MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL THEORY OF BIOGENESIS AND ABIOGENESIS

ENGINEERING - Abiogenesis/Spontaneous generation – the idea of life can arise

from non-living material
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY example: mice coming from haystack; flies from rotting meat - -- --
Biogenesis – the idea of life arising from other living organism
MICROBIOLOGY – study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and protozoa. example: cat makes cats

PARASITOLOGY – study of parasites, their host, and the relationship LOUIS PASTEUR
between them. -A key proponent of the Germ Theory of Disease
IMMUNOLOGY – study of immune system that protects us from - He coined the term ‘microbiology’, ‘aerobic’, and ‘anaerobic’
infection
- French chemist discovered pasteurization (used to kill pathogens
BACTERIOLOGY – study of bacteria in many liquids)
MYCOLOGY – study of fungi - Developed vaccines for chicken
PHYCOLOGY – study of algae If you could identify a
microorganism, you could give cholera, anthrax, swine erysipelas
someone a weakened version of and rabies.
HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY it, or vaccine, and the patient
-Showed microbes caused fermentation
taking the vaccine would develop
Miasma theory: diseases were The first Cholera Pandemic: immunity to the real virus. - Developed the earliest effective
caused by foul-smelling airs that The first cholera pandemic emerged vaccine against rabies that was first
came from rotting meats. used to treat a human victim in July 1885 -
out of the Ganges Delta with an
Swamps, and other putrefying
sources. outbreak in Jessore, India, in 1817, Other literatures/scientists regarded him also as Father of
stemming from contaminated rice. The Microbiology
disease quickly spread throughout India, other countries in Asia and
ROBERT KOCH
Europe. The pandemic died out 6 years after it began, 1823-1824.
- German physician that identified causative agents of tuberculosis
The second cholera pandemic began around 1829. The pandemic
(TB), cholera, anthrax, and pink eye (Egyptian ophthalmia).
would die out and reemerge throughout numerous countries for
- Discovered that bacteria can cause disease and proposed a
nearly two decades until it subsided around 1851.
universal method to test this.
How scientist studied cholera?

The third pandemic, stretching 1852-1859, was the deadliest. It

devasted Asia, Europe, North America and Africa, killing 23,000
people in Great Britain alone in 1854, the worst single years of
cholera.

In that year, British physician John Snow, who’s considered one of

the fathers of modern epidemiology, carefully mapped cholera
cases in the Soho area of London, allowing him to identify the source
of the disease in the area: contaminated water from a public well
pump.

WHAT IS CHOLERA?

Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by ingestion of food

or water contaminated with bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Cholera KOCH POSTULATE
remains a global threat to public health and an indicator of inequity ▪ The microbe must always be present in every case of the disease
and lack of social development. ▪ It must be isolated in pure culture on artificial media
▪ When inoculated into healthy animal host it should produce the
WHAT HAPPENS IF YOU GET CHOLERA?
same disease.
Cholera causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. Left untreated, ▪ It must be isolated from the diseased animal again
cholera can be fatal within hours, even in previously healthy people.
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
Modern sewage and water treatment have virtually eliminated
- a Dutch tailor, merchant, and self-made microbiologist, who hand-
cholera in industrialized countries.
fashioned the clever single-lens microscope.
GERM THEORY (LOUIS PASTEUR) - Father of Microbiology, Father of Bacteriology and Father of
“microorganisms known as pathogens or germs can lead to disease” Protozoology
- First person to see live bacteria and protozoa
During his experiments in the 1860’s he proved that food spoiled - First accurately described the different shapes of bacteria
because of contamination by invisible bacteria, not because of (coccal, bacillary and spiral) and pictured their arrangement in
spontaneous generation. Pasteur stipulated those bacteria caused infected material.
infection.
 IMPACT OF MICROBES ON EARTH
• Live in most of the world’s habitats and are indispensable for
normal, balanced life on earth.
• Involved in nutrient production and energy flow.
• Essential to the maintenance of the air, soil and water.
• Microbes are involved in photosynthesis and accounts for >50% of
earth’s oxygen
• Other microbes are responsible for the breakdown and recycling
of nutrients.

HUMAN USE OF MICROORGANISMS

• Called upon to solve environmental, agricultural and medical
problems.
• In bioremediation, microbes are used to clean up pollutants and
wastes in natural environments.
• Biotechnology applies the power of microbes toward the
OTHER SCIENTISTS WHO MADE SIGNIFICANT
manufacture of industrial products, foods, and drugs.
CONTRIBUTIONS IN MICROBIOLOGY

Taxonomy (Gr. taxis, arrangement, and nomos, name)

• Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin - Former student of Robert Koch and
• The science of classification of living organisms
Louis Pasteur who discovered the bacteria that causes plague
• The formal system for organizing, classifying, and naming living
(etiological agent: Yersinia pestis)
things.
• Originated more than 250 years ago when Carl von Linné (1701-
• Edward Jenner - English physician and scientist developed
1778), a Swedish botanist, laid down the basic rules for taxonomic
vaccination techniques against smallpox
categories, or taxa.
• Taxonomy consists of three (3) separate but interrelated areas:
• Joseph Lister - British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery;
introduced sterilization techniques to surgery. “The Father of • Classification – is the arrangement of organisms into
Modern Antisepsis”. taxonomic groups known as taxa or taxon on the basis of
similarities or relationships.
• Martinus Beijerinck - Discovered the first virus (i.e., TMV) as well • Nomenclature (Latin: nomen – name and clare – to call)– is
as nitrogen fixing bacteria, and sulfate reducing bacteria; coined the assignment of names to the various taxa according to
the term virus. international units
• Identification – is the process of determining whether an
• Carolous Von Linnaeus - Father of Taxonomy isolate belongs to one of the established named taxa
or represents a previously unidentified species.
• Alexander Fleming- Scottish bacteriologist Nobel Prize in
Medicine for the discovery of penicillin along with Ernst Chain and • The process of discovering and recording the traits of the
Howard Florey. organisms so that they may be placed in an overall taxonomic scheme

MICROBIOLOGY Levels of classification

- Domain – giant, all-inclusive category based on a unique cell type
- Greek words: Mikros – small; logos – science/study (Eukarya, Archea, Bacteria)
- Study of microorganisms - Kingdom
- A specialized area of biology that deals with living things - Phylum (Gr. phylon, race/tribe) for protozoa, animals and bacteria
ordinarily too small to be seen without magnification or Division for algae, plants and fungi
- Microorganisms – microscopic organisms - Class
- Microbes or germs – terms used for microorganisms in - Order
reference to their role in infection and disease. - Family
Microorganisms include a large and diverse group of microscopic - Genus (L. birth, kind)
organisms that exist as single cells or cell clusters, and the viruses, - Species – the smallest and most specific taxon
which are microscopic but not cellular. Just remember the mnemonics : Did King Philip Come Over For Good
Major Division of Microorganisms: Spaghetti
Prokaryotes – Bacteria & Archaea
Eukaryotes – Algae, Fungi & Protozoa
Major groups of microorganisms:
Bacteria, Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, Viruses, Helminths (parasitic
worms)
MICROBIOLOGY Pathogens (Bacteria)
Example of disease they cause:
• STUDY OF MICROBES
Anthrax, botulism, cholera, diarrhea, diphtheria, ear and eye
infections, food poisoning, gas gangrene, gonorrhea, hemolytic
The two major categories of microbes are called acellular microbes
uremic syndrome (HUS), intoxications, Legionnaires’ disease, leprosy,
(also called infectious particles) and cellular microbes (also called
microorganisms). Acellular microbes include viruses and prions. Lyme disease, meningitis, plague, pneumonia, Rocky Mountain spotted
fever, scarlet fever, staph infections, strep throat, syphilis, tetanus,
Cellular microbes include all bacteria, all archaea, some algae, all
tuberculosis, tularemia, typhoid fever, typhus, urethritis, urinary
protozoa, and some fungi.
tract infections, whooping cough
Microbes that cause disease are known as pathogens. Those that do
not cause disease are called nonpathogens. Disease-causing • Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by gram-
positive, rod-shaped bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis. It
microorganisms are technically known as pathogens (also referred to
occurs naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild
as infectious agents) Actually, only about 3% of known microbes are
capable of causing disease (i.e., only about 3% are pathogenic). Thus, animals around the world. People can get sick with anthrax if
they come in contact with infected animals or contaminated
the vast majority of known microbes are nonpathogens. Some
animal products.
nonpathogens are beneficial to us, whereas others have no effect on
us at all. • Botulism is a rare but serious illness caused by a toxin that
attacks the body's nerves and causes difficulty breathing,
The microbes that live on and in the human body are referred to as
muscle paralysis, and even death. This toxin is made by
our indigenous microflora.
For example, the indigenous microflora inhibits the growth of Clostridium botulinum and sometimes Clostridium butyricum
and Clostridium baratii bacteria.
pathogens in those areas of the body where they live by occupying
• Diphtheria is a serious infection caused by strains of bacteria
space, depleting the food supply, and secreting materials (waste
products, toxins, antibiotics, etc.) that may prevent or reduce the called Corynebacterium diphtheriae that make toxin. It can
lead to difficulty breathing, heart rhythm problems, and even
growth of pathogens.
death.
Some of the microbes that colonize (inhabit) our bodies are known • Plague (black death) is a disease that affects humans and
as opportunistic pathogens (or opportunists). Although these other mammals. It is caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis.
microbes usually do not cause us any problems, they have the There are two main clinical forms of plague: bubonic and
potential to cause infections if they gain access to a part of our pneumonic.
anatomy where they do not belong. • Bubonic plague is transmitted through the bite of an infected
Opportunistic pathogens do not cause disease under ordinary flea or exposure to infected material through a break in the
conditions, but have the potential to cause disease should the skin.
opportunity present itself. • Pneumonic plague affects the lungs and is transmitted when a
For example, a bacterium called Escherichia coli (E. coli) lives in our person breathes in virus particles in the air
intestinal tracts. This organism does not cause us any harm as long
Pathogens(Fungi)
as it remains in our intestinal tract but can cause disease if it gains
access to our urinary bladder, bloodstream, or a wound. Other Example of disease they cause:
Allergies, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, intoxications, meningitis,
opportunistic pathogens strike when a person becomes run-down,
pneumonia, thrush, tinea (ringworm) infections, yeast vaginitis.
stressed-out, or debilitated (weakened) as a result of some disease
or condition • Cryptococcosis is a pulmonary or disseminated infection acquired

O157:H7 E. coli (Escherichia coli (E. coli) by inhalation of soil contaminated with the encapsulated yeasts
Cryptococcus neoformans or C. gattii after it spreads from the
The most important microbe in the intestines of all warm-blooded lungs to the brain.
animals, including humans, is known as Escherichia coli (named for the • Ringworm of the body (tinea corporis) is a rash caused by a fungal
German pediatrician and bacteriologist Theodore Escherich, who infection. It's usually an itchy, circular rash with clearer skin in
discovered the in 1885. These bacteria also inhibit other parts of the middle. Ringworm gets its name because of its appearance.
the body, including the nose and ears. They are essentially harmless, No worm is involved. Ringworm of the body is related to athlete's
unless an anomalous growth occurs. Only one of the strains of E. coli foot (tinea pedis), jock itch (tinea cruris) and ringworm of the
is known to be toxic – the dreaded O157:H7, which can occur in scalp (tinea capitis). Ringworm often spreads by direct skin-to-
undercooked meat and can also be found in improperly treated skin contact with an infected person or animal.
drinking water.
Pathogens (Protozoa)
Example of disease they cause:
Pathogens (algae) African sleeping sickness, amebic dysentery, babesiosis, Chagas’
Example of disease they cause: disease, cryptosporidiosis, diarrhea, giardiasis, malaria,
A very rare cause of infections; intoxications (which result from meningoencephalitis, pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis
ingestion of toxins)
• African Trypanosomiasis, also known as “sleeping sickness”,
is caused by microscopic parasites of the
species Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted by the tsetse fly
(Glossina species), which is found only in sub-Saharan Africa.
Pathogens (Viruses)

Example of disease they cause

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), “bird flu,” certain
types of cancer, chickenpox, cold sores (fever blisters), common
cold, dengue, diarrhea, encephalitis, genital herpes infections,
German measles, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), hemorrhagic
fevers, hepatitis, infectious mononucleosis, influenza, measles,
meningitis, monkeypox, mumps, pneumonia, polio, rabies, severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS), shingles, smallpox, warts, yellow fever

Many microbes are involved in the decomposition of dead organisms

and the waste products of living organisms. Collectively, they are two categories, infectious diseases cause far more illnesses and
referred to as decomposers or saprophytes. By definition, a deaths.
saprophyte is an organism that lives on dead or decaying organic
matter. They break down dead and dying organic materials (plants
and animals) into nitrates, phosphates, and other chemicals
EARLIEST KNOWN INFECTIOUS DISEASES
necessary for the growth of plants
The earliest known account of a “pestilence” occurred in Egypt about
Some microbes are capable of decomposing industrial wastes (oil 3180 BC. This may represent the first recorded epidemic, although
spills, for example). Thus, we can use microbes—genetically words like pestilence and plague were used without definition in early
engineered microbes, in some cases—to clean up after ourselves. The writings. Around 1900 BC, near the end of the Trojan War, the Greek
use of microbes in this manner is called bioremediation, army was decimated by an epidemic of what is thought to have been
The study of the relationships between microbes and the bubonic plague. The Ebers papyrus, describing epidemic fevers, was
environment is called microbial ecology. discovered in a tomb in Thebes, Egypt; it was written around 1500
BC. A disease thought to be smallpox occurred in China around 1122
Microscopic organisms in the ocean, collectively referred to as
BC. Epidemics of plague occurred in Rome in 790, 710, and 640 BC
plankton, serve as the point of many food chains. Tiny marine plants
and in Greece around 430 BC.
and algae are called phytoplankton, whereas tiny marine animals are
called zooplankton.

Many microbes are essential in various food and beverage industries, MICROSCOPES
whereas others are used to produce certain enzymes and chemicals.
The use of living organisms or their derivatives to make or modify A microscope is an optical instrument that is used to observe tiny
useful products or processes is called biotechnology. objects, often objects that cannot be seen at all with the unaided
human eye (the “naked eye”). Each optical instrument has a limit as
Some bacteria and fungi produce antibiotics that are used to treat to what can be seen using that instrument. This limit is referred to
patients with infectious diseases. By definition, an antibiotic is a as the resolving power or resolution of the instrument.
substance produced by a microbe that is effective in killing or
inhibiting the growth of other microbes. The use of microbes in the
antibiotic industry is an example of biotechnology.

Microbes cause two categories of diseases: infectious diseases and

microbial intoxications. An infectious disease results when a
pathogen colonizes the body and subsequently causes disease. A
microbial intoxication results when a person ingests a toxin
(poisonous substance) that has been produced by a microbe. Of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

Simple Microscopes
A simple microscope is defined as a microscope containing only one
magnifying lens. Actually, a magnifying glass could be considered a
simple microscope. Images seen when using a magnifying glass usually
appear about 3 to 20 times larger than the object’s actual size.
During the late 1600s, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used simple
microscopes to observe many tiny objects, including bacteria and
protozoa. Because of his unique ability to grind glass lenses,
scientists believe that Leeuwenhoek’s simple microscopes had a
maximum magnifying power of about 300 (300 times)
Simple microscope contains only one magnifying lens, whereas a
compound microscope contains more than one magnifying lens.

Compound microscope

A compound microscope is a microscope that contains more than one

magnifying lens. Although the first person to construct and use a
compound microscope is not known with certainty, Hans Jansen and
his son Zacharias are often given credit for being the first.
Compound light microscopes usually magnify objects about 1,000
times. Photographs taken through the lens system of compound
microscopes are called photomicrographs.

Total magnification of the compound light microscope is calculated

by multiplying the magnifying power of the ocular lens by the
magnifying power of the objective being used.

This lens can be used to study algae, protozoa, and other large
microorganisms. However, the oil-immersion objective (total
magnification 1,000) must be used to study bacteria, because they
are so tiny. To use the oil-immersion objective, a drop of immersion
Because visible light (from a built-in light bulb) is used as the source oil must first be placed between the specimen and the objective; the
of illumination, the compound microscope is also referred to as a immersion oil reduces the scattering of light and ensures that the
compound light microscope. It is the wavelength of visible light light will enter the oil-immersion lens. The oil-immersion objective
(approximately 0.45 m) that limits the size of objects that can be cannot be used without immersion oil. The oil is not required when
seen using the compound light microscope. When using the compound using the other objectives.
light microscope, objects cannot be seen if they are smaller than half Image clarity depends on the microscope’s resolving power (or
of the wavelength of visible light. resolution), which is the ability of the lens system to distinguish
between two adjacent objects.

The resolving power of the compound light microscope is

approximately 1,000 times better than the resolving power of the
unaided human eye. In practical terms, this means that objects can
be examined with the compound microscope that are as much as
1,000 times smaller than the smallest objects that can be seen with
the unaided human eye. Using a compound light microscope, we can
see objects down to about 0.2 m in diameter.
Additional magnifying lenses could be added to the compound light
microscope, but this would not increase the resolving power. As
stated earlier, as long as visible light is used as the source of
illumination, objects smaller than half of the wavelength of visible
light cannot be seen. Increasing magnification without increasing the
resolving power is called empty magnification. It does no good to Eukaryotic cell structure
increase magnification without increasing resolving power Eucaryotes (eu-true; caryo refers to a nut or nucleus) are so
named because they have a true nucleus, in that their DNA is
CELL STRUCTURE enclosed by a nuclear membrane. Most animal and plant cells are 10
to 30 m in diameter, about 10 times larger than most procaryotic
In 1665, an English physicist named Robert Hooke published a book,
entitled Micrographia, containing descriptions of objects he had cells. Figure 3-2 illustrates a typical eucaryotic animal cell. This
illustration is a composite of most of the structures that might be
observed using a compound light microscope that he had made. These
found in the various types of human body cells.
objects included molds, rusts, fleas, lice, fossilized plants and
animals, and sections of cork. Hooke referred to the small empty
chambers in the structure of cork as “cells,” probably because they
Cell Membrane
reminded him of the bare rooms (called cells) in a monastery. The cell is enclosed and held intact by the cell membrane, which is
also referred to as the plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular membrane.
Structurally, it is a mosaic composed of large molecules of proteins
and phospholipids (certain types of fats). The cell membrane is like
HISTORY OF CELLS a “skin” around the cell, separating the contents of the cell from the
outside world.
Hooke was the first person to use the term cells in this manner.
The cell membrane regulates the passage of nutrients, waste
Around 1838 to 1839, a German botanist named Matthias Schleiden
products, and secretions into and out of the cell. Because the cell
and a German zoologist named Theodor Schwann concluded that all
membrane has the property of selective permeability, only certain
plant and animal tissues were composed of cells; this later became
substances may enter and leave the cell. The cell membrane is similar
known as the cell theory. Then, in 1858, the German pathologist
in structure and function to all of the other membranes that are
Rudolf Virchow proposed the theory of biogenesis—that life can only
found in eucaryotic cells.
arise from preexisting life, and, therefore, that cells can only arise
from preexisting cells. Nucleus
The primary difference between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells is
In biology, a cell is defined as the fundamental unit of any living
organism because, like the total organism, the cell exhibits the basic
characteristics of life. A cell obtains food (nutrients) from the
environment to produce energy for metabolism and other activities.
Metabolism refers to all of the chemical reactions that occur within
a cell. Because of its metabolism, a cell can grow and reproduce. It
can respond to stimuli in its environment such as light, heat, cold, and
the presence of chemicals. A cell can mutate (change genetically) as
a result of accidental changes in its genetic material—the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
that makes up the genes of its The blueprint of life is often
chromosomes—and, thus, can referred to as DNA,
become better or less suited to or deoxyribonucleic acid.
its environment. As a result of
these genetic changes, the mutant organism may be better adapted
for survival and development into a new species (pl., species) of
organism.

Bacterial cells exhibit all the characteristics of life, although they

do not have the complex system of membranes and organelles (tiny
organlike structures) found in the more advanced single-celled
organisms. These less complex cells, which include Bacteria and that eucaryotic cells possess a “true nucleus,” whereas procaryotic
Archaea, are called procaryotes or procaryotic cells. The more cells do not.
complex cells, containing a true nucleus and many membrane-bound The nucleus controls the functions of the entire cell and can be
organelles, are called eucaryotes or eucaryotic cells. Eucaryotes thought of as the “command center” of the cell. The nucleus has
include such organisms as algae, protozoa, fungi, plants, animals, and three components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear
humans. Some microorganisms are procaryotic, some are eucaryotic, membrane.
and some are not cells at all.
Nucleoplasm (a type of protoplasm) is the gelatinous matrix or base
Viruses appear to be the result of regressive or reverse evolution. material of the nucleus.
They are composed of only a few genes protected by a protein coat,
and sometimes may contain one or a few enzymes. Viruses depend on The chromosomes are embedded or suspended in the nucleoplasm.
the energy and metabolic machinery of a host cell to reproduce.
The membrane that serves as a “skin” around the nucleus is called
Because viruses are acellular (not composed of cells), they are placed
the nuclear membrane; it contains holes (nuclear pores) through
in a completely separate category.
which large molecules can enter and exit the nucleus.
Cytology, the study of the structure and function of cells,
“true nucleus” consists of nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a synthesized proteins into mature, functional ones and packages them
nuclear membrane. into small, membrane-enclosed vesicles for storage within the cell or
export outside the cell (exocytosis or secretion). Golgi complexes
Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules and are sometimes referred to as “packaging plants.”
proteins (histones and nonhistone proteins).
Lysosomes
Genes are located along the DNA molecules. Although genes are
sometimes described as “beads on a string,” each bead (gene) is Lysosomes are small (about 1 m diameter) vesicles that originate at
actually a particular segment of the DNA molecule. the Golgi complex. They contain lysozyme and other digestive
enzymes that break down foreign material taken into the cell by
The number and composition of chromosomes and the number of phagocytosis (the engulfing of large particles by amebas and
genes on each chromosome are characteristic of the particular
certain types of white blood cells called phagocytes).
species of organism. Different species have different numbers and
sizes of chromosomes. Human diploid cells, for example, have 46 These enzymes also aid in breaking down worn out parts of the cell
chromosomes (23 pairs), each consisting of thousands of genes. It and may destroy the entire cell by a process called autolysis if the
has been estimated that the human genome consists of between cell is damaged or deteriorating. Lysosomes are found in all
20,000 and 30,000 genes. When observed using a transmission eucaryotic cells. Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles in which
electron microscope, a dark (electron dense) area can be seen in the hydrogen peroxide is both generated and broken down. Peroxisomes
nucleus. This area is called the nucleolus; it is here that rRNA contain the enzyme catalase, which catalyzes (speeds up) the
molecules are manufactured. breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Peroxisomes
are found in most eucaryotic cells, but are especially prominent in
mammalian liver cells
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm (a type of protoplasm) is a semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient Mitochondria
matrix. Within the cytoplasm are found insoluble storage granules The energy necessary for cellular function is provided by the
and various cytoplasmic organelles, including endoplasmic reticulum, formation of high-energy phosphate molecules such as adenosine
ribosomes, Golgi complexes, mitochondria, centrioles, triphosphate (ATP). ATP molecules are the major energy-carrying or
microtubules, lysosomes, and other membrane-bound vacuoles. energy-storing molecules within cells. Mitochondria (sing.,
Each of these organelles has a highly specific function, and all of the mitochondrion) are referred to as the “power plants,” “powerhouses,” or
functions are interrelated to maintain the cell and allow it to properly “energy factories” of the eucaryotic cell, because this is where most
perform its activities. The cytoplasm is where most of the cell’s of the ATP molecules are formed by cellular respiration. During this
metabolic reactions occur. The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm, process, energy is released from glucose molecules and other nutrients
excluding the granules and organelles, is sometimes referred to as to drive other cellular functions. The number of mitochondria in a cell
the cytosol. varies greatly depending on the activities required of that cell.
Mitochondria are about 0.5 to 1 m in diameter and up to 7 m in length.
Many scientists believe that mitochondria and chloroplasts arose from
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) bacteria living within eucaryotic cells
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a highly convoluted system of
Plastids
membranes that are interconnected and arranged to form a
Plant cells contain both mitochondria and another type of energy-
transport network of tubules and flattened sacs within the
producing organelle, called a plastid. Plastids are membrane-bound
cytoplasm. Much of the ER has a rough, granular appearance when
structures containing various photosynthetic pigments; they are the
observed by transmission electron microscopy and is designated as
sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts, one type of plastid, contain a
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). This rough appearance is caused
green, photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are
by the many ribosomes attached to the outer surface of the
found in plant cells and algae. Photosynthesis is the process by which
membranes. ER to which ribosomes are not attached is called smooth
light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into
endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
carbohydrates and oxygen. The chemical bonds in the carbohydrate
molecules represent stored energy. Thus, photosynthesis is the
Eucaryotic ribosomes conversion of light energy into chemical energy

are 18 to 22 nm in diameter. They consist mainly of rRNA and protein Cytoskeleton

and play an important part in the synthesis (manufacture) of Present throughout the cytoplasm is a system of fibers, collectively
proteins. Clusters of ribosomes (called polyribosomes or known as the cytoskeleton. The three types of cytoskeletal fibers
polysomes), held together by a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA), are microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), and
are sometimes observed by electron microscopy. intermediate filaments. All three types serve to strengthen,
support, and stiffen the cell, and give the cell its shape. In addition
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. to their structural roles, microtubules and microfilaments are
essential for various activities, such as cell division, contraction,
Golgi complex,
motility (see the section on flagella and cilia), and the movement of
A Golgi complex, also known as a Golgi apparatus or Golgi body, chromosomes within the cell. Microtubules are slender, hollow
connects or communicates with the ER. This stack of flattened, tubules composed of spherical protein subunits called tubulins.
membranous sacs completes the transformation of newly
Cell Wall replication (Chapter 6) and the formation of a separating membrane
Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls—external structures that and cell wall. All bacteria are procaryotes, as are the archaea.
provide rigidity, shape, and protection. Eucaryotic cell walls, which
Embedded within the cytoplasm of procaryotic cells are a
are much simpler in structure than procaryotic cell walls, may contain
chromosome, ribosomes, and other cytoplasmic particles (Fig. 3-6).
cellulose, pectin, lignin, chitin, and some mineral salts (usually found
Unlike eucaryotic cells, the cytoplasm of procaryotic cells is not
in algae). The cell walls of algae contain a polysaccharide—cellulose—
filled with internal membranes. The cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell
that is not found in the cell walls of any other microorganisms.
membrane, a cell wall (usually), and sometimes a capsule or slime
Cellulose is also found in the cell walls of plants. The cell walls of
layer.
fungi contain a polysaccharide—chitin—that is not found in the cell
walls of any other microorganisms. Chitin, which is similar in Cell Membrane
structure to cellulose, is also found in the exoskeletons of beetles
and crabs. Enclosing the cytoplasm of a procaryotic cell is the cell membrane
(or plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular membrane). This membrane is
Flagella similar in structure and function to the eucaryotic cell membrane.
Chemically, the cell membrane consists of proteins and phospholipids.
Some eucaryotic cells (e.g. , spermatozoa and certain types of
protozoa and algae) possess relatively long, thin structures called Being selectively permeable, the membrane controls which
flagella (sing., flagellum). Such cells are said to be flagellated or substances may enter or leave the cell. It is flexible and so thin
motile; flagellated protozoa are called flagellates. The whipping that it cannot be seen with a compound light microscope. However, it
motion of the flagella enables flagellated cells to “swim” through is frequently observed in TEMs of bacteria.
liquid environments; flagella are said to be whiplike. Flagella are
referred to as organelles of locomotion (cell movement). Flagellated Many enzymes are attached to the cell membrane, and various
cells may possess one flagellum or two or more flagella. metabolic reactions take place there. Some scientists believe that
inward folding of the cell membranes— called mesosomes—are where
Cilia (sing., cilium) cellular respiration takes place in bacteria. This process is similar to
that which occurs in the mitochondria of eucaryotic cells, in which
Cilia (sing., cilium) are also organelles of locomotion, but they tend
nutrients are broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP
to be shorter (more hairlike), thinner, and more numerous than
molecules. On the other hand, some scientists think that mesosomes
flagella. Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa (called
are nothing more than artifacts created during the processing of
ciliates) and on certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., the ciliated
bacterial cells for electron microscopy.
epithelial cells that line the respiratory tract). Unlike flagella, cilia
tend to beat with a coordinated, rhythmic movement. Eucaryotic Chromosome
flagella and cilia, which contain an internal “9 2” arrangement of
microtubules The procaryotic chromosome usually consists of a single, long,
supercoiled, circular DNA molecule, which serves as the control
STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELL center of the bacterial cell. It is capable of duplicating itself, guiding
cell division, and directing cellular activities. A procaryotic cell
Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eucaryotic cells. A
contains neither nucleoplasm nor a nuclear membrane. The
typical Escherichia coli cell is about 1 m wide and 2 to 3 m long.
chromosome is suspended or embedded in the cytoplasm. The DNA-
Structurally, procaryotes are very simple cells when compared with
occupied space within a bacterial cell is sometimes referred to as
eucaryotic cells, and yet they are able to perform the necessary
the bacterial nucleoid
processes of life. Reproduction of procaryotic cells is by binary
fission—the simple division of one cell into two cells, after DNA