PHILOSOPHY OF

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(SOCIAL SCIENCES)

KNTAYYA MARIAPPAN
FKSW, UMS

POSTGRADUATE METHODOLOGY COURSE

CENTRE FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
26 FEBRUARY 2015
STRUCTURE OF PRESENTATION

WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE
PHILOSOHY OF RESEARCH METHODS

WAYS OF KNOWING & HISTORY OF SCIENCE

SOCIAL SCIENCES

SUBJECT MATTERS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

PROBLEMS / LIMITATIONS

VARIOUS METHODS / APPROACHES

 You are in the process of becoming
scholars / scientists

Right Attitude & Commitment towards

knowledge production
 WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE PHILOSOHY OF
RESEARCH METHODS

To make us aware and practice of the way of science in doing

research

Be serious and committed when doing scientific research

Especially when choosing and applying research method/s

The underlying reasons / justification for choosing a certain research
method and not others

To enjoy the freedom in choosing & designing research methods /
to admit the limitation

To make a good social scientists – Attitude & Commitment
 PHILOSOPHY OF
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methods

Ways of doing research / Methods used to do research

Philosophy

Thoughts / Applying rational or logical thinking

Philosophy of Research Methodology

Thoughts that form the basis for various ways of doing
research

Thoughts that justify research methodology

Rationale for using certain methods in research
Scientific ways of producing knowledge

Nature of Realities

Research Questions

Methods

Data

Analysis

Results / knowledge
Science / Social sciences

• Observation-based knowledge
• Often changing / Falsifiable

 SCIENCE – GENUINE KNOWLEDGE /TRUTH

 TO UNDERSTAND / EXPLAIN - THE WAY ANY REALITIES /

PHENOMENON OPERATE

Optimism about Perfectibility of Knowledge and achievement

of progress through intellectual effort

Confidence in discovering causality – the way the natural and

social world operates
Science and Research

NO SCIENCE WITHOUT RESEARCH

Research is the cornerstone of any science

It refers to the organized, structured, and

purposeful investigation

Aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising

human knowledge on different aspects of the
natural /social/human world by someone first hand

Structured attempt at gaining knowledge

What is Research
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen,
and to think what nobody else has thought”
Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
Hungarian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1937

Going beyond personal experience, thoughts,

feelings and opinions
Basis of scientific knowledge
production

Philosophy of Rationalism

Philosophy of Empiricism
SCIENCE : RATIONALISM

Faith in the autonomy of reason /rationalism

Conviction that principles governing nature,

man and society are knowable through
Reasoning- Mind / Thinking is the starting
point

Rene Descartes (CARTESIAN)

“ I THINK, THEREFORE I AM”
Empirical Science/Empiricism

Scientists are more inspired by Newton’s scientific

method of discovery rather than Descartes’
"reason“

Not by abstraction and definition (via reasoning) but

by the method of observation

Based on Facts (Observable facts)

Empirical Science

Newtonian discovery provided a rational

foundation for empirical science

Empirical ways and means of knowledge production

and mathematical confirmation as exemplified by
Newtonian Physics alone became recognized as
‘scientific method.’

Forms of knowledge based on non-empirical ways of

knowing and nonmathematical ways of proving thus
got excluded from science
 Empiricism / Positivism

Application of scientific method in

understanding and explaining social world

Auguste Comte (SOCIOLOGIST)

“Positive philosophy” of science held that ONLY

through objective, scientific method we could
understand and solve society’s problems, and
make progress toward enlightenment
Production of social knowledge
The positivist method / empiricism : (Basic
Assumptions)

Natural = Social (their existence governed by law)

Unity of Science: All sciences must follow the same

rules

Direct observation (Experience) rather than rational
speculation should be the basis of scientific discovery

Observable facts of Social World

The general elements of positivist
philosophy

Methodological: all research should be quantitative, and that only research
which is quantitative can be the basis for valid generalisations and laws

Causality: the aim should be to identify causal explanations and fundamental

laws that explain human behaviour

Operationalisation: concepts need to be operationalised in a way that

enables facts to be measured quantitatively

Value-freedom: the choice of what to study, and how to study it, should be
determined by objective criteria rather than by human beliefs and interests

Independence: the role of the researcher is independent of the subject under

examination

Reductionism: problems are better understood if they are reduced to the

simplest possible elements.
Perfect Observations (?)

Observable facts
Record only what is directly observed with the
senses
Can social scientist free from what their mind says?

Value-free Knowledge:
The researcher must remain free of bias
can social scientists be value-free researcher?
Production of social knowledge

Problems in investigating subject matter that is

‘social’ in nature via Science

Complexity of the subject matter and its

irreducibility (the actual source/cause)

Interrelated phenomena, too many factors may

involve to establish any causal sequence
(The chicken or the egg ? (causality dilemma)

Every social event is unique

Limitations of Social Science

COMPLEXITY OF HUMAN SOCIAL WORLD

Not an orderly cosmos but chaos

David Hume - An empirical study of the nature
of man, reveals not an identical set of motives, ..

Real life experiments are necessary for social

knowledge to evolve as science. The lack of
possibilities to conduct such experiments
prevent the possibility
Laws and ability to generalize
Human Behavior – Impossible ?

‘In physics, it is possible …to formulate laws relating to…

the expansion of metal when heated. From such laws, the
amount of expansion that will occur in particular
circumstances can be predicted. However, when a man
loses his job and becomes depressed, it does not mean
that he will be depressed each time he loses his job, nor
can we say that everyone who loses his job becomes
depressed’ (Parahoo 1997).
 METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
Various research methodology in social sciences need be
employed
Complexity subject matters of social world

Social behaviors, incidents, social problems, social
changes, developments

Individual, organizations, society, social structures,

artifacts

Tangible behaviors & materials, intangible social

meanings

Cultural, historical and situational differences from place

to place
Social World: Multiple Dimensions

Attitudes / Emotional /Perception / Ideas

Culture

Organization

Relationships & Processes
 Social
 Economical
 Political
 Formal
 Informal
Multiple levels and properties

Levels of operation:

Micro (Individual/Interpersonal)

Meso (Organizational and Groups)

Macro (Wider community/ Higher social forces)

Properties

Social actor

Social Organizations

Process/Emergence/ Negotiation

Events and practices

Objective and Subjective elements
Nature of the social phenomena

Variety

Complexity

Absence of universality

Dynamism

Incomprehensibility

Lack of objectivity

Qualitative nature

Difficulty in prediction
Social Sciences: Diversity

Variety of Philosophies & Methodologies

Positivist Science / Empirical / quantitative

Interpretative Science / Understanding of the

meanings / Qualitative

Critical Science / Rationalism

EMPIRICISM & RATIONALISM

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

 Positivism
 Hermeneutics / Interpretivism
 Critical Theory
 Realism
 Feminism

Postmodernism

(Epistemology & Ontology / Aims /Methodology)

 Aims, Approaches & Methods
Aims:

Why & How ? - Explanation (Theory/Law?)

What - Understanding (Social Processes & Meaning)

Approaches:

Quantitative -Using measuring tools
-Statistical Relationship

Qualitative -Observation via direct participation

-Interpretation of Meaning
Methods :

Questionnaires

Interviews

Participation Observation

Quasi –Experimental

Content Analysis
Varieties of Approaches & Methods

Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Methods

Mixed-method research

All research is quantitative, because anything

can be counted - even purely verbal responses,
perhaps after sorting comments into similar
groups.

All research is qualitative, because answers to

even the firmest numeric questions may conceal
a variety of meanings.
The Strategies of Science in Social Sciences

Induction
Observations Empirical Generalizations Theory

Deduction
Theory Hypotheses Observations Testing of
Hypotheses Theory
(Statistical Analysis /significance)
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Interpretivism positivistic

Inductive deductive

Holistic particularistic

subjective centered objective centered

process oriented outcome oriented

anthropological worldview natural science worldview

relative lack of control attempted control of variables

dynamic reality assumed static reality assumed

discovery orientated verification orientated

Exploratory / Understanding Confirmatory/ Explanatory

Choose a quantitative method
when most following conditions apply

The research is confirmatory/explanatory rather than

exploratory

 i.e. this is a frequently researched topic, and (numerical) data from

earlier research is available..

You are trying to measure a trend (almost impossible with

qualitative research)

There is no ambiguity about the concepts being measured,

and only one way to measure each concept
 Choose a qualitative method
when most of these conditions apply

The research is exploratory/ understanding than

explanatory/confirmatory

You have no or very little data existing research data on this
topic.

The most appropriate unit of measurement is not certain
(Individuals? Households? Organizations?)

The concept is assessed on a nominal scale, with no clear
demarcation points.

You are exploring the reasons why people do or believe
something.
Types of Research Orientations

Basic Research

Applied Research

Exploratory Research

Descriptive Research

Explanatory Research

Case Studies
Basic & Applied Research

Social research is often considered to have 2

orientations: applied and basic (or pure)

In reality, these orientations intertwine

Most basic research contributes to our
understanding of the social world

Most applied research is applicable to policy
situations
Basic Research

Focuses on refuting or supporting theories about social life

Source of most new ideas and theories

Theory construction, in particular, can take years of work

Builds these ideas through cycles of research, replication, and revision

Also produces most of the new methods in the discipline

Usually the testing ground for new methods and instruments

Mostly performed & consumed by academics

Some basic research crosses disciplines

A small percentage of this research reaches the mass media and public
 Applied Research

Conducted to address a specific concern or to develop
solution
Types of Applied Research

Evaluation
Evaluates a program—does it work?

Action Research
Research tied to social action and change
Advance causes through public awareness

Social Impact Assessment Research

Estimates the consequences of a planned program
 Exploratory Research

For new or undiscovered topics

Uncovers basic facts about the topic

Formulates and focuses questions for later studies

Suggests directions and feasibility of future

research

Usually focused on the “what,” not the “why”

May not have a specific research question

 Descriptive Research

Presents a picture with specific details of the

situation or behavior

Requires a focused research question/topic

Focuses on “how” and “who” questions

Is necessary for good explanatory research

 Explanatory Research

Focuses on “why”, or the reason a situation or

behavior occurs

Builds on descriptive research, and other

explanatory research

Uses theory & Hypotheses

Time Dimension-Based Research
Some research neglects the element of time, other research focuses
heavily on time

Cross-Sectional

Observations at a limited point in time

Frequently used by social scientists

Although it does not capture time, change, or process, it is often used in
explanatory research

Longitudinal Research

Much more expensive and time-consuming than cross-sectional

Time-series: multiple observations over time of the several units

Panel Study: multiple observations over time of the same units

Cohort Study: multiple observations over time of similar groups
Case Studies

Investigates only one or a few cases but in depth

Data is more varied, detailed and extensive

Just start with research questions

Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal,

generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-
effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on
exploration and description

Can be used to build theory

May be cross-sectional or longitudinal, exploratory,

descriptive or explanatory
Basic form of Research Designs
Main Types of Quantitative Research

Survey

Hypothetical-deductive theory

Descriptive / Correlations

Quasi-experimental

Experimental

Main Types of Qualitative Research

Case Study (presentation of detailed information)

Grounded Theory (inductive method)

Phenomenology (As perceive and understood by human)

Ethnography (everyday life and practices)

Historical (study of past and changes)
Data Collection Methods

Observation

Interviews

Questionnaires

Focus group discussion

Projective techniques
Then What's the Problem?

Lack of real understanding of the scientific

methodology of various methods

Uncritically adopted scientific methodology to study

social phenomenon that may challenge the validity and
reliability of methods used and its consequent results

Blindly applying "standard" data collection and analytic

strategies
WHAT KIND OF SCIENCE
IS SOCIAL SCIENCE?

SOFT SCIENCE OR SLOPPY SCIENCE?

What social scientists must do?

Avoid sloppy practices in the name of doing

research
Be serious in the practices of knowledge
production/ truthful researcher

Social science knowledge, though ‘constructed’,
but it should be constructed scientifically

Know the methods /approaches/strategies
/theories / the nature of subject matters/ and be
critical in your thinking/be objective critically

Pseudo Scholars (‘cut and paste’ knowledge)
AT THE END OF THE DAY

No Study is perfect, however:

Knowledgeable and be skillful

Professionalism & Honest

Committed /Keen observer

Willing to tries new approaches / methods
(creative)

We needs scientific social scientists, not
indoctrinated social scientists.
THANK YOU
WRITING LITERATURE REVIEW
(SOCIAL SCIENCES)

KNTAYYA MARIAPPAN
FKSW, UMS

POSTGRADUATE METHODOLOGY COURSE

CENTRE FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

26 FEBRUARY 2015
 LITERATURE REVIEW

A GENERAL GUIDE

MAIN SOURCE

HART, C. (1998), DOING A LITERATURE
REVIEW: RELEASING THE SOCIAL SCIENCE
RESEARCH IMAGINATION
STRUCTURES OF THESIS / DESERTATION

 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH TOPIC

 LITERATURE REVIEW

 OBJECTIVES/ RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 METHODOLOGY

 RESULTS
A literature review IS NOT a straightforward
summary of everything you have read on the
topic and it is not a chronological description
of what was discovered in your field.

Combines both summary and synthesis

 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHAT IT IS?

AN EXAMINATION OF RESEARCH THAT HAS BEEN

CONDUCTED IN A PARTICULAR FIELD OF STUDY

MORE THAN THE SEARCH FOR INFORMATION, AND

GOES BEYOND BEING DESCRIPTIVE

EVALUATING AND SYNTHESISING AVAILABLE

INFORMATION RELATED TO YOUR STUDY

ALL WORKS INCLUDED IN THE REVIEW MUST BE

READ, EVALUATED AND ANALYSED
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY?

TO INCREASE YOUR KNOWLWDGE OF THE SUBJECT

AREA

HELP REFINE, REFOCUS OR CHANGE THE TOPIC

TO DEMOSTARTE YOUR SCHOLARLY ABILITY:

 ABILITY TO IDENTIFY RELEVENT INFORMATION
 ABILITY TO OUTLINE THE EXISTING THEORY
/KNOWLEDGE
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY?

TO IDENTIFY INFORMATION AND IDEAS THAT

RELAVENT TO YOUR RESEARCH

TO IDENTIFY METHODS THAT COULD BE

RELEVENT TO YOUR RESEARCH

GIVE A THEORETICAL BASE FOR RESEARCH

AND HELP YOU DETERMINE THE NATURE OF
YOUR RESEARCH
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY?

ILLUSTRATE HOW THE SUBJECT HAS BEEN
STUDIED PREVIOUSLY

GIVE READER/EXAMINERS AN OVERVIEW OF

SOURCES YOU HAVE EXPLORE

TO DEMOSTRATE HOW YOUR RESEARCH FITS

INTO THE LARGER FIELD OF STUDY

AVOID DUPLICATION / AVOIDING FROM MAKING

THE SAME MISTAKES AS OTHERS
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY?

POSITIONING YOUR WORK IN THE CONTEXT OF

PREVIOUS RESEARCH

CREATING ‘RESEARCH SPACE’ FOR YOUR

WORK / TO IDENTIFY GAPS IN THE LITERATURE

TO PROVIDE INTELECTUALL CONTEXT FOR

YOUR WORK
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHY?

TO CARRY ON FROM WHERE OTHERS HAVE

ALREADY REACHED / BUILD ON THE PLATFORM
OF EXISTING KNOWLWDGE AND IDEAS

TO PROVIDE RATIONALE / JUSTIFICATION FOR

YOUR STUDY

IDENTIFY KEY CONTACT / TO IDENTIFY OTHER

PEOPLE WORKING IN THE SAME FIELDS /
NETWORKING AMONG RESEARCHERS
QUESTIONS LIT.REVIEW CAN ANSWER
 WHAT YOU NEED TO DO?

READING BROADLY ON THE TOPIC

REFINING TOPIC AND ESTABLLISH THEORETICAL

PERSPECTIVE

IDENTIFY YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION/S

IDENTIFY EXTENT AND QUALITY OF WORK ALREADY

CARRIED OUT IN THE SUBJECT AREA
 WHAT YOU NEED TO DO?

DESCRIBE, SUMMARISE, EVALUATE AND CLARIFY
THESE LITERATURE

READ AND CRITICALLY EVALUATE THE INFORMATION

THAT YOUR LOCATE

PLAN, ORGANISE AND WRITE CRITICALLY ABOUT THE

LITERATUTE

FILE AND STORE YOUR READINGS AND NOTES

ADDING AND REWRITE LITERATURE REVIEW

 STRUCTURING LITERATURE REVIEW

IT IS A SYSTEMATIC WRITE-UP

LITERATURE REVIEW HAS A LOGICAL

AND COHERENT STRUCTURE

THIS STRUCTURE IS CLEARLY APPARENT

TO THE READER
A ‘good’ literature A ‘poor’ literature
review: review:
 is a synthesis of available  an annotated bibliography
research

 is a critical evaluation  confined to description

 has appropriate breadth and  narrow and shallow

depth

 has clarity and conciseness  confusing and longwinded

 uses rigorous and consistent  constructed in an arbitrary way

methods

 Based on scholarly literature  non- scholarly literatures

 WAYS OF STRUCTURING LIT.REVIEW

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
The discussion of the research /articles is ordered
according to an historical or developmental context.

THE ‘CLASSIC’ STUDIES ORGANISATION

A discussion or outline of the major writings regarded as
significant in your area of study. (Remember that in
nearly all research there are ‘benchmark’ studies or
articles that should be acknowledged).
 WAYS OF STRUCTURING LIT.REVIEW

TOPICAL OR THEMATIC ORGANISATION

The research is divided into sections representing the
categories or conceptual subjects or your topic. The
discussion is organised into these categories or subjects.

INVERTED PYRAMID ORGANISATION

The literature review begins with a discussion of the
related literature from a broad perspective. It then deals
with more and more specific or localized studies which
focus increasingly on the specific question at hand.
Some general guidelines

Avoid: To organize Lit Review by author, it is

simply discussing one author at a time

Start with the MOST RECENT and WORK

BACKWARDS to the oldest. Many books
suggest using a five-year span from the present
for sufficient coverage

Look for MAJOR figures in the field and MAJOR

studies/articles
 DISCUSSING & EVALUATING LIT.REVIEW

CRITICALLY EXAMINE THE LITERATURE

ITS NOT JUST LIST WHAT YOU HAVE

LOCATED

MUST LINK THE LITERATURE TO YOUR

RESEARCH QUESTION
 DISCUSSING & EVALUATING LIT.REVIEW

SHOW HOW IT SUPPORTS OR EXTENTDS THE

TOPIC OR EXISTING KNOWLEDGE IN THE AREA

HIGHLIGHT THE STRENGTHS, WEAKNESS OR

ERROR OF THE LITERATURE (DEFINITIONS,
METHODS, DATA..)

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEE N THE LITRATURE MUST

BE IDENTIFIED AND ARTICULATED, IN RELATION TO
YOUR FIELD OF RESEARCH

COULD THE DESIGN OF THE PREVIOUS RESEARCH

BE IMPROVED - How? What?
 MAKE YOUR ‘VOICE’ CLEAR

NOT JUST PRESENTING OTHERS VIEWS OR

AGRUMENTS

YOUR PERSPECTIVE, POSITION OR STANDPOINT (NOT

ONLY IN THE LR, BUT ALSO IN THE THESES AS A
WHOLE)

YOUR THEORETICAL POSITION IS CLEARLY AND

STRONGLY STATED

YOUR LANGUAGE SHOULD INDICATES YOUR

ASSESSEMENT OF LITERETURE

Do NOT just take notes—WRITE AS YOU
READ. This cuts down on 90% of your
workload.

CITE AS YOU GO! You will not have to go
back to examine a source.
Common Errors Made in Lit Reviews

Review isn’t logically organized

Review isn’t focused on most important facets
of the study

Review doesn’t relate literature to the study

Too few references or outdated references
cited

Review isn’t written in author’s own words

Review reads like a series of disjointed
summaries

Review doesn’t argue a point

Recent references are omitted
Plagiarism includes

 Using another writer’s words without proper

citation
 Using another writer’s ideas without proper
citation
 Citing a source but reproducing the exact word
without quotation marks
 Borrowing the structure of another author’s
phrases/sentences without giving the source
 Borrowing all or part of another student’s paper
 Using paper-writing service or having a friend
write the paper
 TYPES OF LITERATURE

PRIMARY LITERATURE

 PREPRINT
 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
 INFORMALY PUBLISHED REPORTS
 JOURNAL ARTICLES
 TYPES OF LITERATURE

SECONDARY LITERATURE
 REVIEW
 BOOKS: EDITED COLLECTIONS
 BOOKS: MONOGRAPHS / SURVEYS

OTHER LITERATURE
 THESES
 REPORTS
 OFICIAL PUBLICATIONS
 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
 SOURCES OF LITERATURE SEARCHING

HANDSEARCHING (BOOKS/ JOURNALS)

REFERENCE LISTS/ FOOTNOTES

PRINTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

WORLD WIDE WEB (e.g. GOOGLE)

DATABASES OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES

LIBRARY CATLOGUES

RESEARCH DATABASES
STAGES IN DEVELOPING A LIT. REVIEW

Selecting the topic

Setting the topic in context

Looking at information sources

Using information sources

Getting the information

Organizing information (information
management)

Positioning the literature review

Writing the literature review
REMEMBER

Start the first draft of your review early in

your first reading; you can build onto it as you
go.

Remember, ‘writing is a messy process’ and

you will be writing many more drafts before
you have a coherent and ‘critical’ account
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THESIS STRUCTURE

1. Introduction

What is the research topic about?

How have you narrowed this down to a
particular topic?
2. Establish Importance

Why is your topic important?
3. Theoretical Base

What are the theories?
4. Literature Review
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THESIS STRUCTURE

5. Objectives & Hypotheses

Is there a clearly stated research question?

Are there hypotheses?

Are they clearly stated?

Are the relationships between the main
variables explicit and reasonable?

Are the hypothesis stated clearly so that they
are easily testable and can results be
interpreted easily?
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THESIS STRUCTURE
6. Methodology

Research design (quantitative / Qualitative)

Concepts and Operationalization

Reliability & Validity

Samples & sampling
7. Results and Discussions

Are the conclusions of the study consistent with the
results of the statistical analyses?

Are alternative conclusions considered?

Are alternative conclusions that are consistent with
the other research discussed and accounted for?
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THESIS STRUCTURE

8. Limitations and Implications

Are both the theoretical and practical
implications of the results addressed and
discussed?

Can you identify any gaps or areas (research
questions) that require further research?

Can you identify any gaps methodologically
that require further testing via research?
 THANK YOU
&
BEST WISHES