A N A P H Y A N D P H Y S I O L O G Y

Muscular System
B Y K R I S T I N C Z A R I N A S . A G A N A
Overview
01
Muscle types: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac

02
Muscle contraction and relaxation

03
Major muscles of the body
What are
muscles?
Why are muscles important?
Muscles control all movement in the body. There
are more than 650 muscles in the human body.
Muscles work together with bones to help you
move. These are important because they allow you
to move, breathe, and pump blood. They also help
you maintain your posture and body temperature.

Movement
Breathing
Blood Circulation
Muscles and skeletons work together to move the
body by attaching to bones via tendons, where the
muscles contract to pull on the bones, creating
movement at joints; essentially, muscles provide the
force to move the body while the skeleton acts as
the framework for that movement to occur upon.

So, when you want to move, your brain sends a

signal to your muscles. The muscles contract, pulling
on the bones via the tendons, and causing
movement at the joints.
 Functions
Voluntary movements: are actions you control.
You choose to perform an action and your muscles
move your body to make it happen. You use your
nervous system to control these movements.

Involuntary movements: Involuntary

movements happen automatically without you
thinking about them. The muscles in and around
your organs move involuntarily to keep your body
working properly.
Muscle tissue
Muscle is one of the four primary tissue types of the body, and the body contains three
types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. All three
muscle tissues have some properties in common; they all exhibit a quality called
excitability as their plasma membranes can change their electrical states (from polarized
to depolarized) and send an electrical wave called an action potential along the entire
length of the membrane.
 Types of Muscles

SKELETAL. CARDIAC SMOOTH

are attached to our bones, are makes up our heart, pumping found in the walls of our internal
the ones we consciously control, blood throughout our lives organs, works behind the scenes
powering actions like walking without our direct command. to manage essential functions
and lifting. like digestion and blood flow, all
on autopilot.
Cardiac
Highly coordinated contractions of cardiac
muscle pump blood into the vessels of the
circulatory system. Similar to skeletal muscle,
cardiac muscle is striated and organized into
sarcomeres, possessing the same banding as

organization as skeletal muscle. However, cardiac muscle fibers are shorter than skeletal muscle fibers and usually
contain only one nucleus, which is located in the central region of the cell. Cardiac muscle cells are rich in
mitochondria, the cellular powerhouses responsible for ATP production. This reflects the high energy demands of the
heart, which constantly works to pump blood. Cardiac muscle fibers cells also are extensively branched and are

connected to one another at their ends by intercalated discs. An intercalated disc allows the cardiac muscle cells to
contract in a wave-like pattern so that the heart can work as a pump
Intercellular Connections: Intercalated
Discs
Pacemaker Cells and Autorhythmicity:
Pacemaker Cells: Specialized cardiac muscle
cells located in the sinoatrial (SA) node of the
heart. These cells are responsible for initiating
and regulating the heartbeat.
Autorhythmicity: Pacemaker cells possess a
unique property called autorhythmicity. This
means they can spontaneously depolarize
(become electrically excited) and generate
action potentials without any external nerve
stimulation. This intrinsic ability sets the basic
heart rate.
Influence of the ANS: While pacemaker cells
are autorhythmic, their activity is modulated
by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The
ANS can increase or decrease the heart rate in
response to various physiological needs (e.g.,
exercise, stress).
Hormonal Influence: Various hormones (e.g.,
epinephrine) can also influence heart rate and
contractility.
Smooth
Smooth muscle is found in the walls of
hollow organs (visceral organs) and
passageways throughout the body.
Examples include:

Digestive tract (stomach, intestines)

Urinary tract (bladder)
Reproductive tract (uterus)
Respiratory tract
Blood vessels (arteries, veins)
Eyes (iris, lens)
Skin (arrector pili muscles)
Layers Longitudinal layer – This word starts
with “long,” and that will help you
remember that these cells run along
the length of the organ as the
outermost smooth muscle layer,
helping it become shorter during
contraction.
Circular layer – This layer is deep to
the longitudinal layer and runs in a
perpendicular direction to it, forming
around the organ’s circumference,
hence the word “circular.” This layer
narrows (or constricts) the organ
during contraction.
Oblique layer – The stomach is unique
in that it has a 3rd layer of smooth
muscle, an oblique layer, which helps
break down food before it reaches the
intestines.
Structure
Structure
types of smooth muscles:

Single-Unit Smooth Muscle (Visceral Muscle): Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle:

Found in the walls of most internal organs, Found in areas that require fine motor control,
including the digestive tract and uterus like the iris of the eye and the airways of the
Cells are connected by gap junctions, which lungs
allow them to contract in a synchronous pattern Cells contract and relax individually, without
Produces slow and steady contractions that spreading contraction to other cells
move substances through hollow organs Stimulated by autonomic nerves or hormones,
Has a stress-relaxation response that prevents but not by stretching
organs from emptying prematurely
Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy:

Hypertrophy: Smooth muscle cells can

increase in size (hypertrophy), similar to
skeletal and cardiac muscle.

Hyperplasia: Unlike skeletal and cardiac

muscle, smooth muscle can also undergo
hyperplasia, which is an increase in the number
of cells. This is particularly important in the
uterus, where smooth muscle cells proliferate
in response to hormonal changes during
puberty and pregnancy.
Skeletal
Skeletal muscles are vital for much more than just
movement. They also play key roles in stability, protection,
and temperature regulation. They allow us to move, but also
control movement, maintaining posture and preventing
excess motion in joints. They protect internal organs,
particularly in the abdomen and pelvis, acting as a barrier
and supporting their weight. Skeletal muscles also control
openings in the body, enabling voluntary actions like
swallowing. Finally, they contribute to homeostasis by
generating heat through muscle contraction, which is
especially important during exercise or in cold conditions
(shivering).
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
The Sarcomere
Skeletal muscle's striped look comes from
organized sarcomeres, the basic units of muscle
contraction. Sarcomeres, bordered by Z-discs,
contain actin (thin) filaments anchored to the Z-
discs and myosin (thick) filaments in the center.
Actin and myosin interacting cause contraction.
Many sarcomeres form a myofibril, running the
muscle fiber's length. Myofibril contraction
shortens the fiber. Many myofibrils pack a
muscle fiber.
Development and Regeneration of Muscle
Tissue
Muscle tissue development, also known as myogenesis is a complex process that begins
during embryonic development and continues throughout life.

Origin:
Muscle tissue originates from the mesoderm layer during embryonic development, where
cells called myoblasts migrate and fuse to form multinucleated muscle fibers.

Satellite Cells:
In adult muscle, the primary source of regeneration is the satellite cell, a quiescent stem cell
located beneath the muscle fiber membrane.
Development and Regeneration of Muscle
Tissue
Regeneration Process:

Injury: When a muscle is injured, the damaged fibers undergo degeneration, releasing
signals that activate nearby satellite cells.

Inflammation: Inflammatory cells like macrophages arrive at the injury site to clear debris
and secrete factors promoting satellite cell activation.

Proliferation: Activated satellite cells proliferate and differentiate into myoblasts.

Fusion and Maturation: Myoblasts migrate to the damaged area and fuse with existing
muscle fibers or with each other to form new muscle fibers.

Remodeling: The newly formed muscle fibers undergo maturation and remodeling to
restore function.
Feature Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Appearance Striated Striated Smooth

Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

Location Attached to bones Heart organs

Various organ
Function Movement, posture Pumping blood
functions

Long, cylindrical, Branched, typically Spindle-shaped,

Cell structure
multinucleated single nucleus single nucleus

Fast, powerful, Rhythmic, powerful,

Contraction Slow, sustained
fatigues easily fatigue-resistant
Muscle
contraction
and
relaxation
 Muscle pairs
are muscles that work together to move the body. They are often opposing pairs, such
as the biceps and triceps in the upper arm.

How muscle pairs work

Muscles can only pull, not push.
One muscle in the pair contracts
to move the body part.
The other muscle in the pair
contracts to return the body part
to its original position.
Types of muscle contraction and relaxation:
Isometric contraction:
This occurs when a muscle contracts without changing
its length, like when gripping an object without moving
it; common in hand muscles.

Isotonic contraction:
This type of contraction involves muscle length
changing while generating force, further divided into
concentric and eccentric contractions.

Concentric contraction:
During a concentric contraction, the muscle shortens
while generating force, like when lifting a weight.

Eccentric contraction:
An eccentric contraction occurs when a muscle
lengthens while under tension, like when slowly
lowering a weight.
Components Involved in Muscle
Contraction
Motor Neuron: Delivers the signal (ACh) to initiate contraction.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Neurotransmitter that triggers muscle fiber depolarization.
Sarcolemma: Muscle fiber's membrane.
T-tubules: Invaginations of the sarcolemma that transmit the action potential deep into
the muscle fiber.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): Stores calcium ions (Ca++).
Calcium Ions (Ca++): Trigger muscle contraction by binding to troponin.
Troponin: Protein that, when bound to Ca++, moves tropomyosin away from actin binding
sites.
Tropomyosin: Protein that covers actin binding sites, preventing myosin from binding.
Actin: Thin filament protein with binding sites for myosin.
Myosin: Thick filament protein with heads that bind to actin (cross-bridges).
ATP: Energy source for muscle contraction and relaxation.
Sliding Filament Model:
The Neuromuscular Junction
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the connection between a motor nerve and a muscle fiber. It's where
electrical impulses from the motor nerve are converted into action potentials in the muscle.
How Muscles Contract:
How Muscles Contract:
How Muscles Relax:
How Muscles Relax:
T-tubules and their role:
T-tubules (transverse tubules) are unique, tube-like invaginations of the sarcolemma (muscle
cell membrane) that penetrate deep into the sarcoplasm (muscle cell's cytoplasm). Found in
striated muscle cells (both skeletal and cardiac), their crucial role is to rapidly transmit the
action potential (electrical signal from the brain or nervous system) from the sarcolemma
throughout the interior of the muscle fiber.

This ensures simultaneous delivery of the

contraction signal to all parts of the cell,
triggering the release of calcium ions
(Ca++) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
and ultimately leading to a coordinated
and powerful muscle contraction. This
entire process, linking the electrical
excitation to the mechanical contraction,
is known as excitation-contraction
coupling.
Muscle Strength
You're born with a set number of skeletal muscle
fibers. Muscle strength comes from the amount
of protein (myofibrils and sarcomeres) inside
those fibers. Things like hormones, stress, and
steroids can make these proteins increase
(hypertrophy), making muscles bigger and
stronger. Lack of use causes the opposite
(atrophy), where the protein disappears, making
muscles weaker and smaller. This is why muscles
shrink in a cast or with diseases like polio. The
number of muscle fibers, however, doesn't
change.
Muscle Strength
Key points about muscle contraction and relaxation:

Mechanism:
Muscle contraction occurs when calcium ions are released within the muscle fiber, which
allows the myosin protein to bind to actin filaments and slide past each other, causing
the muscle to shorten.

Role of the nervous system:

A signal from the nervous system triggers the release of acetylcholine at the
neuromuscular junction, which initiates the process of muscle contraction.

Relaxation phase:
When the nerve signal stops, calcium ions are actively pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing the myosin-actin cross-bridges to detach and the
muscle to relax.

Antagonistic muscle pairs:

Muscles often work in pairs, where one muscle contracts while its opposing muscle
relaxes to produce movement in a specific direction.
Major muscles
of the body
Right side: Superficial; left side: Deep(Anterior view)
Right side: Superficial; left side: Deep(Posterior view)
Head anterior and Lateral view
Head Posterior view
 Neck
anterior
view
Neck lateral
view
 Neck
Posterior
view
Shoulder
Upper Arm
Forearm
Hand
Hip and Thigh Muscles
lower leg
Foot
A N A P H Y A N D P H Y S I O L O G Y

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B Y K R I S T I N C Z A R I N A A G A N A