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Edexcel IGCSE Further Pure Your notes

Maths
Binomial Series
Contents
Binomial Expansion
General Binomial Expansion
Applications of Binomial Expansion

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Binomial Expansion
Your notes
Binomial Expansion
What is the Binomial Expansion?
The binomial expansion gives a method for expanding a two-term expression in a bracket raised to a
power

For example ( a + b ) n

You may also see it referred to as the binomial theorem

In this note n will be a positive integer

See the 'General Binomial Expansion' revision note for the general case
To expand a bracket with a two-term expression in it:

Determine what a and b are for your example

Then use the formula for the binomial expansion

⎛ n ⎞ n −1 ⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟
( a + b ) n = a n + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ a b+…+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ a n − rb r + … + b n
1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝r ⎠
⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ in the formula is known as the binomial coefficient
⎝r ⎠
⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ n! n (n − 1) . . . (n − r + 1)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
⎝r ⎠ r !(n − r ) ! r!

n ! ("n factorial") is defined by n ! = 1 × 2 × 3 × . . . × n

⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟
You may also see ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ written as n C
⎝r
r
⎠
⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟
Your calculator should be able to calculate ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for you
⎝r ⎠
Or you can use Pascal's triangle (see the next section)

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To get all the terms

Start with r = 0 Your notes

Then use r = 1 , r = 2 ,... until you get up to r = n

So there will always be n + 1 terms in the full expansion

This version of the binomial expansion formula is not on the exam formula sheet

But it is a special case of the Binomial Series formula for (1 + x ) n which is on the formula sheet

See the 'General Binomial Expansion' revision note

When expanding something like (p + qx ) n you may only be asked to find the first few terms of an
expansion
Check whether the question wants ascending or descending powers of x

For ascending powers start with the constant term, p n

For descending powers start with the term with x , (qx ) n

Choosing a and b appropriately will make it easier to follow the formula above

If you are not writing the full expansion you can either
show that the series continues by putting an ellipsis (…) after your final term
or show that the terms you have found are an approximation of the full series by using the
'approximately equals' sign (≈)
Finding binomial coefficients using Pascal's triangle
Pascal’s triangle is a way of arranging (and finding!) the binomial coefficients
The first row has just the number 1
Each row begins and ends with a 1
Starting in the third row
Each other terms is the sum of the two terms immediately above it

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Your notes

⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟
Pascal’s triangle is an alternative way of finding the binomial coefficients ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (also written n C )
⎝r
r
⎠
It can be useful for finding the values of the coefficients without a calculator

Most useful for smaller values of n

For larger values of n it is slow and prone to arithmetic errors

Taking the first row as corresponding to n = 0 ,

each row gives the binomial coefficient values for the corresponding value of n

within a row the values run from r = 0 to r = n

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e.g. from the 6th row of the table (n = 5 ):

( a + b ) 5 = a 5 + 5a 4b + 10 a 3b 2 + 10 a 2b 3 + 5ab 4 + b 5 Your notes

How do I find the coefficient of a single term?
You may just be asked to find the coefficient of a single term, rather than the whole expansion
Use the formula for the general term

⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ n − r r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ a b
⎝r ⎠
To find a particular power of x term in an expansion
r
Choose which value of you will need to use in the formula

The laws of indices can help you decide which value of r to use:

For (p + qx ) n , to find the coefficient of x 2 let a = p , b = qx and use r = 2

For (p + qx 2) n , to find the coefficient of x 2 let a = p , b = qx 2 and use r = 1

⎛ q ⎞⎟n
For something like ⎜⎜px + ⎟ , you need to consider how the powers will cancel each other
⎝ x ⎠
⎛ q ⎞⎟6 q
E.g. for ⎜⎜px + ⎟ , to find the coefficient of x 2 let a = px ,b = and user r = 2
⎝ x ⎠ x
⎛ 1 ⎞r ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛ 1
n − r ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = x 6 − 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = x 4 ⎜⎜
⎞⎟
Because then x ⎟ = x2
⎝x ⎠ ⎝x ⎠ ⎝ x2 ⎠

There are a lot of variations, so practice is better than trying to memorise formulae for r !

If you know the coefficient of a particular term, you can use it to find an unknown in the brackets
Use the laws of indices to choose the correct term
Then use the general term formula to form and solve an equation

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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Binomial expansion questions can get messy

Use separate lines to keep your working clear Your notes
And always put terms in brackets

Worked Example
Using the binomial expansion, find the complete expansion of (x + y ) 4 .

Use the formula with a = x , b = y and n = 4

r will run from 0 to 4, so there will be 5 terms
⎛4 ⎞⎟ ⎛4 ⎞⎟ ⎛4 ⎞⎟ ⎛4 ⎞⎟ ⎛4 ⎞⎟
(x + y ) 4 = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟x 4 + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟x 3y + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟x 2y 2 + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟xy 3 + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟y 4
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
Now just work out the values of the binomial coefficients
You can use the formula, your calculator or Pascal's triangle

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟
⎜
Note that ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1
⎝ ⎠ ⎝4
0 ⎠
That's why we usually don't bother writing the binomial coefficients for the first and last terms of an
expansion!

( x + y 4 = x 4 + 4 x 3 y + 6 x 2 y 2 + 4 xy 3 + y 4
)

Worked Example
Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x , in the expansion of (3 − 2x ) 5 .

For ascending powers of x we want to start with the constant term

So we want to use the formula with a = 3 , b = − 2x , and n = 5

For the first three terms (constant term, x term and x 2 term) we want r from 0 to 2

Substitute those values into the formula

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⎛5 ⎞⎟ ⎛5 ⎞⎟
(3 − 2x ) 5 = (3) 5 + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (3) 4 (−2x ) + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (3) 3 (−2x ) 2 + . . .
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ Your notes
Find the value of the binomial coefficients and bring the powers inside the brackets
Be careful with the minus signs!

(3 − 2x ) 5 = 243 + (5) ( 81) (−2x ) + ( 10) ( 27) (4x 2) + . . .

Expand the remaining brackets and write down the final answer

( 3 − 2x 5 = 243 − 810 x + 1080 x 2 + . . .

)

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General Binomial Expansion

Your notes
General Binomial Expansion
What is the general binomial expansion?
The general binomial expansion lets us write (1 + x ) n as a binomial series

It is valid for any n ∈ℚ

ℚ is the set of all rational numbers

So n can be negative or a fraction

If n is a positive integer

Then the series has a finite number of terms

For this case see the 'Binomial Expansion' revision note

If n ∈ℚ is not a positive integer

Then the series has an infinite number of terms

I.e. 'it goes on forever'
An exam question will only ask for the first few terms of the expansion
A general binomial expansion is found using the binomial series formula

n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) . . . (n − r + 1) r
(1 + x ) n = 1 + nx + x + ... + x + . . . for x  < 1, n ∈ℚ
2! r!
This formula is on the exam formula sheet
So you don't need to remember it
But you do need to know how to use it

The expansion is only valid for x  < 1

 

This means −1 < x < 1

This is known as the interval of convergence

For values of x inside the interval of convergence

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the (infinite) expansion on the right-hand side of the formula

is exactly equal to the function on the left-hand side Your notes
How do I use the binomial series formula?
Usually you will be asked to expand something in the form (p + qx ) n

But the formula only works if the constant term is a 1

So start by pulling out a factor of p

⎛ ⎛ q ⎞ ⎞n ⎛ q ⎞n
(p + qx ) n = ⎜⎜p ⎜⎜1 + x ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ = p n ⎜⎜1 + x ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ p ⎠⎠ ⎝ p ⎠
⎛ q ⎞⎟n
Then expand ⎜⎜1 + x⎟
⎝ p ⎠
q
Substitute x everywhere that x is in the formula
p
 p 
The interval of convergence becomes  x  < 1
 
 q 

Don't forget to multiply everything by p n again at the end!

Be sure you can recognise a negative or fractional power

The expression may be in the denominator of a fraction

1
k
= (p + qx ) −k
(p + qx )
Or inside a square root
1
p + qx = (p + qx ) 2

Or be written as a more complex root

k
m k m
(p + qx ) = (p + qx )

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Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember the formula is on the formula sheet Your notes
Be especially careful with
negative numbers
subtracting 1 from fractions
Use brackets to separate things out
Don't rush!

Worked Example
1
(a) Expand in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 3 and
9 − 3x
simplifying each term as far as possible.
Start by rewriting using laws of indices
1
1 −
= (9 − 3x ) 2
9 − 3x
Now pull out a factor to make the constant term inside the brackets a 1
1 ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1
− 3 ⎞⎟ − 2
(9 − 3x ) 2 2
= ⎝9 ⎠ ⎜1 − 9 x ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎠
1
1 ⎛⎜ x ⎞−
= ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ 2
3 ⎝ 3⎠
1
⎛ x ⎞−
Now use the binomial series formula to expand ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ 2
⎝ 3⎠
1 x
Use n = and substitute − everywhere that x appears in the formula
2 3

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⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞
1 ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− − 1 ⎟⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − − 1 ⎟ ⎜− − 2 ⎟⎟
⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ − 2 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ x ⎞⎟3 notes
⎛⎜ Your
⎜1 − ⎟ = 1 + ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟ + . . .
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ 2! ⎝ 3⎠ 3! ⎝ 3⎠
⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟
⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ 2 ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎛⎜ x 3 ⎞⎟
=1+ x + ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜− ⎟+ ...
6 2 ⎝ 9 ⎠ 6 ⎝ 27 ⎠
⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 15 ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎜− ⎟ 3
1 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎛⎜⎜ x ⎞⎟⎟ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎛⎜⎜ x ⎞⎟⎟
=1+ x + + − + ...
6 2 ⎝ 9 ⎠ 6 ⎝ 27 ⎠
1 ⎛⎜ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ x 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ x 3 ⎞⎟
=1+ x + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟+ ...
6 ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠
1 1 2 5 3
=1+ x + x + x + ...
6 24 432

1
Now don't forget to multiply by (factorised out earlier) to get the final answer!
3
1 1 ⎛⎜ 1 1 2 5 3 ⎞
= ⎜1 + x + x + x + . . . ⎟⎟
9 − 3x 3 ⎝ 6 24 432 ⎠
1 1 1 1
= + x + x 2 + 1296 x 3 + . . .
5
9 − 3x 3 18 72
(b) Find the interval of convergence for the expansion in part (a).

x
Remember that we used − in place of x when we used the binomial series formula
3
x
We also need to substitute − into the standard convergence interval x  < 1
 
3

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 x 
−  < 1
 3 
  Your notes
1 
x  < 1
3 
1
−1 < x <1
3
−3 < x < 3

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Applications of Binomial Expansion

Your notes
Applications of Binomial Expansion
How can I use the binomial expansion with more complex
expressions?
1+x
You may be asked to find a series expansion for an expression like
3 + 2x
1+x
Rewrite as a product, = (1 + x ) (3 + 2x ) −1
3 + 2x
Find the binomial expansion of (3 + 2x ) −1

1 2 4 2 8 3
(3 + 2x ) −1 = − x+ x − x + ...
3 9 27 81
Note this has only been expanded up to the x 3 term
Multiply that expansion by (1 + x ) and simplify

⎛1 2 4 2 8 3 ⎞
(1 + x ) (3 + 2x ) −1 = (1 + x ) ⎜⎜ − x + x − x + . . . ⎟⎟
⎝3 9 27 81 ⎠
1 2 4 2 8 3 1 2 4 8
= − x+ x − x + x − x2 + x3 − x4 + . . .
3 9 27 81 3 9 27 81
1 1 2 2 4 3 8 4
= + x− x + x − x + ...
3 9 27 81 81
1 1 2 2 4 3
= + x− x + x − ...
3 9 27 81
This is only valid up to the x 3 term

To get more terms we would have to start with more terms for (3 + 2x ) −1

8 4
− x is not the correct x 4 term for (1 + x ) (3 + 2x ) −1 as there are more x 4 terms that were
81
not found

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1 − 2x
Use the same process to find the expansion for something like
2 + 3x Your notes
1
1 − 2x −
Rewrite as a product, = (1 − 2x ) (2 + 3x ) 2
2 + 3x
1
−
Find the binomial expansion of (2 + 3x ) 2

Multiply the expansion by (1 − 2x ) and simplify

How can I use the binomial expansion to estimate a value?
The binomial expansion can be used to find estimates or approximations

When x  < 1 , higher powers of x will be very small

 

So even the first 3 or 4 terms of an expansion can form a good approximation

The more terms used the closer the approximation will be to the true value

Also the closer to zero x is, the better the approximation will be
1
For example, find an approximation for 0 . 96 using the expansion of (1 − x ) 2

Compare the value you are approximating to the expression being expanded
1 1
(1 − x ) 2 = 0 . 96 2
Find the value of x to use by solving the appropriate equation
1 − x = 0 . 96
x = 0 . 04
1
Substitute this value of x into the binomial expansion of (1 − x ) 2

1
1 1
2
(1 − x ) = 1 − x − x2 − . . .
2 8

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1 1
So 0 . 96 ≈ 1 − (0.04) − (0.04) 2 = 0.9798
2 8 Your notes
The true value of 0 . 96 is 0 . 97979589. . .
On the exam this is often used to approximate square roots
It can also be used to approximate other things

8 1
For example approximate the fraction using the binomial expansion of
125 (3 − x ) 3
1 8 1 2
= ⇒ = ⇒ x = 0.5
(3 − x ) 3 125 3−x 5
So substitute x = 0 . 5 into the expansion

Always check that the value of x is within the interval of convergence for the expansion

If x is outside the interval of convergence then the approximation is not reliable

How can I use the binomial expansion with calculus?
A complete binomial expansion is exactly equal to the function it represents
This means that it is valid to differentiate or integrate a binomial expansion

These will always be powers of x derivatives or integrals

1+x
For example, the function f (x ) =
3 + 2x
1+x 1 1 2 2 4 3
We saw above that = + x− x + x − ...
3 + 2x 3 9 27 81
We can differentiate that:

1 4 4
f ' (x ) = − x + x2 − . . .
9 27 27
Or integrate it

⎛1 1 2 4 ⎞ 1 1 2 1
∫f (x ) dx = ∫ ⎜⎜⎝ 3 + 9 x − 27 x 2 + 81 x 3 − . . . ⎟⎟⎠ dx = 3 x + 18 x 2 − 81 x 3 + 81 x 4 − . . . + c
This can be used to find estimates or approximations

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1+x
∫0
0 .5
For example to estimate dx
3 + 2x Your notes
Integrate the binomial expansion (as we just did above)

1+x ⎡⎢ 1 1 2 1 ⎤⎥⎥ 0 . 5 77
∫0
0 .5
dx ≈ ⎢ x +
⎢
⎢ x − x + x 4 ⎥⎥⎥ =
2 3 = 0 . 178240. . .
3 + 2x ⎢⎣ 3 18 81 81 ⎦ 0 432

The true value of the integral is 0.178079...

Always check that any values of x you use are within the interval of convergence for the expansion

This includes the integration limits if you are approximating a definite integral

If any x values are outside the interval of convergence then the approximation is not reliable
How can I find the percentage error of an approximation?
Use the following formula

⎛⎜ v E − v A ⎞⎟
percentage error = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × 100%
vE ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ν E is the exact value

νA is the approximated value

The exact value must be in the denominator!
Percentage errors are usually given as positive values
If the formula gives you a negative value, you can just remove the minus sign
But you will usually get the marks for a correct positive or negative answer

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When substituting values of x into a binomial expansion

Always make sure they are within the interval of convergence

If they are not then you may have made a mistake earlier in the question

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Worked Example Your notes

1 1 1 1
The binomial expansion of is + x + x 2 + . . . , with interval of
9 − 3x 3 18 72
convergence −3 < x < 3 .

1
(a) Use the expansion to estimate the value of , giving your answer as a fraction.
10
Find the value of x you need to use

1 1
=
9 − 3x 10
9 − 3x = 10
3x = − 1
1
x=−
3

That is within the interval of convergence −3 < x < 3 , so we can use it to find approximation

Substitute it into the expansion

1 1 1 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟2 1 1 1 205
≈ + ⎜− ⎟+ ⎜− ⎟ = − + =
10 3 18 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 72 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 54 648 648

1 ≈ 205
10 648
(b) Find the percentage error, to 3 decimal places, of your approximation from the actual value.

⎛⎜ v E − v A ⎞⎟
Use percentage error = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × 100%
vE ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Make sure the exact value is in the denominator!

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⎛⎜ 1 205 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ 10 648 ⎟⎟ Your notes
percentage error = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × 100 = − 0 . 041191 . . .
⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
That is negative because the approximated value is greater than the exact value
Percentage errors are usually given as positive numbers, so remove the minus sign
Round to 3 decimal places

0 . 041 % 3 d . p .
( )

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