Data communication

Module 2
What do you mean by transmission?
Transmission is the act of transferring something from one spot to another, like a radio or TV
broadcast, or a disease going from one person to another.
A carrier signal is a high-frequency signal that carries information by being modulated onto a
physical quantity, such as voltage or current
Explanation
A carrier signal is an empty signal that contains no information, but is used to carry a signal to a
receiver. The carrier signal is modulated by a message signal, which modifies the carrier wave's
amplitude, frequency, or phase. The modified carrier signal is then transmitted to a receiver.
Characteristics
Carrier signals are electromagnetic waves that can propagate long distances at the speed of
light. They can have any waveshape, but are usually sine waves
Noise
Noise in a computer network is any unwanted signal that can disrupt or distort the transmission
of data signals. It can cause a number of issues, including: Reduced data transfer rate, Signal
attenuation, and Loss of data packets.
There are many different types of noise in data communication, including:
 Intermodulation noise: Occurs when two or more signals interact with each other after
passing through a nonlinear device or medium
 Cross-talk: Occurs when signals interfere with each other electromagnetically
 Impulse noise: A series of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration that can
come from power lines or lightning
 Thermal noise: The random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal
not originally sent by the transmitter
 Induced noise: Comes from sources such as motors and appliances
Noise in wireless networks can be classified as external or internal. External causes include
electromagnetic interference, radiofrequency interference, and environmental factors. Internal
causes include improper grounding and inadequate shielding.
To minimize induced noise, you can:
 Adhere to manufacturer's recommendations and best practices when designing circuits
 Use carefully selected components
  Use best practices in designing the circuit layout
In a computer network, a modulating signal is a signal that alters another signal, such as a carrier
signal, to transmit data over long distances:
Modulating signal
Also known as a message signal, this signal contains the information to be transmitted. It is
usually a low-frequency band signal.
Carrier signal
This signal has a steady waveform with a constant amplitude and frequency. It has a high
frequency, so it can travel faster than the modulating signal.
Modulated signal
The process of changing a carrier signal's properties, such as its amplitude, frequency, or phase,
to add information to it is called signal modulation. Modulation is commonly used in computer
networks, as well as in radio waves and lasers.
Some types of modulation include: Amplitude modulation (AM), Frequency modulation (FM),
and Phase modulation
This is the result of the modulating signal altering the carrier signal. It is a mixture of the two
signals.
Amplitude Modulation or AM, is a modulation technology mainly used for radio carrier wave-
based message transmission which modifies the carrier wave's amplitude (signal intensity) in
accordance with the message signal, such as an audio signal, i.e., a modulating signal.
What is Amplitude Modulation?
Amplitude modulation, or AM, is a modulation technology mainly used for radio carrier wave-
based message transmission. Amplitude modulation modifies the carrier wave's amplitude
(signal intensity) in accordance with the message signal, such as an audio signal, i.e., a
modulating signal. The mechanism of AM can be:
 A complex interaction between modulating waves and carrier signals is the basis of AM.
 By means of a rigorous modulation procedure, information is encoded for transmission
by the carrier wave's amplitude, which experiences minute variations in response to the
modulating signal.
 Demodulation techniques use complex circuitry to accurately detect and amplify the
modulating waveform; these techniques are crucial for recovering the original signal
from AM transmissions.
  In simple terms, AM works by altering the height/magnitude of the carrier wave to match
the information we want to send, then changing it back at the other end to hear or see the
message.
Historical Overview
Amplitude modulation, known as AM, emerged as one of the initial modulation techniques
employed for transmitting data via radio waves. It was developed during the 20th century as a
result of the radiotelephone experiments conducted by Landell de Moura and Reginald
Fessenden in the 1900s. Following multiple successful trials, this modulation method was further
refined and implemented in electronic communication systems and has been a great boon to the
field of telecommunications ever since. The history of AM, from when it started to when it
became a normal part of electronic communication, shows big improvements and new ideas in
technology.
Why Do We Need Modulation?
In the current world it is not necessary to have wired connection to every communication device.
Within minutes, signals, messages, and information can be sent across the globe. The modulation
process plays a major role in achieving this.
Modulation enables efficient and reliable communication over long distances, even in the
presence of noise and interference, making it an important component of modern
telecommunications. Here are some of the ways in which modulation plays a crucial role in
modern telecommunications:
High Range Transmission
Modulation is essential for high-range transmission because it allows signals to be sent over long
distances without degradation. In the absence of modulation, signals would quickly weaken over
distance and long-distance communication would become impossible.
The height of the transmitting and receiving antennas should be similar to a quarter of the
wavelength of the frequency being used for efficient communication. Therefore, the minimum
antenna length required for the effective transmission of λ wavelength signals is λ/4.
hmin = λ/4 where λ is the wavelength of the modulating signal
Quality of Transmission
Through the improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio, modulation techniques increase the quality
of transmission. During transmission, noise and interference may reduce the quality of signals,
particularly over crowded frequency bands or noisy channels.
By distributing the signal energy across a larger frequency range, modulation reduces the signal's
sensitivity to noise and interference and enhances the transmission quality overall.
λ = Wavelength of the transmitting signal
  For small λ or high frequency ⇒ Transmission power is high and quality of transmission
is high
 For high λ or small frequency ⇒ Transmission power is small and quality of transmission
is low
Avoiding the Overlapping of Signals
There is a high probability of two different signals transmitted from different transmitting
stations to have the same frequency which in turn causes them to get mixed up or overlap with
one another. This problem requires modulation as a solution to prevent them from getting mixed
up.
We can avoid signal interference by modulating each signal onto a different carrier frequency or
with a different modulation method. This increases the overall efficiency and capacity of the
system by allowing several users to share the same communication channel without interfering
with each other's messages.
Terms Related to Amplitude Modulation
Following terms are related to amplitude modulation:
Carrier Wave
A carrier wave is a pure wave of constant frequency analogous to a sine wave of electronic
signal. It doesn't carry much information itself that we can relate to (such as speech or data).
Modulating Signal
To include speech information or data information to the carrier wave which can be interpreted,
another wave needs to be imposed, called an input signal, on top of the carrier wave. This input
signal is known as the modulating signal.
Modulation
Modulation is defined as the process of superimposing a low-frequency signal which is coined as
the input signal or modulating signal on a high-frequency carrier signal whose data or speech
needs to be interpreted.
Amplitude Phase
Amplitude is the maximum distance from the center line to the peak; phase, on the other hand,
tells us where any particle in a periodic waveform is located and frequency is the number of
waves passing through a given point in a second.
 Amplitude modulation alters the carrier wave's magnitude to convey information, which
is then restored at the receiver to interpret the message.
 In contrast, Frequency modulation adjusts the carrier wave's frequency, allowing data and
speech information to be transmitted via frequency changes.
  Similarly, phase modulation varies the carrier wave's phase to convey data and speech
information. Each modulation technique offers unique methods for encoding and
transmitting information
Amplitude Modulated Waveform
The combination of the modulating signal and the carrier wave produces the amplitude
modulated signal, which is the final waveform as shown in the figure given below.

Expression for Amplitude Modulated Wave

Carrier wave will be generally a high frequency wave and similar to sine or cosine wave and can
be represented as :
C(t)=Ac sinωct ……..(1)
or
C(t)= Ac sin( 2πfc t)
where,
 Ac is the amplitude of carrier wave,
 Sinωc t is phase of carrier wave,
 Fc is frequency of carrier wave
 C(t) is our carrier wave,
Modulating signal is also analogous to a sine or cosine wave and represented as:
m(t)= Am sinωm t ….. 2
or
m(t)= Am sin( 2πfm t)
where
 Am is the amplitude of modulating wave,
 Sinωm t is phase of modulating wave,
 Fm is frequency of modulating signal
 m(t) is our modulating or input signal.
We are now superimposing modulating signal into a carrier wave to interpret the data and speech
information and thus also varying the amplitude of the carrier wave in accordance with the
amplitude of the modulating signal, and hence the amplitude-modulated wave Cm(t) will be:
Cm (t) = (Ac + Am sin ωm t) sin ωc t ………..(3)
This is the general form of an amplitude-modulated wave.
The degree of modulation is given by index of modulation.
From equation (3), we have,
Cm (t) = (Ac + Am sin ωm t) sin ωc t
Taking Ac common in (3), we get
Cm (t) = Ac (1+( Am / Ac sin( ωm t) sin( ωc t)…..4
where
Am/Ac= μ, which is known as modulation index also known as modulation factor, modulation
coefficient or degree of modulation.
Thus modulation index is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal to the
amplitude of the carrier wave.
Modulation Index
Modulation index (μ) is defined as ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal to the
amplitude of the carrier wave. Its mathematical expression and detailed explanation is discussed
later in the article.
Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.
Problem 2
Communication Systems and Modulation
Communication systems are essential for the transmission of information over long distances,
enabling people to exchange messages, data, and signals reliably. Information is encoded,
transmitted, received, and decoded in these systems using a variety of media, including wires,
cables, optical fibers, and wireless channels in the form of electronic signals. They are mainly
carried out in two different ways:
 Analog signal transmission
 Digital signal transmission
An analogue electronic signal can be represented in to form of either cosine or a sine wave:
m(t) = Am sin(ωm t+ )
or
m(t) = Am cos(ωm t+ )
where
 m(t) is the modulating signal
 Am is amplitude of the modulating signal,
 (ωm t+θ) is the phase of the signal
Types Of Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation can be categorized into three main domains:
Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC): In this, the frequency spectrum
of the modulating signal is symmetrically below and above that of the carrier signal. Sidebands
are represented by the incoming information signal's lower and upper frequencies. Higher
frequency components are found in upper sidebands compared to lower sidebands and lower
frequency components in carrier frequencies.
DSBC (Double Sideband with Carrier) transmission
In DSB C transmission, the carrier signal is transmitted along with the message signal. Here, the
carrier generation at the receiving end is not required because the carrier is already present. It is a
major advantage of the DSBC over the suppress carrier transmission. But, it has low efficiency
as compared to the DSBSC transmission.
Here, we will discuss the DSBC modulator, DSBC demodulator, and efficiency.
Let the message signal be m(t) and the carrier signal be ACcosωCt.
The modulation of the two can be represented as:
V(t) = AC [1 + m(t)] cosωCt
The resultant waveforms of the carrier signal, message signal, and the modulation of these two
signals is shown below:
Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

Carrier signal

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating
and carrier signals.
s(t)=m(t)c(t)
⇒s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)
Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.
The following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.  Balanced modulator  Ring modulator
Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two modulators are
arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as
Balanced modulator.
The same carrier signal c(t)=Accos(2πfct) is applied as one of the inputs to these two AM
modulators. The modulating signal m(t)m(t) is applied as another input to the upper AM
modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal m(t) with opposite polarity, i.e., −m(t) is applied as
another input to the lower AM modulator.
Output of the upper AM modulator is
 Ring Modulator
Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.

In this diagram, the four diodes D1,D2,D3 and D4 are connected in the ring structure. Hence,
this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two center tapped transformers are used in this
diagram. The message signal m(t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the carrier
signals c(t) is applied between the two center tapped transformers.
For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1 and D3 are switched ON and the other
two diodes D2 and D4 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied by +1.
For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2 and D4 are switched ON and the other
two diodes D1 and D3 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied by -1.
This results in 1800 phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.
From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are controlled by
the carrier signal. If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series representation of c(t) is
represented as

The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is known as detection or
demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating
DSBSC wave.
 Coherent Detector
 Costas Loop

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.
Following is the block diagram of the coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation. The
resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the desired
message signal.
Let the DSBSC wave be

The output of the local oscillator is

Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally
generated signal in phase. Following is the block diagram of Costas loop.
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is
plotted as shown in the following figure.
In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper sideband
is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while
transmitting the lower sideband.
This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted for
both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.
Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals as
we have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal
 Advantages
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an excellent
frequency stability.

Applications
 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.
 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.
VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated
along with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following
figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper sideband.
A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm Since the VSBSC modulated wave
contains the frequency components of one side band along with the vestige of other sideband, the
bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and vestige
frequency fv.
i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm+fv

Advantages
Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.
 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
 Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.
 Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
 Demodulation is complex.
 Applications
The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.
The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle
Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies
according to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accosθi(t)
Where,
AcAc is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal
θi(t)θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal linearly with
the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.
Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or
message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave
remains constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is zero.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is
 The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is equal to the product
of kf and Am.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of
modulation index β.
Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
 The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.
Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Phase Modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation
(PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
 The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can
take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier
signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is
negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is
ϕi=kpm(t)
Where,
 kp is the phase sensitivity
 m(t) is the message signal

Where,
 β = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAm
 Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.

Problem 1
A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM
generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation,
modulation index, and bandwidth.

Solution
Given, the amplitude of modulating signal, Am=5V
Frequency of modulating signal, fm=2KHz
Frequency sensitivity, kf=40Hz/volt
We know the formula for Frequency deviation as
Δf=kfAm
Substitute kf and Am values in the above formula.
Δf=40×5=200Hz
Therefore, frequency deviation, Δf is 200Hz
The formula for modulation index is
 Generation of WBFM
The following two methods generate WBFM wave.
 Direct method
 Indirect method

Direct Method
This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM. VCO
produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage. This is
similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave is
shown in the following figure.
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog signal.There
can be two cases according to data formatting.
Bandpass:The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a band of
frequencies which can pass the filter.
Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.
When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog
conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog signal, it is called
analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted into
analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three kinds of
digital-to-analog conversions:
There are mainly two types of modulation techniques which are
Analog Modulation
Digital Modulation
Analog Modulation : In Analog Modulation, both carrier and message signals are analogue
waves.
Digital Modulation : In Digital Modulation, only the carrier signal is analogue and the message
signal is in digital form.
Analog waves : Analog waves are those signals which can take an infinite value between two
points.
Digital signals : Digital signals are binary values that can take either logic 0 as in zero volts or
logic 1 as in any other voltage. There are no in-between voltage levels in the digital signal.

Digital Modulation Techniques ?

There are mainly three types in Analog Modulation which are Amplitude Modulation, Frequency
Modulation and Phase Modulation. Here the amplitude, frequency and phase of carrier wave
changes with respect to amplitude of message signal. Whereas in Digital Modulation a process
called as Shift Keying is used.
How do we transmit a bit stream?
Shift Keying means that the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier wave is shifted between
two or more discrete values rather than varying continuously like Analog Modulation. Binary
data requires two discrete levels of amplitude, frequency or phase for modulation called as
Binary Shift Keying. A group of bits can be clubbed together to form M-ary Shift Keying.

There are mainly three types of Digital Modulation techniques. They are :
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying
In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique amplitude
to the carrier wave. There are two types of ASK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary ASK, logic 1 is
associated with certain amplitude of carrier wave e.g. 12V and logic 0 is associated with
different amplitude other than 12V e.g. 0V. In M-ary ASK, a group of log2M bits are considered
together rather than 1 bit at a time and the amplitude level is associated with this group of bits.
For example, in 16-ary ASK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a respective
amplitude. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16 different amplitude levels
are required for modulation. If all such amplitudes are created using a single carrier wave, then it
is called as coherent ASK. If multiple carrier wave each with different amplitudes are used for
modulation then it is called as non-coherent ASK.
Block Diagram of Amplitude Shift Keying
Given Below is the Block Diagram of Amplitude Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital Converter. This
digital signal is then passed to a multiplier which takes two inputs. A sine wave with high
frequency is considered as carrier signal and is multiplied with the digital signal. When symbol
present in the digital signal m(t) gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πft+p) it results in
m(t)Asin(2πft+p).
When m(t) is high, the carrier wave is passed as it is. But when m(t) is logic 0, then the result of
multiplication is 0. Hence ASK wave is generated. However this ASK wave contains abrupt
changes in amplitude which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage. Hence this signal is
passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth usage.
For demodulating, the ASK wave is passed through a multiplier again where the carrier wave is
multiplied again which results in m(t)Asin2(2πft+p). This signal is passed through Low Pass
Filter where the original digital message is received. This digital signal is converted to analog
wave using Digital to Analog Converter.
Frequency Shift Keying
In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique frequency
to the carrier wave. There are two types of FSK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary FSK, logic 1 is
associated with certain frequency of carrier wave e.g. 50MHz and logic 0 is associated with
different frequency other than 50MHz e.g. 25MHz. In M-ary FSK, a group of log2M bits are
considered together rather than 1 bit at a time and the frequency is associated with this group of
bits.
For example, in 16-ary FSK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a respective
frequency. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16 different frequencies are
required for modulation. If all such frequencies are created using a single carrier wave, then it is
called as coherent FSK. If multiple carrier wave each with different frequencies are used for
modulation then it is called as non-coherent FSK.

Block Diagram of Frequency Shift Keying

Given Below is the Block Diagram of Frequency Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital Converter. This
digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two inputs each. A sine wave with
frequency f1 is considered as carrier signal for logic 1 and a sine wave with frequency f2 is
considered as carrier signal for logic 0. These carrier waves are multiplied with the digital
message signal. When logic 1 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πf1t+p) it results in Asin(2πf1t+p) only since the other multiplier gets logic 0 as input
since it is passed through a NOT gate.
When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πf2t+p) it results
in Asin(2πf2t+p) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as input since it is passed through a NOT
gate. Both this signals are added to form FSK wave A[sin(2πf1t+p)+sin(2πf2t+p)]. However this
FSK wave contains abrupt changes in frequency which causes unnecessary high bandwidth
usage. Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth usage.
For demodulating, the FSK wave is passed through two multipliers again where their respective
carrier waves are multiplied again. This signal is passed through two Band Pass Filters out of
which the top BPF allows f1 frequency to pass if logic is 1 and the bottom allows f2 frequency to
pass if logic is 0. The output of both BPF is compared with each other where the output of the
comparator is high if output of BPF1 is greater than output of BPF2 and is low if output of BPF2
is greater than output of BPF1. Hence a digital signal is received at the output of the comparator.
This digital signal is converted to analog wave using Digital to Analog Converter.
Phase Shift Keying
In Phase Shift Keying (PSK), each symbol in the message signal gives a unique phase shift to the
carrier wave. There are two types of PSK, Binary and M-ary. In Binary PSK, logic 1 is
associated with certain phase shift of carrier wave e.g. 90° and logic 0 is associated with different
phase shift other than 90° e.g. 0°. In M-ary PSK, a group of log2M bits are considered together
rather than 1 bit at a time and the phase shift is associated with this group of bits.
For example, in 16-ary PSK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a respective phase
shift. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24), 16 different phase shifts are required
for modulation. If all such phase shifts are created using a single carrier wave, then it is called as
coherent PSK. If multiple carrier wave each with different phase shifts are used for modulation
then it is called as non-coherent PSK.

Block Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

Given Below is the Block Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital Converter. This
digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two inputs each. A sine wave with
phase shift p1 is considered as carrier signal for logic 1 and a sine wave with phase shift p2 is
considered as carrier signal for logic 0. These carrier waves are multiplied with the digital
message signal. When logic 1 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πft+p1) it results in Asin(2πft+p1) only since the other multiplier gets logic 0 as input
since it is passed through a NOT gate.
When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier Asin(2πft+p2) it results
in Asin(2πft+p2) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as input since it is passed through a NOT
gate. Both this signals are added to form PSK wave A[sin(2πft+p1)+sin(2πft+p2)]. However this
PSK wave contains abrupt changes in phases which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage.
Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the bandwidth usage.
For demodulating, the PSK wave is passed through two multipliers again where their respective
carrier waves are multiplied again. This signal is passed through two Band Pass Filters out of
which the top BPF allows the signal with phase shift p1 to pass if logic is 1 and the bottom
allows the signal with phase shift p2 to pass if logic is 0. The output of both BPF is compared
with each other where the output of the comparator is high if output of BPF1 is greater than
output of BPF2 and is low if output of BPF2 is greater than output of BPF1. Hence a digital
signal is received at the output of the comparator. This digital signal is converted to analog wave
using Digital to Analog Converter.
M-ary Encoding
It Involves transmitting of more than two bits simultaneously on the same signal that can help to
save bandwidth by efficiently utilizing the available M-ary ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying):It is
also known as M-ASK or M-FSK,In this multiple amplitude levels are used to represent several
different combinations of bits.Each amplitude level represents a specific pattern of bits which
allows transmission of multiple bits in each signaling interval.
M-ary FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):In this the carrier frequency is shifted to represent
different symbols.It is Similar to M-ary ASK as it allows transmission of multiple bits per
symbol by using multiple frequency shifts.
M-ary PSK (Phase Shift Keying):It involves shifting the phase of the carrier wave to represent
different symbols.By changing the phase of the carrier wave multiple symbols can be represented
each corresponding to a unique bit pattern.
Applications of Digital Modulation Techniques
Military Communication Systems, where security and accuracy of the signal plays a crucial role.
Digital Modulation can provide confidential and error free communication.
Mobile Communication Systems, where the number of users are daily increasing and Digital
Modulation can provide high capacity and less interference. Long distance communication can
be easily done with the help of Digital Modulation.
Digital Broadcasting, Digital modulation techniques are used in digital broadcasting standards
such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), and Terrestrial
Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (T-DMB) for transmitting audio, video, and data content
efficiently.
Radar Systems, In radar systems, digital modulation techniques like phase modulation (PM) and
frequency modulation (FM) are used for transmitting radar pulses and modulating radar signals
to detect and track objects accurately in various applications such as air traffic control, weather
monitoring, and military surveillance.
Advantages of Digital Modulation Techniques
High Immunity to noise: Since the modulated wave consist of finite collection of
amplitude/frequency or phase shifts, changes occurred in above parameters due to noise,
distortion and dispersion is less as compared to difference in amplitude/frequency or phase shift
between two distinct symbols. For e.g. An Amplitude Shift Keyed wave will have higher noise
tolerance since the interference cannot bring 0V i.e. logic 0 to 12V which is representing logic 1.
Hence the demodulated wave at the receiver highly represents the input message signal applied
at the transmitter.
High Security: Since the message signal is digital in Digital Modulation, encryption techniques
can be employed to improve authenticity, confidentiality and integrity of data. After encrypting
the digital message we can proceed with modulation process for transmitting the message. Such
features are not available in Analog Modulation as message signal is of analog type.
Efficient Usage of Bandwidth: By using compression techniques we can reduce the number of
bits of the message signal without affecting the data content in it. Hence if we compress the
message signal and modulate it then it will take less bandwidth as compared to modulating the
original message signal.
High Accuracy of Data: With the help of error detection and error correction techniques we can
find the presence of errors in the demodulated wave at the receiver side and correct it
accordingly to get the original message signal.
High Capacity: We can use Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) instead of Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA) in case of Digital Modulation as frequency or spectrum is
limited and it is not possible to assign certain frequency per user as number of users is quite high
compared to available channels. Hence capacity can be increased by letting the users access the
channel for certain time period one after the other.
Disadvantages of Digital Modulation Techniques
Additional Circuitry: Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) must be connected before modulating
the signal to convert analog message signal to digital signal at the transmitter side and Digital to
Analog Converter (DAC) must be connected after demodulating the signal to convert digital
signal back to analog wave. This can increase the cost of communication system.
Synchronization: For proper detection and demodulation of received signal synchronization is
required. This requires oscillator circuitry which must be present at both transmitter and receiver.
High Power Consumption: While Shift Keying Modulation may consume less power than
Analog Modulation, it still consumes more power as compared to Pulse Modulation techniques
such as PAM, PWM and PPM where the message signal is analog but the carrier is rectangular
wave.
Modulation of a single sideband ( SSB):
Amplification of single sideband refers to the transmission of only one sideband through an
antenna. It has a sideband on either the top or lower half.
Definition: Single sideband modulation (SSB) is an amplitude modulation scheme in which
only a single sideband is transmitted through the channel. It is also known as SSB-SC which is
an acronym for Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier as it allows suppression of one sideband
and carrier completely.
As we know, DSB-SC modulation technique generates an output wave having twice the
bandwidth as that of the original modulating signal. So, in order to avoid doubling factor of
bandwidth in such modulation system, the SSB-SC modulation technique was introduced.
Single sideband modulation technique was adopted, as by suppression of one of the two
sidebands along with the carrier causes no loss of information.

Modulation of the Vestigial Sideband (VSB): It is a solution to the problem of distracting

noises created as a result of bandpass filter not having the capacity to block off frequencies
outside of the cut off zone. In this instance, one of the sidebands ( upper or lower) is transmitted
but a part of the other is not.
The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle
Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies
according to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Ac cosθi(t)
Where,
Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal
θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with
the message signal.
Now, let us discuss these in detail.
Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing following figures.

The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or
message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave
remains constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is zero.

Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is
fi =fc+kf m(t)
Where,
fc is the carrier frequency
kt is the frequency sensitivity
m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi (t) as
⇒2πfi =
⇒ ∫
Substitute, fi value in the above equation.
θi(t)=2π∫(fc+kf m(t))dt
⇒θi(t)=2πfct+2πkf ∫m(t)dt
Substitute, θi(t) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t+2πkf ∫m(t)dt)
This is the equation of FM wave.
If the modulating signal is m(t)=Am cos(2πfm t), then the equation of FM wave will be
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t+βsin(2πfm t))
Where,

β = modulation index =

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is equal to the product
of kf and Am.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of
modulation index β.
Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
 The modulation index ββ is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.
Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index ββ is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located
around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Phase Modulation:- In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in
Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
 So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can
take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier
signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is
negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi
in phase modulation is
ϕi=kp m(t)
Where,
 Kp is the phase sensitivity
 m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is

Substitute, ϕiϕi value in the above equation.

This is the equation of PM wave.

 Where,
 β = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAm
 Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.

Problem 1
A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM
generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation,
modulation index, and bandwidth.

Solution
Given, the amplitude of modulating signal, Am=5V
Frequency of modulating signal, fm=2KHz
Frequency sensitivity, kf=40Hz/volt
We know the formula for Frequency deviation as
Δf=kfAm
Substitute kfkf and AmAm values in the above formula.
Δf=40×5=200Hz
Therefore, frequency deviation, Δf is 200Hz
The formula for modulation index is
Substitute Δf and fm values in the above formula.
β=2002×1000=0.1
Here, the value of modulation index, β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence, it is Narrow Band
FM
The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM wave.
BW= 2fm
Substitute fm value in the above formula.
BW=2×2K=4KHz
Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4KHz