepts of normal and shear strain in engineering, defining normal strain as the elongation or contraction of a line segment per unit length and shear strain as the change in angle between two originally perpendicular line segments. It outlines the mathematical formulations for calculating these strains, their units, and their significance in engineering applications. Additionally, the document emphasizes that strain is a geometrical quantity that can be measured using techniques such as strain gauges and extensometers.

Uploaded by

mohammad saleem
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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2.

Strain
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Define concept of normal
strain
• Define concept of shear
strain
• Determine normal and
shear strain in
engineering applications

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 1


2. Strain
2.1 DEFORMATION
• Occurs when a force is applied to a body
• Can be highly visible or practically unnoticeable
• Can also occur when temperature of a body is
changed
• May not be uniform throughout a body’s volume,
thus change in geometry of any line segment within
body may vary along its length

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 2


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Normal strain
• Defined as the elongation or contraction of a line
segment per unit of length
• Consider line AB in figure below
• After deformation, Δs changes to Δs’

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 3


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Normal strain
• Defining average normal strain using εavg (epsilon)

Δs’ − Δs
εavg = Δs
• As Δs → 0, Δs’ → 0

lim Δs’ − Δs
ε= B→A along n
Δs

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 4


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Normal strain
• If normal strain ε is known, use the equation
to obtain approx. final length of a short line
segment in direction of n after deformation.
• Hence, when ε is positive, initial line will
elongate, if ε is negative, the line contracts

ε= lim Δs’ − Δs
Δs’ = (1 + ε) Δs
B→A along n Δs

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 5


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Units
• Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, as
it’s a ratio of two lengths
• But common practice to state it in terms of
meters/meter (m/m)
• ε is small for most engineering applications, so
is normally expressed as micrometers per
meter (μm/m) where 1 μm = 10−6 micron
• Also expressed as a percentage,
e.g., 0.001 m/m = 0.1 %

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 6


2. Strain

Failure strains

Titanium Ti-6Al-4V: 14%


Skin of sea cucumber:70%
Wool: 60% (at 100% relative humidity)
Hair: 20%
Graphite/epoxy (composite material): 1.2%

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 7


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Shear strain
• Defined as the change in angle that occurs
between two line segments that were originally
perpendicular to one another
• This angle is denoted by γ (gamma) and
measured in radians (rad).

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 8


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Shear strain
• Consider line segments AB and AC originating from same point A in a body,
and directed along the perpendicular n and t axes
• After deformation, lines become curves, such that angle between them at A
is θ’

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 9


2. Strain

2.2Shear
STRAINstrain
• Hence, shear strain at point A associated with n
and t axes is
lim π
γnt = B→A along n − Θ’
γnt 2
C →A along t

Θ’

• If θ’ is smaller than π/2, shear strain is positive,


otherwise, shear strain is negative

Θ’ Θ’
ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 10
2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Cartesian strain components
• Divide body into small elements with undeformed
dimensions of Δx, Δy and Δz

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 11


2. Strain

y-z plane

z
Deformed element
y
x
ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 12
2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Cartesian strain components
• Since element is very small, deformed
shape of element is a parallelepiped
• Approx. lengths of sides of parallelepiped
are
Normal deformations:

(1 + εx) Δx (1 + εy)Δy (1 + εz)Δz

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 13


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Cartesian strain components
• Approx. angles between the sides are
π π π
− γxy − γyz − γxz
2 2 2

• Normal strains cause a change in its volume


• Shear strains cause a change in its shape
• To summarize, state of strain at a point requires
specifying 3 normal strains; εx, εy, εz and 3 shear
strains of γxy, γyz, γxz
Note that here the subscripts refers to the
plane of deformation
ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 14
2. Strain

Thermal strain?

Thermal + mechanical strain?

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 15


2. Strain
2.2 STRAIN
Small strain analysis
• Most engineering design involves applications
for which only small deformations are allowed
• We’ll assume that deformations that take place
within a body are almost infinitesimal, so normal
strains occurring within material are very small
compared to 1, i.e., ε << 1.

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 16


2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Loads cause bodies to deform, thus points in
the body will undergo displacements or
changes in position
• Normal strain is a measure of elongation or
contraction of small line segment in the body
• Shear strain is a measure of the change in
angle that occurs between two small line
segments that are originally perpendicular to
each other

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 17


2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
• State of strain at a point is described by six
strain components:
a) Three normal strains: εx, εy, εz
b) Three shear strains: γxy, γxz, γyz
c) These components depend upon the orientation of
the line segments and their location in the body
• Strain is a geometrical quantity measured
by experimental techniques. Stress in body
is then determined from material property
relations

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 18


2. Strain

How to measure strain?

Strain gauge

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 19


2. Strain

extensometer

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 20


2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Most engineering materials undergo small
deformations, so normal strain ε << 1.
This assumption of “small strain analysis”
allows us to simplify calculations for
normal strain, since first-order
approximations can be made about their
size

ã2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 21

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