AN INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON

THE SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY

By

PHILIP MAWANGA

DISSERTATION

Presented In Partial Fulfilment Of The Requirements

For The Degree

MAGISTRAE INGENERIAE

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In The

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

At The

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: Prof. R.F. Laubscher

CO-SUPERVISOR: N. Janse van Ransburg

January 2012
Declaration

• I P.B. Mawanga hereby declare that this dissertation is wholly my own work and has not been
submitted anywhere else for academic credit either by myself or another person.

• I understand what plagiarism implies and declare that this dissertation is my own ideas, words,
phrases, arguments, graphics, figures, results and organisation except where reference is
explicitly made to another’s work.

• I understand further that any unethical academic behaviour, which includes plagiarism, is seen
in a serious light by the University of Johannesburg and is punishable by disciplinary action.

Signed:…………………………………… Date:……………………………………

ii
Abstract
Grade 4 titanium is a commercially pure grade titanium alloy extensively used in various industries
including the chemical industry and more recently in the biomedical industry. Grade 4 has found a
niche as a biomedical material for production of components such as orthopaedic and dental implants.
Its physical properties such as high corrosion resistance, low thermal conductivity and high strength
make it suitable for these applications. These properties also make it hard-to-machine similar to the
other grades of titanium alloys and other metals such as nickel based alloys.

During machining of titanium, elevated temperatures are generated at the tool-workpiece interface
due to its low thermal conductivity. Its high strength is also maintained at these high temperatures.
These tend to impair the cutting tool affecting its machinability. Various investigations on other
grades of titanium and other hard-to-machine materials have shown that machining at high cutting
speeds may improve certain aspects of their machinability. High speed machining (HSM) is used to
improve productivity in the machining process and to therefore lower manufacturing costs. HSM
may, however, change the surface integrity of the machined material.

Surface integrity refers to the properties of the surface and sub-surface of a machined component
which may be quite different from the substrate. The properties of the surface and sub-surface of a
component may have a marked effect on the functional behaviour of a machined component. Fatigue
life and wear are examples of properties that may be significantly influenced by a change in the
surface integrity. Surface integrity may include the topography, the metallurgy and various other
mechanical properties. It is evaluated by examination of surface integrity indicators. In this
investigation the three main surface integrity indicators are examined. These are surface roughness,
sub-surface hardness and residual stress. White layer thickness and chip morphology were also
observed as results of the machining process used.

The effect of HSM on the surface integrity of grade 4 is largely unknown. This investigation therefore
aims to address this limitation by conducting an experimental investigation on the effect of HSM on
selected surface integrity indicators for grade 4.

Two forged bars of grade 4 alloy were machined using a CNC lathe at two depths of cut, 0.2mm and
1mm. Each bar was machined at varying cutting speeds ranging from 70m/min to 290m/min at
intervals of approximately 20m/min. Machined samples were prepared from these cutting speeds and
depths of cut. The three surface integrity indicators were then evaluated with respect to the cutting
speed and depth of cut (DoC).
iii
Results show that a combination of intermediate cutting speeds and low DoC may have desirable
effects on the surface integrity of grade 4. Highest compressive stresses were obtained when
machining with these conditions. High compressive stresses are favourable in cases where the fatigue
life of a material is an important factor in the functionality of a component. Subsurface hardening was
noticed at 0.2mm DoC, with no subsurface softening at all cutting speeds. Surface hardness higher
than the bulk hardness tends to improve the wear resistance of the machined material. Though surface
roughness values for all depths of cut were below the standard fine finish of 1.6µm, roughness values
of samples machined at 0.2mm DoC continued to decrease with increase in cutting speed. Low
surface roughness values may also influence the improvement of fatigue life of the machined
components. These machining conditions, (intermediate cutting speeds and low DoC), seem to have
promoted mechanically dominated deformation during machining rather than thermal dominated
deformation. Thermal dominated deformation was prominent on titanium machined at DoC of 1mm.

iv
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to the following people without which this report would not have been successful.

• Prof. R.F. Laubscher, my supervisor, for his leadership, guidance, support and expertise. His
dedication to my work was invaluable to me throughout the duration of my studies.

• N. Janse van Ransburg, my co-supervisor for her continual support and encouragement. She
shared her experience with me and this, more often than not, gave me a sense of direction.

• Mr D. Madyira, for all the time he spared to answer my questions and give advice. I certainly
cannot overstate his vast formal and informal contribution to this study.

• Members of staff of the Department of Mechanical Engineering Science at UJ, for providing a
friendly and great working environment.

• Mr Tshepo Ntsoane of the Nuclear Energy Council of South Africa (NECSA) for his patience
and endurance in the long hours that were required to conduct the residual test. And Mr
Anthony of IMP Innovative Solutions for his guidance on handling and preparation of the
samples. Thanks to both of them for allowing me to use their facilities and taking time to run
numerous tests with me.

• My family, friends and colleagues, who were patient and understanding in my period of study
and especially for their presence at all times when I needed them. Their input (spiritual, moral
financial, social, academic and even physical) to all my work is priceless.

To the Lord God, I express my utmost gratitude for nothing that I am now or have accomplished
would have been without His blessing

Thank you all

v
Table of Contents
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................... ii

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................v

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... vi

List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................................x

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ xiii

List of Symbols .......................................................................................................................................xv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................1

1.1 General remarks ..............................................................................................................................1

1.2. Problem statement..........................................................................................................................3

1.3. Aim ................................................................................................................................................3

1.4. Scope ..............................................................................................................................................3

1.5. Document layout ............................................................................................................................4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................5

2.1 General remarks ..............................................................................................................................5

2.2 Titanium and its alloys ....................................................................................................................5

2.2.1 Elementary titanium .................................................................................................................5

2.2.2 Commercially pure titanium grades .........................................................................................6

2.2.3 Grade 4 .....................................................................................................................................8

2.2.4 Titanium alloys ........................................................................................................................8

2.3 Metal Cutting ................................................................................................................................11

2.3.1 Machining ..............................................................................................................................11

2.3.2 High speed machining............................................................................................................13

2.4 Machining of titanium alloys ........................................................................................................16

2.4.1 Machinability of titanium alloys ............................................................................................16

2.4.2 High speed machining of titanium alloys ..............................................................................18

vi
 2.4.3 Tooling materials ...................................................................................................................19

2.4.4 Cooling methods ....................................................................................................................22

2.5 Surface integrity of titanium alloys ..............................................................................................24

2.5.1. Surface roughness .................................................................................................................25

2.5.2 Surface hardness ....................................................................................................................26

2.5.3 Residual stresses ....................................................................................................................29

2.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................33

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ......................................................................................34

3.1 General remarks ............................................................................................................................34

3.2 Insert Evaluation ...........................................................................................................................34

3.2.1 Experimental design...............................................................................................................34

3.2.2 Experimental protocol ............................................................................................................35

3.2.2.1 Workpiece material ....................................................................................................... 36

3.2.2.2 Machine tool ................................................................................................................. 36

3.2.2.3 Cutting tools .................................................................................................................. 37

3.2.2.4 Tool wear examinations ................................................................................................ 38

3.2.2.5 Surface roughness measurements ................................................................................. 39

3.2.3 Results on insert evaluation ...................................................................................................40

3.2.3.1 Surface roughness ......................................................................................................... 40

3.2.3.2 Inserts with chip breaker technology ............................................................................ 40

3.2.3.3 Inserts with no chip breaker technology ....................................................................... 42

3.2.3.4 Tool flank wear ............................................................................................................. 44

3.2.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................46

3.3 Grade 4 surface integrity testing ...................................................................................................47

3.3.1 Experimental design...............................................................................................................47

3.3.2 Experimental program............................................................................................................48

3.3.2.1 Workpiece material ....................................................................................................... 48

vii
 3.3.2.2 Machining process ........................................................................................................ 49

3.3.2.3 Cutting tools .................................................................................................................. 49

3.3.2.4 Sample preparation protocol ......................................................................................... 50

3.3.2.5 Surface roughness ......................................................................................................... 52

3.3.2.6 Hardness ........................................................................................................................ 52

3.3.2.7 White layer thickness .................................................................................................... 53

3.3.2.8 Residual stress ............................................................................................................... 53

3.3.2.9 Surface irregularities ..................................................................................................... 54

3.3.2.10 Chip morphology ........................................................................................................ 54

3.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................55

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......................................................................................56

4.1 General remarks ............................................................................................................................56

4.2 Surface roughness .........................................................................................................................56

4.2.1 Roughness at 1mm depth of cut .............................................................................................56

4.2.2 Roughness at 0.2mm depth of cut ..........................................................................................59

4.2.3 Comparison of surface roughness for 1mm and 0.2mm depth of cuts ..................................61

4.2.4 Comparison of surface roughness for grades 2, 4 and 5 alloys..............................................63

4.3 Surface and sub-surface hardness .................................................................................................67

4.3.1 Hardness at 1mm depth of cut ...............................................................................................67

4.3.2 Hardness at 0.2mm depth of cut ............................................................................................71

4.4 Residual stress...............................................................................................................................74

4.5 White layer thickness ....................................................................................................................81

4.6 Surface irregularities .....................................................................................................................83

4.7 Chip morphology ..........................................................................................................................86

4.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................93

5.1 General remarks ............................................................................................................................94

viii
 5.2 Surface integrity of titanium grade 4 ............................................................................................94

5.2.1 Surface roughness ..................................................................................................................95

5.2.2 Surface and sub-surface hardness ..........................................................................................95

5.2.3 Residual stress ........................................................................................................................96

5.2.4 Chip morphology ...................................................................................................................96

5.3 Surface integrity of titanium alloys ..............................................................................................97

5.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................97

5.5 Recommendations .........................................................................................................................98

CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................100

CHAPTER 7: APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................109

APPENDIX A: LITERATURE ........................................................................................................109

A1 – Data Sets for Evaluation of Surface Integrity -Machining Data Handbook ........................109

A2 – Mounting Technique for Specimens used in Surface Integrity Testing - Machining Data
Handbook ......................................................................................................................................111

A3 – Properties of Titanium Grades .............................................................................................112

A4 – Technical specifications for some of the equipment used in this study ...............................113

A4.1 CNC lathe RT – 20S ...................................................................................................... 113

A4.2 Stereo microscope Olympus SZX16 .............................................................................. 114

A4.3 Handheld roughness tester TR200 ................................................................................. 115

APPENDICES B & C (See enclosed CD) ........................................................................................115

ix
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Grade 4 dental implants [5] .................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2.2: Effect of α-stabilizers [42].................................................................................................. 10

Figure 2.3: Efamatic RT-20S CNC lathe .............................................................................................. 12

Figure 2.4: Basic features of WEDM process [52] ............................................................................... 13

Figure 2.5: Effects of cutting speed on machining temperatures [27] .................................................. 14

Figure 2.6: High speed machining range for various materials[60] ..................................................... 19

Figure 2.7: Wear map for crater wear if TiN-coated HSS inserts with wear zones indicated [63] ...... 21

Figure 2.8: Wear relevant properties of Ti-6Al-4V with different cutting tools [19, 66]..................... 22

Figure 2.9: The effects of radial DoC (ae) on surface topography (V, 80m/min; f, 0.08mm/tooth; ap-
1.5mm) [73] .................................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 2.10: Microhardness of Ti-64 vs. depth below surface [72]...................................................... 27

Figure 2.11: The microhardness value measured on the subsurface of machined Ti-6242S using
cutting tool A [74] ........................................................................................................................... 28

Figure 2.12: The microhardness value measured on the subsurface of machined Ti-6242S using
cutting tool B [74] ........................................................................................................................... 28

Figure. 2.13. The influence of milling parameters on surface residual stress of Ti-6Al-4V (V, 65
m/min; ae = 4mm; ap = 1.5 mm) [73] ............................................................................................. 31

Figure 2.14: Plane stresses with respect to cutting speed [80] ............................................................. 32

Figure 3.1: Machined grade 5 bars ....................................................................................................... 36

Figure 3.2: Details for Sandvik tool insert with chip breaker ............................................................... 37

Figure 3.3: Details for Sandvik tool insert with no chip breaker .......................................................... 38

Figure 3.4: Olympus SZX 16 stereo microscope .................................................................................. 38

Figure 3.5: TR200 hand held surface roughness tester ......................................................................... 39

Figure 3.6: Model for machined bar showing positions on which surface roughness measurements
were taken ....................................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 3.7: Surface roughness as a function of cutting speed at different positions for a tool insert with
chip breaker (line is 2nd order polynomial fit of average values) ................................................... 41

Figure 3.8: Surface roughness as a function of cutting speed at different positions for a tool insert
without a chip breaker (line is 2nd order polynomial fit of average values) ................................... 43

Figure 3.9: Surface roughness presented with respect to cutting speed - a comparison of the two tool
insert types ...................................................................................................................................... 44
x
Figure 3.10: Tool flank wear presented as a function of cutting speed ................................................ 45

Figure 3.11a: Images of flank wear on inserts with chip breaker showing sudden increase in wear
between cutting speeds 230m/min (255µm) and 250m/min (702µm) ............................................ 46

Figure 3.11b: Images of flank wear on inserts with no chip breaker showing sudden increase in wear
between cutting speeds 250m/min (210µm) and 270m/min (837µm) ............................................ 46

Figure 3.12: Plate-form sample cut by wire EDM ................................................................................ 50

Figure 3.13: LECO mounting press ...................................................................................................... 51

Figure 3.14: Struers grinding and polishing machine ........................................................................... 51

Figure 3.15: Semi automated micro hardness tester ............................................................................. 52

Figure 3.16: Jeol scanning electron microscope (SEM) ....................................................................... 53

Figure 3.17: Bruker D8 X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD) used for residual stress tests ........................... 54

Figure 4.1: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed (line is a second order
polynomial fit) ................................................................................................................................ 57

Figure 4.2: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed at different positions .... 59

Figure 4.3: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed (line is a second order
polynomial fit) ................................................................................................................................ 60

Figure 4.4: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed at differents positions .. 61

Figure 4.5: General surface roughness rends presented as a function of cutting speed........................ 63

Figure 4.6: Surface roughness presented as a function of cutting speed for a DoC of 1mm (Gr. 2 & Gr.
5 Ref. 82) ........................................................................................................................................ 65

Figure 4.7: Surface roughness presented as a function of cutting speed for a DoC of 1mm (Gr. 2 & Gr.
5 Ref. 82) ........................................................................................................................................ 66

Figure 4.8: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for different cutting speeds .......................... 69

Figure 4.9: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 70m/min cutting speed ........................... 69

Figure 4.10: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 170m/min cutting speed ....................... 70

Figure 4.11: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 250m/min cutting speed ....................... 70

Figure 4.12: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for different cutting speeds ..................... 71

Figure 4.13: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 170m/min cutting speed .................... 72

Figure 4.14: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 70m/min cutting speed ...................... 72

Figure 4.15: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 250m/min cutting speed .................... 73

Figure 4.16: Machining stress components .......................................................................................... 74

xi
Figure 4.17: Stress presented as a function of cutting speed for 1mm DoC ......................................... 76

Figure 4.18: Stress presented as a function of cutting speed for 0.2mm DoC ...................................... 77

Figure 4.19: Principal stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for both 0.2mm and 1mm DoC
......................................................................................................................................................... 77

Figure 4.20: Von Mises stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for titanium grades 2, 4 and
5, for 1mm DoC .............................................................................................................................. 79

Figure 4.21: Minimum principal stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for titanium grades
2, 4 and 5, for 1mm DoC ................................................................................................................ 80

Figure 4.22: SEM image for sample cross section of G4 Ti, cutting speed 110m/min, DoC 0.2mm .. 82

Figure 4.23: Second order polynomial graph for observed white layer thickness for finish and rough
cuts on grade 4 ................................................................................................................................ 82

Figure 4.24: Examples of surface flaws caused by machining as observed using scanning-electron
microscopy ...................................................................................................................................... 83

Figure 4.25: Cross section of chip top surface showing teeth serration [91] ........................................ 87

Figure 4.26: Chip terminology.............................................................................................................. 87

Figure 4.27: Chip structure for grade 4 machined at various speeds, DoC 0.2mm and 1mm .............. 89

Figure 4.28: Chip width for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm ............................................ 90

Figure 4.29: SEM scans for lamellae structured free surface of grade 4 chips machined at (a) 50m/min
and (b) 310m/min, DoC 1mm. ........................................................................................................ 91

Figure 4.30: Chip serration thickness for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm........................ 92

Figure 4.31: Chip thickness for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm....................................... 93

xii
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Chemical and mechanical properties for ASTM commercially pure titanium grades [7, 16]7

Table 2.2: Composition of grade 5 Ti-6Al-4V [43] .............................................................................. 10

Table 2.3: Material properties for annealed grade 5 Ti-6Al-4V [45] ................................................... 10

Table 2.4: Commercial processing techniques of super-alloys [19] ..................................................... 17

Table 3.1a: Experimental matrix........................................................................................................... 35

Table 3.1b: Constant cutting parameters during machining ................................................................. 35

Table 3.2: Surface roughness values obtained by machining using an insert with chip a breaker ....... 41

Table 3.3: Surface roughness values obtained by machining using an insert without a chip breaker .. 42

Table 3.4: Comparison of tool flank wear for inserts with chip breaker and with no chip breaker
technology ....................................................................................................................................... 45

Table 3.5: Experimental matrix for grade 4 .......................................................................................... 47

Table 3.6: Mechanical properties and chemistry of titanium grades considered in this study ............. 48

Table 3.7: Constant cutting parameters ................................................................................................ 49

Table 3.8: Measurement parameters for strain determination on the D8 GADDS diffractometer. ...... 54

Table 4.1: Surface roughness values at various cutting speeds, 1mm DoC ......................................... 57

Table 4.2: Surface roughness values at various cutting speeds, 0.2mm DoC ...................................... 60

Table 4.3: Comparison of surface roughness values between roughing and finishing cuts ................. 63

Table 4.4: Surface roughness for various grades of titanium machined at 1mm DoC (Gr.2 & Gr. 5
Ref. 82) ........................................................................................................................................... 64

Table 4.5: Surface roughness for various grades of titanium machined at 0.2mm DoC (Gr. 2 & Gr. 5
Ref. 82) ........................................................................................................................................... 65

Table 4.6: Residual stress for grade 4 machined at DoC 1mm............................................................. 76

Table 4.7: Residual stress for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm.......................................................... 76

Table 4.8: Comparison of Von Mises stresses for grade 2, 4 and 5 at DoC 1mm ............................... 79

Table 4.9: White layer thickness for finish and rough cuts .................................................................. 82

Table 4.10: Surface effects identified from surface traces* ................................................................. 84

Table 4.11: Ratio for distinguishing continuous and saw tooth chip type on grade 4 .......................... 88

Table 4.12: Chip serration thickness evaluated on collected chips from machined grade 4 ................ 92

xiii
Table 4.13: Chip thickness evaluation on collected chips from machined grade 4 .............................. 93

xiv
List of Symbols
Symbol Unit

TW = Tool Wear (µm)

DoC = Depth of cut (mm)

f = Feed (mm)

avg = average
ae = Radial DoC (mm)

ap = Axial DoC (mm)

V = Cutting speed (m/min)

xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General remarks

Titanium is one of South Africa’s most abundant natural resources. South Africa has the second
largest titanium reserve and reserve base in the world [1, 2]. It is also the world’s second largest
exporter of titanium ore having produced 1.2 megatons in 2008; with a reserve base of 244 megatons
[3]. Although titanium ore is largely mined in this country, South Africa has limited capacity in
titanium fabrication. However, usage of fabricated titanium components is wide in the aerospace,
recreational and biomedical industries within South Africa [4, 5]. A large gap therefore exists
between the mining of the titanium ore and the manufacturing of titanium components in South
Africa.

Titanium alloys have been used in numerous applications for more than forty years though they are
still considered relatively new engineering materials [6]. Industries making use of these alloys include
the aerospace, architectural, biomedical, petrochemical, and jewellery industries [7]. However, only
5% of the titanium raw materials produced is converted to titanium metal while the bulk is used in
production of chemical colorants, paper and plastics [1, 2, 8]. The cost and difficulty in the extraction
and processing of titanium are perceived to be the main reasons for this low usage of titanium metals
[8, 9]. The current processes used in the manufacturing of titanium components are expensive and
usually inefficient. It is thought that if production of low cost titanium components were possible,
there would be significant opportunities for it to compete with other engineering materials such as
stainless steel in many applications [10, 11, 12].

Titanium alloys have distinct physical and chemical properties that differentiate them from other
materials. Some of these properties are excellent strength/weight ratio at relatively high temperatures,
biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, high fracture toughness and crack growth retardation [13].
These distinct properties allow several industrial sectors to benefit from its application [8]. The
excellent strength to weight ratio make it attractive to the aerospace and other transport industries [6,
7, 13]. Its excellent corrosion resistance makes it an obvious choice in the chemicals, petrochemicals
and maritime industries while its biocompatibility allows for numerous medical applications [1, 2, 7,
8].

These unique properties are also the main cause of the poor machinability observed for titanium.
During machining of titanium, high strength, toughness and ductility are maintained at high

1
temperatures. Its low modulus of elasticity, leads to excessive deflection of the workpiece and may
cause chatter during machining [14, 15]. Titanium alloys have high chemical reactivity with almost
all tool materials at elevated temperatures [14, 15]. It is these properties of titanium that need to be
explored, with respect to its machinability, in order to minimise its high cost and render it a more
readily used material.

Machining can be defined as a material removal process used to produce a component [16, 17].
Several machining techniques are used for material removal including turning, milling, grinding and
drilling. The tool geometry, feed rate, and the cutting speed used significantly affect the efficiency of
these machining techniques [18]. Machinability of a material describes the ease or difficulty with
which a material may be cut into a desired shape using specific tooling and processing conditions,
resulting in acceptable tool life while simultaneously providing good surface finish and acceptable
functional characteristics of the machined component [19, 20, 21, 22]. It is therefore a property of a
machining system operating under a given set of conditions [19]. All machining processes affect the
surface integrity of the machined components.

Surface integrity refers to the properties of the surface and sub-surface of a machined component
which may be significantly different from the substrate. These may include the topography, the
metallurgy and various mechanical properties [23]. It can be used to describe either the natural,
worsened or improved condition of a surface produced in machining which may influence its
performance [24, 25]. There are more than 20 surface properties that may affect surface integrity.
These are listed in the American National Standard on Surface Integrity, ANSI B211.1 - 1986 [24].
The most common properties assessed, when discussing the surface integrity are hardness, residual
stresses and surface roughness [26, 27]. These properties are referred to as surface integrity indicators
in this study. These properties may be affected by the machining processes and parameters used
during machining of a component.

High speed machining (HSM) is defined as machining performed at cutting speeds that exceed
conventional (relatively low speed) machining speeds by a factor of 2 to 50 depending on work and
tool materials as well as tool life requirements [28, 29]. It is defined by a variety of parameters each
being of higher values than in traditional machining. HSM may offer significant advantages over
conventional machining such as increased productivity, higher material removal rate, reduced
manufacturing costs, increased machining accuracy and better surface finish [28, 30]. Under correct
conditions mechanical stresses and heating of workpieces may be reduced. Due to its high material

2
removal rate and short product cycle time, application of HSM has steadily grown in recent years in
many industrial sectors [29]. Some industries using HSM are defence, automotive and aerospace

1.2. Problem statement

Grade 4 is a commercially pure titanium alloy that is extensively used in applications requiring good
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance (typically biomedical industry). It is used in
applications such as heat exchangers, chemical processing machinery and surgical hardware. In South
Africa, it is currently used for manufacture of jewellery and dental implants, among others. It does
however have poor machinability. HSM may improve the productivity of machined grade 4 alloy
parts. Various investigations have been carried out in recent years in order to improve machinability
of the other grades of titanium. Currently no data exists to quantify the effects of HSM of grade 4
alloy parts on the surface properties during turning.

1.3. Aim

The aim of this investigation is therefore to:

• Critically evaluate the effects of HSM on certain aspects of the surface integrity for grade 4
alloys.

• Compare the results to available literature for grade 2 and 5 alloys.

1.4. Scope

To address the aims outlined above, the scope of the investigation is as follows:

• A detailed literature review is conducted to introduce titanium alloys in general, their

machinability and surface integrity aspects during machining. A review is also conducted as
regards to the current state of technology of HSM of titanium alloys with special reference to
grade 4 alloy and surface integrity.

• An appropriate cutting tool was selected for use in this investigation.

• An experimental program is then conducted where the surface integrity of titanium alloys is
evaluated during turning at cutting speeds varying between 70 to 290m/min. Machining feed
rate was kept constant at 0.2mm/rev. Two depths of cut of 0.2mm and 1mm were used during
machining. Surface roughness, residual stress condition and microhardness are evaluated
3
 specifically. To facilitate the experimental program an appropriate cutting tool needed to be
selected.

• Aspects as regards to the chip formation and white layer thickness during the cutting process
are also investigated and presented.

• Conclusions are drawn and a comparison with available literature is presented.

1.5. Document layout

A review of the literature that is relevant to this investigation is presented in chapter 2. It contains the
necessary background of this report, previous work related to this research and acts as a guideline to
the structure of the experimental set up. Surface integrity and evaluation of surface integrity
indicators, machining processes and parameters are discussed in detail.

In chapter 3 the experimental set up with details of all the equipment and parameters that were used in
this investigation is presented. This clearly details the steps followed throughout this investigation
providing an overview of how the primary machines used work and their specifications.

Chapter 4 contains the results obtained from the experimental program. An in-depth evaluation and
discussion of these results follows elaborating on the effects of cutting parameters on the individual
surface integrity indicators.

Conclusions drawn from the results, with regards to the feasibility of this study, are presented in
chapter 5.

4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General remarks

The literature review as relevant to this investigation is presented in this chapter. Firstly, titanium and
its alloys are introduced. This is followed by a review of the cutting process with specific reference to
turning and the high speed cutting of titanium alloys. The chapter is concluded with a review of the
available literature on the effects of HSM on the surface integrity of titanium alloys.

2.2 Titanium and its alloys

2.2.1 Elementary titanium

Titanium is the ninth most abundant element on the earth’s crust. It constitutes 1% of the earth’s crust
usually in the form of rutile, ilmenite, TiO2 and FeO.TiO2 [31]. Titanium has been recognized as an
element for at least 200 years but is still regarded as a relatively new engineering material. Titanium
is said to have been discovered in 1791 by William Gregor while working with Menachanite. A few
years later, a German chemist, Martin Heinrich Klaproth is said to have named the element titanium
after the mythological giants, the Titans [32]. It was only produced in metallic form in 1910 and its
commercial manufacturing processes were only developed in the 1940’s [33].

Titanium is difficult and costly to process because of its high reactivity with other elements. It burns
in the presence of heat and oxygen, and is dissolved by dilute solutions of hydrofluoric, nitric,
sulphuric and acetic acids [33]. Unlike iron ore, it is not possible to reduce titanium in a carbon rich
environment as it forms titanium carbide. During World War 2, one of the first methods of converting
titanium oxide (TiO2) into a useable metal was developed by William Kroll in 1946 [34]. TiO2 was
chemically converted to TiCl4 and then reduced to titanium metal using sodium or magnesium [35].

Titanium is a well-known chemical element found on the periodic table as a transition metal with
symbol Ti and atomic number 22 [31]. At room temperature it has a hexagonal close pack (HCP)
crystal structure. This phase is called alpha (α) phase titanium. At a temperature of 882°C it changes
in an allotropic transformation to a body centred cubic (BCC) structure, usually referred to as beta (β)
phase titanium [36].

Titanium has certain unique properties that make it the material of choice in certain applications. It
has a density of 4.5g/cm3 and this is lower than the density of steel (7.8g/cm3) [37]. High specific

5
strengths are then possible when taking into account its mechanical properties which may be
comparable to those of steel. It retains this strength to relatively high temperatures and is therefore
often used in refractory environments. It has a melt point of 1671 ̊C which is higher than that of steel.
In its pure form titanium has an appreciably lower thermal conductivity than that a typical structural
steel (16W/m-K compared to 51.9W/m-K) [37]. It has excellent corrosion resistance to seawater
providing long service in offshore and marine environments.

Pure titanium is used mostly as an alloying element and in applications where its superior corrosion
resistance is required. Typical examples are found in the chemical process industry. Only about 5% of
the titanium mined today is used in its pure metal form. The remainder is used to manufacture
titanium dioxide (TiO2), an ingredient in paper, paint, plastics and white food colouring [38].

2.2.2 Commercially pure titanium grades

Titanium is classified in two categories: commercially pure titanium (Ti) and titanium alloys.
Commercially pure (CP) titanium contains small amounts of trace elements (O, N, C, Fe and H) while
titanium alloys contains appreciable additives such as aluminium (Al) and vanadium (V).
Commercially pure titanium consists of 100% HCP α phase at service temperatures. As a single-phase
material, its properties are controlled by its chemistry. Its mechanical properties are influenced by
small additions of especially oxygen and iron. Various grades of commercially pure titanium are
produced by controlling these additions.

CP Titanium is classified into grades 1 through 4 depending on strength and allowable levels of the
interstitial impurity elements. The variation in quantities of iron and oxygen in these grades give these
grades properties suited for different applications. CP Titanium 1, 2, 3 and 4 have progressively
higher oxygen contents and correspondingly higher strength levels. The typical chemical and
mechanical properties of commercially pure titanium are given in Table 2.1 [7, 16].

6
 Table 2.1: Chemical and mechanical properties for ASTM commercially pure titanium grades [7,
16]

ASTM GRADE GRADE 1 GRADE 2 GRADE 3 GRADE 4

CHEMICAL

O (wt %) 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.4

N (wt %) 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05
C (wt %) 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Fe (wt %) 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5
H (wt %) 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
Residual Elements (wt %) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Ti (wt %) remainder remainder remainder remainder

MECHANICAL

E (GPa) 105 105 105 105

σ0.2 (MPa) 170 275 380 480
UTS (MPa) 240 345 445 550
Elongation (%) 24 20 18 15

Grade 1 is the softest and most ductile of these grades. It possesses the greatest formability, excellent
corrosion resistance and high impact toughness. Grade 2 shares many of the same qualities as grade 1
titanium, but it is slightly stronger. Both are equally corrosion resistant. It possesses good weldability,
strength, ductility and formability [39]. Grade 3 is the least used of the commercially pure titanium
grades, but not any less valuable. It is stronger than grades 1 and 2, similar in ductility and only
slightly less formable. Grade 4 is the strongest of the four grades of commercially pure titanium. It is
known for its excellent corrosion resistance, adequate formability and weldability [39].

CP titanium grades are used in low temperature applications for their excellent corrosion resistance,
cryogenic applications and yield strengths between 170 and 480MPa. They are not heat-treatable but
are weldable. Minor Si additions improve their creep resistance [7, 14, 16]. Typical areas of
applications are in power generation, chemical processing, aerospace and medical applications. All
grades of CP titanium are highly resistant to corrosion from acid rain hence increasing their popularity
in architectural application. As a building material, titanium is free from pitting corrosion, crevice
corrosion or stress corrosion cracking. Typical examples of application of CP titanium in architectural
industries are in the China National Grand Theatre and the Guggenheim Museum.

7
2.2.3 Grade 4

Grade 4 is the strongest of the commercially pure titanium grades, with minimum yield strength of
480MPa. It has the highest allowable oxygen and iron content of the grades. Its strength is on a par
with unhardened stainless steels. It also has good ductility, is moderately formable, and has superior
corrosion fatigue resistance in seawater.

Grade 4 could be considered in any application where strength and corrosion resistance are important.
It combines the excellent resistance to corrosion with high strength, making it a strong competitor of
steels and nickel alloys for various chemical and marine applications. Other applications include
airframe and aircraft engine components, marine and chemical processing machinery, heat
exchangers, surgical hardware, cryogenic vessels and corrosive waste disposal wells. Grade 4 has
recently found a niche as a biomedical grade material for production of components such as
orthopaedic and dental implants (see figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Grade 4 dental implants [5]

2.2.4 Titanium alloys

The titanium alloy grades are more commonly used than the commercially pure titanium grades
because of their enhanced mechanical properties and their low corrosion resistance [31, 32]. They
contain a wide range of additives some of which are molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), tin (Sn) and
aluminium (Al). These alloying elements act as stabilizers altering the transformation temperature
from HCP to BCC. They alter the phase from the single α phase to either the dual α/β phase or
another single β phase. The α phase is an allotrope of titanium with a HCP structure existing at lower

8
temperatures. The β phase is an allotrope formed at temperatures above 882°C with a body-centre-
cubic (bcc) structure [36]. There are three types of titanium alloys, near α-alloys, α/β alloys and β-
alloys.

- Near α-alloys may be used at operating temperatures between 400 and 520°C. They
contain mainly α-stabilizers with some β-stabilizers and are composed mainly of α phase
titanium with a little β-phase. Near α- alloys are used for non-structural applications in
aircraft such as flooring in the galley and lavatory, tubes, pipes, clips, brackets, and
ducting for the environmental control systems [40].

- α/β-Alloys are a mixture of the α and β phases. These alloys may be used in temperature
ranges between 315 and 400°C. They have high strength, good corrosion resistance, high
hardenability and low weldability [41]. They also have less stringent processing
requirements.

- β-alloys have high amounts of β-stabilizers giving them high hardenability and high stress
corrosion resistance. They are metastable due to their sufficient β-stabilizers. This enables
them to completely retain the β-phase upon quenching. They can be solution treated and
aged to achieve significant increases in strength. They are easily fabricated by cold-rolling
and can be heat treated for higher strengths [42].

Grade 5, designated Ti-6Al-4V, is an example of one of the most commonly used alloy grades. It is an
α/β alloy that accounts for about 60% of all titanium usage. The aluminium in grade 5 acts as the α-
stabilizer and vanadium acts as the β-stabilizer [43]. The transformation temperature (normally
885°C) is increased by α-stabilizers, while β-stabilizers lower the transformation temperature [42]
(Figure 2.2). Maximum service temperatures for grade 5 are between 315 and 400°C. These phase
changes imply changes in the physical properties of the titanium. The yield strength of the alloy is
almost twice that of commercially pure titanium (grade 4) while thermal conductivity is almost half.

9
 Figure 2.2: Effect of α-stabilizers [42]

Grade 5 offers a combination of high strength, light weight, formability and corrosion resistance
which has made it attractive in aerospace applications [9, 14, 20, 31, 44]. The maximum yield
strength of Ti-6Al-4V is comparable with the yield strength of high strength steels but at a reduced
specific gravity of 4.5 compared to 7.8 for steel. Its standard composition is given in Table 2.2 and the
properties for the annealed state grade 5 are given in Table 2.3.

Table 2.2: Composition of grade 5 Ti-6Al-4V [43]

Element Content
C <0.08%
Fe <0.25%
N <0.05%
O <0.2%
Al 5.5-6.76%
V 3.5-4.5%
Ti Balance

Table 2.3: Material properties for annealed grade 5 Ti-6Al-4V [45]

Melting Range (oC±15o) 1641

Density (kg/m3) 4420
Poisson’s Ratio 0.342
Yield Strength (MPa) 880
Tensile Strength (MPa) 950
Percent Elongation (%) 14
Hardness, Rockwell C 36
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 113.8
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (oC-1) 9.2x10-6 (for 0-300oC)
Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 7.2
Specific Heat (J/kg.K) 560
Volume Electrical Resistivity (Ω.cm) 1.7
10
2.3 Metal Cutting

2.3.1 Machining

Machining can be defined as a material removal process used to produce useful components. It
usually forms part of the manufacture of most metallic products. It involves the use of power-driven
machine tools, with a sharp cutting tool, to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired
geometry. A machining process may then be considered a system consisting of the workpiece, the tool
and the machine.

The workpiece describes the material that has to be machined to specified geometry. Usually, the
desired geometry of the workpiece can be achieved by machining using various machining techniques
and several cuts. If only one machining technique is required to achieve the geometry, the amount of
material to be removed determines the number of cuts to be taken. Both rough (large DoC) and finish
(small DoC) machining would then probably have to be employed.

Several machining techniques are used for material removal. These include: turning, milling,
grinding and drilling. Apart from the turning technique which uses single point cutting tools, the other
techniques use multiple point cutting tools. Both single point and multiple point cutting tools are
generally expected to have the same effects on the machined surfaces.

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a rotating wheel or disc to remove material. The
wheels are produced in many sizes and are made of abrasion materials such as stone, diamond and
other inorganic materials [46]. These abrasive materials are embedded in the wheel and held by some
resin. The materials then act as multiple point cutting tools that get dislodged with continual use of
the wheel exposing new tool edges.

Conventional milling is performed on a milling machine comprising of a cutter that rotates about its
spindle axis and a worktable that may have various degrees of freedom. There are two types of
milling machines, horizontal spindle machines and vertical spindle machines. These names are
derived from the orientation of the axis on which the spindle rotates. In milling, the cutting tool
provides cutting speed while feed rate and DoC are controlled by the worktable holding the
workpiece. Slot cutting, planning, drilling and threading are typical operations performed on a milling
machine [46].

11
Turning is a process where the workpiece is held in a chuck that rotates about its spindle axis. Unlike
grinding and milling, the workpiece on a chuck rotates at various speeds while the tool on the tool
holder provides specific feed rates and DoC. Turning is conducted on a lathe using single point
cutting tools. . This investigation will evaluate the effect of HSM on grade 4 alloy during turning. An
example of a modern CNC lathe (and the lathe to be used in this investigation) is presented in Figure
2.3.

Figure 2.3: Efamatic RT-20S CNC lathe

Another example of a machining process is wire-electro discharge machining. Wire-electro discharge

machining (WEDM) has been defined as the process of material removal of electrically conductive
materials using the thermo-electric source of energy. The material removal is by controlled erosion
through a series of repetitive sparks between electrodes, i.e., workpiece and tool [47-51]. Figure 2.4
shows the basic features of the WEDM machine [52]. The electrode is a thin wire and it is pulled
through the workpiece from a supply spool onto a take-up mechanism. On application of a suitable
voltage, discharge occurs between the wire electrode and the workpiece in the presence of a flood of
deionized water of high insulation resistance. This process represents one of the non-traditional
machining methods.

12
 .

Figure 2.4: Basic features of WEDM process [52]

Wire-electro discharge machining (WEDM) has become an important non-traditional machining

process, as it provides an effective solution for producing components made of difficult-to-machine
materials such as titanium, nimonic, zirconium and intricate shapes which are not possible by
conventional machining methods [52]. In WEDM, the setting parameters, workpiece materials, and
tool materials influence the nature of the surface produced by this machining technique to some
degree [52].

Most of the machining techniques described above have some parameters that tend to influence their
effectiveness. These parameters are usually cutting speed, feed rate and DoC. Cutting speed refers to
the rotational speed (in revolutions per minute/ meters per minute) at which the machine spindle
rotates or meters per second for non-rotating machines such as WEDM. Feed rate refers to the axial/
lateral speed (measured in meters per minute) at which the tool holder moves along its axis. DoC is
the set depth (mm) to which the tool is set to cut from the workpiece.

These variations in the cutting tools, machining techniques and machining parameters may affect the
surface integrity of the machined components. The surface roughness, surface and sub-surface
hardness, and residual stresses of the finished component would depend on some, or all of these
variations. In this investigation, the cutting tools, machining technique and feed rate were kept
constant while cutting speed and DoC were varied.

2.3.2 High speed machining

HSM can be defined as any machining where conventional cutting speed is exceeded by a factor of 2
to 50 depending on the work material, tool material, tool geometry, DoC and feed rate [13]. HSM is
13
also defined by a variety of other parameters each being of higher value than those found in
conventional machining. This can mean anything from high cutting speed, V, high rotational speed, N,
high feed rates, f, high cutting speed to feed and high productivity [22, 29].

HSM was first reported in 1931 by C. Salomon who is known as the inventor of HSM. Salomon
stated that machining temperatures start decreasing above a certain cutting speed as shown in Figure
2.5. He concluded that there is a certain range of cutting speeds, where machining is not possible due
to extremely high temperatures, and that HSM occurs beyond this range [20]. Salomon’s theory could
not be verified experimentally and was improved upon in later years as the HSM process was better
understood [20, 53-54].

Figure 2.5: Effects of cutting speed on machining temperatures [27]

Some of the possible advantages of using HSM are [55]:

• It may improve productivity;

• It may allow for the use of smaller tools;

• It may improve dynamic stability;

• Cutting forces may be low enough to allow thin-walled components to be machined;

• It may produce burr-free edges and near stress-free components.

Some of the main disadvantages of high-speed machining that have been identified are:

• Increased tool wear

14
• Specialized, expensive machine tools, advanced spindles and controllers are required

• Fixturing is required

• Advanced cutting tool materials and coatings may be required.

15
2.4 Machining of titanium alloys

2.4.1 Machinability of titanium alloys

The machinability of a material describes the ease or difficulty with which a material may be cut into
a desired shape using specific tooling and processing conditions, resulting in acceptable tool life while
simultaneously providing good surface finish and acceptable functional characteristics of the
machined component [20-22]. It is measured by a variety of parameters involved in a machining
process: operational tool life, rate of metal removal, cutting forces, power consumption, surface
finish, surface integrity and chip shape [19]. Materials such as titanium, inconel and nickel are known
to be difficult to machine.

Titanium and its alloys have poor machinability due to their inherent properties. Titanium is
chemically reactive and has a tendency to weld to the cutting tool during machining, thus leading to
chipping and premature tool failure [56]. Its low thermal conductivity increases the temperature at the
tool-workpiece interface, which affects the tool life adversely. Additionally, its high strength
maintained at elevated temperature and its low modulus of elasticity further impairs its machinability
[14]. The following is a list of the main reasons why titanium is termed a hard-to-machine material
[14-15]:

• They maintain high strength at elevated temperatures, increasing cutting forces and tool
stresses

• They produce thin chips, which increases cutting temperatures and stresses at the tool cutting
edge

• They have a high chemical reactivity with almost all tool materials at elevated temperatures

• Due to their thermo-chemical properties, they often produce discontinuous or shear-localised

chips

• They have low modulus of elasticity, which can lead to excessive deflection of the workpiece
and to chatter

• They are susceptible to surface damage during machining, and yield poor machined surface
finishes under many conditions

16
 • They may ignite during machining due to the high cutting temperatures often generated.

Titanium alloys are mainly available in the following forms: cast, wrought, forged and powder for
powder metallurgy. Each type presents different characteristics during machining (see Table 2.4) [19].

Table 2.4: Commercial processing techniques of super-alloys [19]

Form of alloy Characteristics Machinability Problems

Castings Tough, excellent creep Difficult to break chips
strength
Wrought & Forged Higher strength, better More abrasive, higher
fatigue and fracture tendency to deform tool
resistance
Powder Metallurgy Complicated alloys, neat net Extremely low
shape machinability, very abrasive

Machinists and companies specializing in the machining of materials of some grades of

titanium generally would have developed techniques to maximize surface integrity of titanium alloys.
They would then set some recommendations on the parameters to be used in machining titanium.
Machinists using grade 4 have described its machining characteristics as similar to those of austenitic
stainless steels. Some recommendations made on machining of grade 4 include low cutting speeds,
large feed rates, and copious amounts of cutting fluid [57]. Sharp tools and rigid setups are also
important. A comparison of the machinability of titanium with other materials is provided in table 2.5.

17
 Table 2.5: Machinability Index for various engineering materials [58].

Material Machinability Index

AL-2017 300
Steel 70
CP Titanium 40
Stainless-302 35
Ti-6Al-4V 30
Co-base HS25 10
Ni-Base Rene 41 6

2.4.2 High speed machining of titanium alloys

The demand for HSM of various materials including titanium alloys is increasing in order to improve
productivity and to save machining cost [59]. The complexity of titanium components such as aircraft
bulkheads disallows the use of near-net-shape methods and often requires that 50-90% of the primary
form’s weight be removed in the form of machining residue (chips) [45]. This indicates that, in
general, more machining time and costs may be needed for machining of typical titanium
components. HSM may certainly be one way of improving machining time for these components.
Findings suggest that the HSM of titanium may occur between 100m/min and 1000m/min (see Figure
2.6 [59-60]).

18
 Figure 2.6: High speed machining range for various materials[60]

Various studies have been conducted to optimize the cutting parameters for a given titanium
machining operation. The machinability of titanium was noted to be affected by cutting speed, feed
rate and DoC. The thermal conductivity of the tool material affects the ratio of heat flow between the
tool and chip. For most of the tool materials used for machining Ti-6Al-4V, 70-80% of the heat flows
into the tool while 20-30% flows into the chip. This causes high tool temperatures during HSM of
titanium and then leads to rapid wear [61].

There has however not been any research conducted on HSM of grade 4. Recommendations by
machinists on machining of grade 4 suggest use of low cutting speeds but there is no mention of the
surface integrity of the finished components, production costs and time. Just as with the other grades
of titanium, use of HSM in the production of grade 4 components needs to be investigated in order to
benefit from this technology.

2.4.3 Tooling materials

Over the past few decades, there have been great advancements in the development of new and
improved cutting tool materials. Some of these include coated carbides, ceramics, cubic boron nitrate
(CBN) and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) [13, 62]. These new materials are applied in the
machining of cast irons, steels and high temperature alloys such as nickel-based alloys. None of these
newer cutting tool materials seem to have had successful application in improving the machinability
of titanium alloys. This is mainly due to paramount qualities of the tool that are required for
machining of titanium. These qualities include [13]:

• High hot hardness to resist the high stresses involved at elevated temperatures

19
 • Good thermal conductivity to minimize thermal gradients and thermal shock

• Good chemical inertness, to subdue the tendency to react with titanium

• Toughness and fatigue resistance to withstand the chip segmentation process

• High compressive, tensile and shear strength

These developments are due to the demand for higher productivity, lower manufacturing cost,
introduction of new difficult-to-machine alloys and the increasing use of systems that require higher
predictability and reliability [63]. When titanium is machined at high cutting speeds, the cutting tools
used are generally subjected to extreme thermal and mechanical stresses. Extensive research into tool
coatings and optimum machining parameters for titanium machining has been carried out [64].

Conventional tools such as carbide tools may be used to machine titanium but are subject to high
levels of tool wear especially at higher speeds. High speed steels have been found to be highly
successful at higher cutting speeds especially M-grades like M33, M40 and M42 [65]. Their high
hardness of between 1450 and 1650HV allows them to be more resistant to wear mechanisms. Other
tool materials (PCD, CBN, BCBN, etc.) have been developed to lower the levels of tool wear [65].
The success of a tool material is very particular to the selected machining parameters and work
material.

The following, though still undergoing investigations for improvement regarding HSM, are some of
the tools recommended for use in HSM of titanium;

• Tool steels: High speed tool steels (especially M33, M40 and M42) are often suitable with
titanium machining [65]. Lim et al. (1999) [63] used T-15 grade HSS (high speed steel) tools,
uncoated and coated with TiN to machine steel workpieces. TiN coatings were found to
expand the range of machining conditions where flank and rake wear are acceptable.

Wear maps were drawn up to include all the machining conditions. Figure 2.7 depicts the
overall behaviour of the wear system. The safety zone is where the lowest wear rates occur
and the next-highest wear rates occur in the least-wear regime [63]. All machining should be
performed within these two areas to obtain reasonable tool wear rates. TiN coated tools have
larger safety zones and least-wear regimes than uncoated tools. This shows that coatings could
be advantageous for use with tool steels at high cutting speeds and feed rates.

20
Figure 2.7: Wear map for crater wear if TiN-coated HSS inserts with wear zones indicated [63]

• Carbide tools: Carbide tools may be used to machine titanium. Typically, the uncoated straight
grade cemented carbide (WC-Co) is used for cutting speeds in excess of 45m/min but below
60m/min [29]. Higher cutting speeds tend to result in excessive stresses causing tool failure.
At temperatures above 500°C the titanium workpiece may react with the carbide tool to form
TiC. Finer grain carbide tools tend to have poor machining performance because the WC
becomes more soluble [42]. Carbide tools may be coated allowing for machining ranges
between 50 and 100m/min. Tool coatings such as TiN provide a good thermal barrier, good
abrasion resistance and lower friction and cutting forces. Coatings can be easily removed
however therefore special care must be taken when using coated carbide tools [42].

• Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) Tools: Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) and Poly-crystalline Cubic
Boron Nitride (PCBN) tools are highly recommended for HSM of titanium alloys but the
titanium may react chemically with the tools [53]. Certain measures can be taken, however, to
hinder the occurrence of these reactions and their wear effect resulting from diffusion, attrition
and welding.

CBN or Polycrystalline CBN (PCBN) tools are formed from hexagonal boron nitride crystals
at 1400°C and 6000MPa. They are the hardest tool materials after Polycrystalline Diamond.
CBN tools are 10-20 times more expensive than carbide tools and are susceptible to fracture
and chipping at high depths of cut. CBN tools are therefore typically only used in finishing
operations. CBN tools have high thermal stability at higher cutting speeds reducing the
likelihood of chemical reactions between the tool and the workpiece [42]. Titanium alloys are
usually machined with CBN tools under finishing conditions with a cutting speed of
21
 300m/min, a feed rate of 0.05m/min and a 0.5mm DoC. CBN tools maintain their strength
above 1100°C but it is recommended that cutting temperatures be kept below 700°C to
prevent phase changes in the tool and diffusion of its constituents into the workpiece [42].

• Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) Tools: PCD tools are produced by sintering certain grains of
diamond with catalyst alloys. They are used for their high hot hardness. PCD tools are the
hardest tools but also the most expensive. The carbon in them also has a high affinity for
titanium therefore unwanted foreign compounds may form at the cutting interface [42].

Different cutting materials have therefore different levels of success in machining titanium (see
Figure 2.8). Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) is the best while ceramics are the worst.

Figure 2.8: Wear relevant properties of Ti-6Al-4V with different cutting tools [19, 66]

2.4.4 Cooling methods

Cutting fluids play an important role in machining operations. They are mainly used for reducing
machining temperatures, lowering friction, preventing wear, and distributing the load of the tool [67].
The fluids commonly used have additives that react with the workpiece and tool material to produce
lubricating compounds.

The main types of cutting fluids are water-based, oil-based, synthetic and gaseous. Water-based fluids
contain soluble oils that emulsify; the high water content requires rust inhibitors. Oil-based fluids are
made of mineral oils such as sulfurized, sulfochlorinated and chlorinated mineral oils. Synthetic fluids
are chemical solutions with a water base. Gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen and argon
may also be used as cutting fluids [67].

22
The cooling effect of cutting fluids can only be observed through adequate temperature measurement
techniques. Some of the techniques used for temperature measurement are embedded thermocouples,
tool-workpiece thermocouples, thermal colour techniques and infrared photography. Thermocouple
techniques are the most commonly used. Thermocouples operate on the principle of an electromotive
force (emf) being generated across two terminals referred to as the hot and the cold junctions [68].

Abukhshim et al. (2006) [69] concluded that the most promising temperature measuring techniques
for HSM, using fibre-optic pyrometers, and infrared thermography. These methods measure
temperature and cooling rate easily and aid in the prediction of transient behaviour in the warming up
and cooling down periods.

Hong et al. (1993) [70] conducted a study where the machinability of Ti-6Al-4V under flood
lubrication was investigated. The lubricants were sodium sulfonate, calcium sulfonate and magnesium
sulfonate. Sodium and calcium sulfonates performed well because of the formation of lubricating
carbonates and their reactivity with the material at high temperatures. Efficiency of all the lubricants
was improved by adding sulfurized olefin [70]. Chandler found that an effective cooling fluid for
HSM was a weak solution of rust inhibitor and water-oil (5-10%) [14].

23
2.5 Surface integrity of titanium alloys

Machined surface and sub-surface characteristics, as well as the properties of the bulk material are
important in determining the functional performance of machined components [70]. Surface qualities
such as surface roughness, help determine percentage cell adherence in biomedical applications.
Some types of corrosion, as well as air flow characteristics on components, may also depend on
roughness. Residual stresses on the other hand, have significant influence on the fatigue of the
components. These characteristics, individually and collectively, influence the overall ability of the
component to function in its designed for applications.

The quality of surfaces of machined components is generally determined by the surface integrity.
Surface integrity can be defined as the relationship between surface geometric values and the physical
properties of the surface layers [23]. Evaluation of surface integrity is based on a combination of
various measurements such as surface roughness measurements, optical and scanning-electron
microscopy (for microstructure changes), subsurface microhardness tests, and X-ray diffraction (for
residual stresses) [40]. Therefore, surface integrity depends on both the machining techniques and
machining parameters used in manufacturing components. Tool selection and tool wear would also
have some effects on the surface integrity.

Machining (metal removal) operations lead to the generation of surfaces that contain geometric
deviations (deviation from ideal geometry) and metallurgical damage different from the bulk material.
The geometrical deviations refer to the various forms of deviation such as roundness and straightness.
As such, machining may have significant influence on the functionality of a component. Superior
functionality can then be achieved by well optimized machining processes allowing for the generation
of compressive residual stresses, and increased surface hardness [71].

Brinksmeier et al. (2010) [71], found that the surface integrity of a lightweight component is a
precondition for the component’s functionality. Residual stresses, roughness and surface hardness can
be generated by machining processes, which thereby act as an enabler for the functional performance
of components. In general, these surface and subsurface properties are considered to have favourable
effects on the functional performance of components and brief explanation for this is as follows [71];
• Due to their ability to avoid crack initiation or restrain crack propagation, compressive
residual stresses are desired to increase fatigue life.
• Low surface roughness is one of the requirements for optical components. It also plays a
major role in non-optical components.

24
 • Finally, surface hardening is an established way to increase wear resistance and to improve the
component’s performance regarding bending strength and rolling fatigue life.

2.5.1. Surface roughness

Ezugwu et al. (2007) [25] recorded variations in surface roughness of Ti-6Al-4V machined using
PCD tools. They found that surface roughness was generally well below the stipulated rejection
criterion of 1.6µm. They also observed that the major surface damage occurring after machining Ti–
6Al–4V alloy with PCD tools were deformation of feed marks, micro-pits, and re-deposited work
material onto already machined surface. Deformation of feed marks occurred as a result of plastic
flow of material during the cutting process. Plastic flow of material on machined surfaces results in
higher surface roughness values and higher residual stress levels [25]. Micro-pit generation were
attributed to brittle fractures of hard carbide inclusion within the immediate surface during the
shearing of the workpiece material by the tool. Re-deposited materials were found to originate from
fine chip particles produced during the cutting process [25].

In the study by Che Haron et al. (2004) [72], the surface roughness values recorded for cutting speeds
of 75 and 100m/min tend to increase as the tools approached the end of their life. Highest surface
roughness value recorded was 5µm and was recorded at the end of tool life for a cutting speed of
100m/min. The surface roughness value recorded for cutting speeds of 45 and 60m/min were higher
at the initial cutting process and reduced slightly as the tools approached the end of their life. This is
probably due to adhered material covering the cutting edge.

In 2009, Sun et al. [73] conducted a study where a series of end milling experiments were conducted
to comprehensively characterize surface integrity at various milling conditions. The experimental
results show that the milled surface has an anisotropic nature with the surface roughness values
ranging from 0.6 to 1.0µm. Surface roughness values increased with feed and radial depth-of-cut
(DoC), but had less variation in the cutting speed range (see Figure 2.9) [73].

25
Figure 2.9: The effects of radial DoC (ae) on surface topography (V, 80m/min; f, 0.08mm/tooth; ap-
1.5mm) [73]

2.5.2 Surface hardness

Che-Haron et al. (2004) [72] conducted an investigation on surface integrity during rough machining
of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V with uncoated carbide cutting tools. The experiments were carried out
under dry cutting conditions. The cutting speeds selected in the experiment were 100, 75, 60 and
45m/min. They conducted microhardness tests which also showed that the workpiece material
underwent work hardening at the surface but a softer layer of material formed under that because of
over-ageing. A metallurgical study showed that a plastically deformed layer occurred directly under
the machined surface. This layer increased in thickness as cutting speed increased [72]. Figure 2.10
shows microhardness test results obtained from these studies.

26
 Figure 2.10: Microhardness of Ti-64 vs. depth below surface [72]

Work hardening of the deformed layer beneath the machined surface up to 10µm caused higher
hardness than the average hardness of the bulk material. The hardness of the subsurface at 20µm
below the machined surface was below the average bulk material hardness [72]. The softening effect
of the material at this level was probably due to over aging of titanium alloy as a result of high cutting
temperatures produced at the local surface. The low thermal conductivity of titanium alloy also
caused the temperature below the machined surface to be retained [72]. The hardness values at 70µm
beneath the machined surface increased drastically under all cutting conditions. Curves in Figure 2.10
suggest that hardening has occurred 70µm below the machined surface. The wear on the cutting edge
affects the microstructure, the greatest surface hardening was found to take place when machining
was carried out with worn tools [72].

Ginting et al. (2007) [74] also performed measurements of microhardness on titanium (Ti6242S) at
every 50µm up to 600µm beneath the machined surface and the average result for each depth were
recorded and plotted. The results in terms of microhardness versus the depth beneath the machined
surface for all machined surface samples produced by uncoated carbide tool (Tool A) and CVD-
coated alloyed carbide (Tool B) are depicted in Figures 2.11 and 2.12, respectively [74]. It should be
noted that the results obtained by both tools not only have the same trend but also start with an
average microhardness value, at 50 mm beneath the machined surface, lower than that of the bulk
material (354HV100).

The observations made indicate that there were regions of hardening and softening in the sub-surface
of the machined samples. The workpiece material was subjected to high cutting temperature and high
cutting pressure generated during machining, which resulted in a competing process between work

27
hardening and thermal softening. The soft sub-surface region then indicates that the rate of thermal
softening was much greater than that of work hardening during plastic deformation [74].

Figure 2.11: The microhardness value measured on the subsurface of machined Ti-6242S using
cutting tool A [74]

Figure 2.12: The microhardness value measured on the subsurface of machined Ti-6242S using
cutting tool B [74]

28
2.5.3 Residual stresses

Any stress that would exist in a continuum body if all external loads are removed would be termed
residual stress. It is a well-known fact that residual stresses are partly caused by any manufacturing
process that permanently changes the shape of a solid, modifies the surface or microstructure, or
results in severe temperature gradients. They are clearly inevitable consequences of the thermal-
machining processes of metal.

Machined surfaces often exhibit residual stresses, which are induced both by differential plastic
deformation and by the surface thermal gradients [75-77]. Stresses due to plastic deformation are
mechanically induced, but those due to thermal gradients may reflect phase transformations or
chemical reactions. These stresses are both dependent on the tool wear. For a sharp tool, significant
residual stresses typically do not occur at depths much greater than 50µm below the surface while for
worn out tools the stresses may occur at depths 5 to 10 times greater [19].

Residual stresses may be undesirable for two main reasons: Firstly, residual stresses give rise to
residual strains, which can cause significant distortion in thin walled workpieces. Secondly, tensile
surface residual stresses reduce the fatigue resistance of the surface [77]. This is a particular issue for
parts subjected to cyclic loading. A standard method to counter these effects is to remove most
material in initial machining passes, leaving a small thickness to be removed in the final passes to
clean up any distortion and significant surface stresses. Though expensive, this method is often
effective.

Residual stresses can be determined by experimental methods or by calculation from models of the
processes responsible for their production. The experimental methods can be destructive or non-
destructive. The destructive methods usually involve cutting or drilling operations to relax the stresses
[78]. The residual stresses are then calculated from the resulting dimension changes.

With this approach elastic strains are measured and residual stresses calculated from the elastic
properties of the materials concerned. Diffraction techniques can employ conventional X-rays,
synchrotron radiation or neutrons. In the former case only surface determinations of stress, to less
than 100µm deep, can be made unless progressive polishing away of the surface is used [78]. With
synchrotron radiation and neutrons, penetration depths of a few millimetres or centimetres,
respectively, can be achieved in specific materials. The determination of residual stresses from
models requires an accurate understanding of the processes responsible for the stresses and of the
elastic and plastic properties of the materials being investigated [78].
29
Pawade et al. (2008) [79] conducted research in order to extend the present trend prevailing in the
literature on surface integrity analysis of super-alloys (inconel and titanium included) by performing a
comprehensive investigation to analyse the nature of deformation beneath the machined surface and
arrive at the thickness of machining affected zone (MAZ). The residual stress analysis, microhardness
measurements and degree of work hardening in the machined sub-surfaces were used as criteria to
obtain the optimum machining conditions that give machined surfaces with high integrity [79]. It was
observed that the highest cutting speed, the lowest feed-rate, and the moderate DoC coupled with the
use of honed cutting edge can induce compressive residual stresses in the machined surfaces, which in
turn were found to be free of smeared areas and adhered chip particles [79]. Pawade et al. (2008) also
observed the following as regards to the effects of cutting speed, feed rate and DoC on residual stress:

• As the cutting speed changes from 125 to 300m/min, the residual stresses increase in the
tensile direction, whereas when the cutting speed increases from 300 to 475m/min, the
residual stresses change direction from tensile to compressive.

• As the feed-rate changes from 0.05 to 0.1mm/rev, there is a reversal of residual stresses from
compressive to tensile direction. But, further increase in the feed-rate to 0.15mm/rev shows a
small increase in the residual stresses in the tensile direction.

• As DoC changes from 0.50 to 0.75mm, the residual stress changes from tensile to
compressive. With further increase in the DoC to 1mm, it results into higher values of
compressive residual stresses.

The effects of cutting speed on the three main residual stress components are shown in Figure 2.13.
For repeatability, three measurements at different locations for each surface were made and the results
were averaged to give the residual stress profiles [73]. Compressive residual stresses (σ11) increase
with cutting speeds to a maximum stress of 350MPa around 80m/min. The stress then reduces as
speed is increased further (see Figure 2.13a) [73].

30
Figure. 2.13. The influence of milling parameters on surface residual stress of Ti-6Al-4V (V, 65
m/min; ae = 4mm; ap = 1.5 mm) [73]

Figure 2.13 also shows that compressive residual stress occurred in both cases where stress was
evaluated with regards to cutting speed and feed. The influences of cutting speed and feed on the
residual stress trends were observed to be quite different [73]. Furthermore, the microstructure
analysis showed that β phase becomes much smaller and severely deformed in the near surface with
the cutting speed [73]. This may cause an increase in the hardness of the machined material. In this
study, the milled surface microhardness was approximately 70–90% higher than the bulk material in
the subsurface. The variations in the microstructure changes were noted to be consistent with the
residual stress. No phase transformation was observed for these milling conditions [73].

One of the methods of eliminating high workpiece surface temperatures and thus tensile residual
stresses in the machined surface may be applying flood coolant when machining. Avoiding use of dull
31
cutting tools is also another method. These may be considered as the standard methods of controlling
residual stress. Methods such as reducing cutting speeds or increasing the relief angle of the tool may
also be used to minimize residual stresses for various materials. Reduction of tensile residual stress by
use of some of these methods, however, is a major problem which still needs investigation when
related to HSM of titanium alloys.

In a recent paper for 2010, Vela´squez et al. [80] conducted an analysis on the surface and sub-surface
of high speed machined Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Residual stress results obtained from these tests are shown
in figure 2.14 below. It was observed that the stress values were tensile in nature for high cutting
speed and compressive in nature for lower cutting speed. At a specific point (for a speed of about
100m/min) was observed that the sign and the level of stresses abruptly changed. At this point the
values obtained for plane stresses are close to zero.

Figure 2.14: Plane stresses with respect to cutting speed [80]

In this investigation, the residual stress was evaluated on the free machined surface. It was shown that
the mean macroscopic stress can increase and decrease (even to zero) according to the cutting speed.
According to this information, it is shown that a zero stress should be the result of a ‘summation’ of
tensile and compressive stresses associated to the different zones in the sample. The tensile stress
level for high cutting speed can be seen as a result of the amount of heat transferred during the cutting
process on the surface that leads to a quenching effect on the surface [80]. They demonstrated that the
average cutting force follows a complex evolution according to the cutting speed. An initial increase
in the average force value is followed by an abrupt decrease, meaning that the strain hardening is
followed by a thermal softening. For higher cutting speed, a plateau is observed followed by a gradual
decrease of the average cutting force according to the cutting speed. The plateau is explained by strain
32
hardening. Considering that the samples, the cutting tool and the operative conditions are not similar
to those mentioned in the present investigation, the results of the evolution of the residual stresses
measured by X-ray diffraction in the present work can be compared. A high compressive state
induced by strain hardening is observed, which is followed by tensile residual stresses induced by a
thermal quench of the machined surface [80].

2.6 Conclusion

This study was carried out in order to investigate the effects of cutting speed on the surface integrity
of grade 4 alloys. As discussed by Sun et al. (2009) [73], the state-of-art knowledge on surface
integrity of machined titanium components is assessed based on surface roughness, subsurface
microhardness and residual stresses. It is these three areas that made the main focus of this study
during the experimental set up. The following chapter therefore discusses the experimental set up that
was used in this investigation with respect to these three focus areas. A brief discussion was also
made on the chip morphology of the machined titanium alloys.

33
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

3.1 General remarks

This chapter primarily discusses the experimental design and protocol used for this investigation on
grade 4. It has section has 2 subsections. The first subsection constitutes the secondary component of
the chapter. It presents simple tests carried out to determine the effects of a chip breaker on tool
insets. Results from these tests are also presented in this section. These results were used to select the
appropriate tool for use in this investigation. The second subsection then constitutes the primary
component of this chapter.

3.2 Insert Evaluation

In the initial stages of this investigation it was clear that the choice of the tool to be used during the
machining would be important. Usually for research applications simple tool geometries made up of
appropriate tool materials are used because they introduce fewer variables into the fray. Unfortunately
these tools may not be the appropriately recommended tools to be used with the current state of
technology.

Sandvik is a well-known tool manufacturer and supplier. Their recommended cutting tools for outside
turning of titanium alloys include a chip breaker technology. It was therefore thought appropriate to
briefly investigate its effect when compared to a cutting tool without the chip breaker technology. An
initial experimental investigation was therefore conducted to compare its effects on surface roughness
and tool wear only, as these are typically the most important properties for general manufacture.

3.2.1 Experimental design

The experimental matrix for the initial tests is presented in tables 3.1a and b. Two grade 5 alloy bars
each of length 250mm and diameter 55mm were machined. One bar was machined using inserts with
chip breaker while the other was machined with inserts without the chip breaker technology. A
cutting speed range of 50-330m/min was used. A new cutting edge on the tool insert was used for
each cut/test as presented in Table 3.1a. Machining of both bars was done at different cutting speeds
while DoC, feed rate and length of each cut were kept constant. All cuts were lubricated with a
mixture of Castrol Syntilo 500 and water as the cutting fluid.

34
 Table 3.1a: Experimental matrix

Workpiece Longitudinal Chip No Chip

Speed rotation position breaker breaker
(m/min) (rpm) (mm) technology technology
50 295 -218 Test 1 Test 16
70 413 -205 Test 2 Test 17
90 531 -192 Test 3 Test 18
110 649 -179 Test 4 Test 19
130 767 -166 Test 5 Test 20
150 884 -153 Test 6 Test 21
170 1003 -140 Test 7 Test 22
190 1121 -127 Test 8 Test 23
210 1239 -114 Test 9 Test 24
230 1356 -101 Test 10 Test 25
250 1474 -87.7 Test 11 Test 26
270 1592 -74.7 Test 12 Test 27
290 1710 -61.7 Test 13 Test 28
310 1828 -48.7 Test 14 Test 29
330 1946 -35.7 Test 15 Test 30

Table 3.1b: Constant cutting parameters during machining

Bar diameter (mm) 55

Cut width (mm) 13
Length of cut (mm) 11.23
DoC (mm) 1
Feed rate 0.2mm/rev

3.2.2 Experimental protocol

The following protocol was followed throughout;

1. Prepare lathe for appropriate speed
2. Fit new cutting edge by rotation of the insert or new insert
3. Make cut ensuring flood cut is maintained
4. Reset cutting speed and make new cuts as appropriate

35
 5. Remove bar and conduct surface roughness tests and insert wear tests

3.2.2.1 Workpiece material

Grade 5 was used as the workpiece material because of its availability at the time. It has higher
mechanical properties when compared to grade 4 (see Table 3.6). Tool flank wear on inserts used for
machining grade 5 was therefore expected to be more pronounced than if grade 4 was machined. It
was then expected that less machining time would be needed to obtain considerable tool wear on the
inserts used to machine grade 5. Chemical composition and mechanical properties of the grade 5 alloy
as used are presented in Table 3.6.

Figure 3.1: Machined grade 5 bars

3.2.2.2 Machine tool

Turning was conducted using an Efamatic RT-20 S CNC lathe (Figure 2.4). This is a slant bed CNC
lathe with a 200mm three jaw power chuck. It has high accuracy, excellent production repeatability
and it allows for fast cycle times, excellent chip flow and use of high pressure coolant. This lathe has
a maximum spindle speed of 4500rpm, an x-axis travel of 260mm diameter and a z-axis travel of
450mm. Both axes have heavy-duty linear guides with large diameter ball-screws that are supported
by precision angular bearings. Detailed technical specifications for this lathe are presented in
Appendix A4.1.

36
3.2.2.3 Cutting tools
Tool inserts used in the machining process are shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. The insert with chip
breaker is coded CNMX 1204 A2 SM H13A while that with no chip breaker has the code CNMA
1204 08 H1P. The tool material for these two inserts is slightly different. The insert with a chip
breaker is made up from H13A while the insert without a chip breaker is made up from H1P. Both are
uncoated tungsten carbide with H1P being slightly harder but more brittle than H13A. Both inserts are
recommended for cutting of hard materials.

Figure 3.2: Details for Sandvik tool insert with chip breaker

37
 Figure 3.3: Details for Sandvik tool insert with no chip breaker

3.2.2.4 Tool wear examinations

An Olympus SZX 16 stereo microscope, figure 3.4, was used to measure the flank wear on the tool
inserts. Images of the tool wear were taken with a magnification range of 25X to 63X. This
microscope has a measuring tool that enables one to determine length and various dimensions. Tool
flank wear was determined using this tool on the microscope. Images of the used inserts and flank
wear obtained on this microscope are presented in Appendix B.

Figure 3.4: Olympus SZX 16 stereo microscope

38
3.2.2.5 Surface roughness measurements

Surface roughness measurements were done using the TR 200 hand held surface roughness tester (see
Figure 3.5). Detailed technical specifications of this tester are provided in Appendix A4. A trace
length of 5mm was used throughout. Three surface roughness measurements were done at different
positions along the direction of feed as well as along the circumference of the bars (Figure 3.6).
Position 1 was towards the start of the length of cut while positions 2 and 3 were in the centre and
towards the end of the length of cut respectively. The average roughness for each cutting speed was
then determined from the three Ra values on these positions. Detailed data of these surface roughness
values are presented in Appendix B.

Figure 3.5: TR200 hand held surface roughness tester

Figure 3.6: Model for machined bar showing positions on which surface roughness measurements
were taken

39
3.2.3 Results on insert evaluation

3.2.3.1 Surface roughness

The surface roughness values, as obtained from the billet machined using the insert with chip breaker,
are presented in Table 3.2 and Figure 3.7. These tables and graphs are presented in terms of the
positions (see figure 3.6) at which they were measured. At least three roughness measurements were
done for each cutting speed. An average of these roughness values was then obtained and presented in
the same tables and figures. This was then used as the surface roughness for that particular cutting
speed. The surface roughness values for the billet machined using insert with no chip breaker are
presented in table 3.3 and figure 3.8. A comparison of the surface roughness results obtained when
machining using these two different inserts is presented in the final part of this section.

3.2.3.2 Inserts with chip breaker technology

The general trend obtained when machining using this insert shows that surface roughness is
dependent on the cutting speed used. In general, higher roughness values were obtained at the
extremes of the cutting speed. At the intermediate cutting speeds, relatively low surface roughness
values were obtained. A similar trend was observed when roughness results were presented in terms
of the various positions versus the cutting speed (see Figure 3.7). The preferable working range was
then observed to be approximately 70m/min – 290m/min. Sub-micron results (Ra) were obtained for
cutting speeds up to approximately 290m/min.

40
 Table 3.2: Surface roughness values obtained by machining using an insert with chip a breaker

Speed Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Average STD.

(m/min) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) DEV.
50 0.44 0.59 0.53 0.52 0.08
70 1.12 0.66 0.59 0.79 0.29
90 0.52 0.54 0.92 0.66 0.23
110 0.58 0.69 0.89 0.72 0.16
130 0.52 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.01
150 0.44 0.48 0.41 0.44 0.04
170 0.9 0.38 0.37 0.55 0.30
190 0.44 0.5 0.68 0.54 0.12
210 0.52 0.51 0.53 0.52 0.01
230 0.46 0.58 0.53 0.53 0.06
250 0.43 0.5 1.49 0.81 0.59
270 0.65 0.76 1.28 0.9 0.34
290 0.74 0.75 1.27 0.92 0.30
310 1.24 1.15 1.35 1.24 0.10
330 1.69 1.4 1.16 1.42 0.27

Figure 3.7: Surface roughness as a function of cutting speed at different positions for a tool insert with
chip breaker (line is 2nd order polynomial fit of average values)

41
3.2.3.3 Inserts with no chip breaker technology

The general roughness trend (figure 4.3) for machining using the insert with no chip breaker is similar
as that produced by an insert with chip breaker. Appropriate working range for this insert also appears
to be similar (70m/min – 290m/min). Higher cutting speeds seem to have less effect on the surface
roughness as compared to the drastic increase in surface roughness for the inserts with chip breaker.

Table 3.3: Surface roughness values obtained by machining using an insert without a chip breaker

Speed Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Average STD.

(m/min) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) DEV.
50 1.63 1.74 1.73 1.7 0.06
70 1.34 1.45 1.44 1.41 0.06
90 1.62 1.7 1.76 1.69 0.07
110 1.68 1.73 1.79 1.73 0.06
130 1.36 1.37 1.26 1.33 0.06
150 1.63 1.79 1.68 1.7 0.08
170 1.54 1.54 1.47 1.52 0.04
190 1.48 1.61 1.45 1.51 0.09
210 1.36 1.48 1.29 1.38 0.10
230 1.69 1.76 1.96 1.81 0.14
250 1.52 1.59 1.39 1.5 0.10
270 2 2.08 1.91 2 0.09
290 1.55 2.16 2.01 1.91 0.32
310 0.92 2.2 1.92 1.68 0.67
330 1.29 2 2.13 1.81 0.45

42
 Figure 3.8: Surface roughness as a function of cutting speed at different positions for a tool insert
without a chip breaker (line is 2nd order polynomial fit of average values)

The surface roughness values produced by machining using tool inserts with a chip breaker were
significantly lower than those produced by machining using inserts without a chip breaker (Figure
3.9). Cutting speed also had greater effects on the surface roughness values produced by machining
with tool inserts with a chip breaker. Roughness values were high at the extremes of the cutting speed
and lower at the intermediate cutting speeds. These roughness values were mostly submicron for a
significant part of the cutting speed range used. The surface roughness values obtained when
machining using the inserts without a chip breaker did not portray any particular pattern as cutting
speed was varied. The average surface roughness for this tool insert was approximately 1.6µm for a
great part of the cutting speed range. This significant difference in the effects of the chip breaker
technology on the surface roughness of the machined titanium can clearly be seen in figure 3.9.

43
Figure 3.9: Surface roughness presented with respect to cutting speed - a comparison of the two tool
insert types

3.2.3.4 Tool flank wear

The flank wear measured for the two different insert types are presented in table 3.4 and figures 3.10
– 3.11. Both inserts have similar wear behaviour in respect to cutting speed. They both show an
increase in the tool flank wear as speed is increased. A marginally wider range of cutting speeds is
observed when machining using inserts without a chip breaker. Edge breaking occurs at
approximately 250m/min for the insert without a chip breaker. This edge breaking occurred at
approximately 210m/min for the insert with a chip breaker (see Table 4.7). In both cases, use of
inserts at cutting speeds higher than 270m/min was impractical.

Flank wear increased dramatically at cutting speeds in excess of 230m/min for the insert with a chip
breaker. The insert without a chip breaker displayed similar behaviour but at a slightly higher speed of
250m/min. Wear behaviour is usually affected by tool hardness. The insert without a chip breaker is
slightly harder and therefore started to breakdown at a slightly higher speed.

44
Table 3.4: Comparison of tool flank wear for inserts with chip breaker and with no chip breaker
technology
Tool Flank wear (µm)
Speed Chip No Chip
(m/min) Breaker Breaker
50 69.1 45.2
70 63.8 69.1
90 74.4 85.0
110 85.0 260
130 101 109
150 111 135
170 132 111
190 172 138
210 369 156
230 255 167
250 701 209
270 802 837
290 895 781
310 1068 1405
330 1262 1349

1600
With Chip Breaker With No Chip Breaker
1400

1200
Flank Wear [µm]

1000

800

600

400

200

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Cutting Speed [m/min]

Figure 3.10: Tool flank wear presented as a function of cutting speed

45
 Figure 3.11a: Images of flank wear on inserts with chip breaker showing sudden increase in wear
between cutting speeds 230m/min (255µm) and 250m/min (702µm)

Figure 3.11b: Images of flank wear on inserts with no chip breaker showing sudden increase in wear
between cutting speeds 250m/min (210µm) and 270m/min (837µm)

3.2.4 Conclusion

The data clearly show that the chip breaker technology has a beneficial effect on the surface finish
with little difference when comparing tool life. For this reason alone, it is envisaged that most
manufacturers would use the recommended tool insert with chip breaker technology. To make this
investigation therefore more appropriate the tool with chip breaker technology is used for further
testing

46
3.3 Grade 4 surface integrity testing

3.3.1 Experimental design

There are several known factors that affect surface integrity of a machined material. Some of these
factors are machining parameters (feed rate, cutting speed, DoC), machining processes (turning,
milling, grinding), tooling materials (tool holders, tool types) and even the material being machined.
It was therefore deemed necessary to determine variables that would be applicable to this
investigation. Cutting speed and DoC were then set as the variables while feed rate was kept constant.
In this investigation, only surface integrity resulting from the turning of grade 4 was evaluated.
Several investigations on surface integrity have been carried out using similar variables. These
investigations provide a basis of comparison for this investigation. There, however, have been limited
investigations on grade 4 making this investigation fairly unique.

Two billets of grade 4 (length 250mm and diameter 76.2mm) were machined at various cutting
speeds as laid out in Table 3.5. Each billet was machined at a DoC different from the other (0.2mm
and 1mm).

Table 3.5: Experimental matrix for grade 4

Rough Machining Finish Machining

(Feed = 0.20mm/rev, (Feed= 0.20mm/rev,
DoC =1.0mm) DoC = 0.2mm)
Lubricated Lubricated
70 Test 1 Test 11
Cutting Speed (m/min)

90 Test 2 Test 12
110 Test 3 Test 13
130 Test 4 Test 14
150 Test 5 Test 15
170 Test 6 Test 16
190 Test 7 Test 17
210 Test 8 Test 18
230 Test 9 Test 19
250 Test 10 Test 20

47
3.3.2 Experimental program

3.3.2.1 Workpiece material

The mechanical and chemical properties of grade 4 (as tested) are presented in Table 3.6. The
properties for grades 2 and 5 [7, 16] are also presented in Table 3.6 for comparison purposes.
Properties for grades 2 and 5 were obtained from the study of HSM of titanium alloys [82].

Table 3.6: Mechanical properties and chemistry of titanium grades considered in this study

Mechanical Properties Chemistry

Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 5
Tensile
Strength 607 706 990 N (%) .005 0.006 0.01
(MPa)
Yield
Strength 400 548 890 C (%) .008 0.008 0.01
(MPa)
Elongation
28 24 20 H (%) .0026 0.001 0.002
(%)
Hardness
221 285 363 Fe (%) .1520 0.29 0.03
(HV100)
O (%) .2240 0.33 0.06
Al (%) 6.2
V (%) 4.2
Ti (%) Remainder Remainder Remainder

48
3.3.2.2 Machining process

The experimental set up and lathe used is similar as previously described in paragraph 3.2.2 with the
basic cutting parameters presented in table 3.7.

Table 3.7: Constant cutting parameters

Bar Diameter (mm) 75

Cut width (mm) 13
Length of cut (mm) 15.3
DoC (mm) 0.2, 1
Feed Rate 0.2mm/rev

3.3.2.3 Cutting tools

Sandvik CNMX 1204 A2SM H13A inserts utilizing a chip breaker technology was used for all
machining. A new cutting edge was used for each cut.

49
3.3.2.4 Sample preparation protocol

After machining, samples had to be removed from the billet material for surface integrity testing. The
sample preparation protocol involved the following steps:

• Production of plate-form samples from the machined bar was done by use of the wire electro-
discharge machining (Figure 3.12). Wire EDM was chosen because it is a relatively fast,
simple and accurate way of removing specimen from machined bars without introducing
further unwanted residual stress to the surface.

Figure 3.12: Plate-form sample cut by wire EDM

• Samples were then mounted in a mounting press (see figure 3.13) using polyfast resin.
Polyfast is a resin recommended for mounting samples that are to undergo SEM examination.
This resin has carbon filler which enhances edge retention and conductivity for SEM testing.

50
 Figure 3.13: LECO mounting press

• The mounted samples were ground mechanically using various grades of silica paper (SiC).
This was done using a LaboPol 21, an automated grinding and polishing machine (Figure
3.14).

Figure 3.14: Struers grinding and polishing machine

51
3.3.2.5 Surface roughness

The surface roughness measurements were conducted in a similar manner and utilized the same
equipment as described in paragraph 3.2.2.

3.3.2.6 Hardness

Vickers hardness tests were done on mounted samples using a TIME MH-6 digital microhardness
tester (Figure 3.15). The tests were in accordance to the ASTM E384-99 specifications. All tests were
done on un-etched, prepared samples of uniform surfaces. A 100gm indentation load was used with
10s dwell time upon indentation. Care was taken to ensure that test loads formed unambiguous
indentations on the prepared surfaces and that lens focusing was performed to the best possible
setting. It was noted during measurement of the indentations that diagonals were of similar length and
ratio.

Multiple hardness readings were taken from each specimen. These readings were taken with respect
to distance from machined surface. Care was taken to ensure that these readings were done at uniform
distances below the machined surfaces. This also ensured that the tests that produced poorly shaped
indentations or illogical data on one set of readings were either verified or negated.

Figure 3.15: Semi automated micro hardness tester

52
3.3.2.7 White layer thickness

White layer thickness was evaluated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The samples were
placed in a JEOL SEM (Figure 3.16) and images were taken at magnifications of 50X, 100X and
1000X. White layer observed using SEM was measured at different points per sample and an average
taken. In all tests, operator skill was required to obtain the best levels of focus, contrast and brightness
so that features in the produced images were easily detected.

Figure 3.16: Jeol scanning electron microscope (SEM)

3.3.2.8 Residual stress

Residual stress measurements were done using a Bruker X-ray Diffractometer with Euclidian cradle.
Tests were conducted on the machined surface of the samples hence no sample preparation was
required. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) method may be used to identify the phases of a polycrystalline
material through the identification of diffraction peaks as a specimen is rotated through a certain angle
2θ. In polycrystalline samples, residual stress causes a change in the lattice spacing of the diffracting
lattice planes. This is characterized by a shift in diffraction peak position [81]. This shift in the peak
position, coupled with the shape and width of the diffracted line may also be used to determine other
microstructural parameters such as the percentage of the alloying elements, crystalline size as well as
defects such as dislocations [81, 83]. Figure 3.17 shows the D8 Gadds diffractometer used to
determine residual stresses and Table 3.8 indicates parameters used during measurements.
53
 Figure 3.17: Bruker D8 X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD) used for residual stress tests

Table 3.8: Measurement parameters for strain determination on the D8 GADDS diffractometer.

Parameter Value
hkl reflection 213
2θ [°] 67.469
Tilt range ψ [°] 0-77
Frame width, ∆ψ [°] 7
Azimuth orientation φ [°] 0, 4 5, 90,180,225,270
Sample-detector distance [cm] 15

3.3.2.9 Surface irregularities

A visual investigation was also conducted to identify and catalogue surface effects and irregularities
induced by the machining process. This was conducted by once again utilizing the scanning electron
microscopy. No specific sample preparation was required so the as machined surfaces were
investigated directly.

3.3.2.10 Chip morphology

Chip morphology was conducted by using both optical and scanning microscope. The stereo
microscope as described in paragraph 3.2.2 was used to evaluate dimensions such as chip thickness
and chip width. The SEM was mainly used to observe the physical changes that occurred on the chips
due to the differences in the machining parameters used.

54
3.4 Conclusion

The current chapter presented the experimental program as followed during this research. Initially an
investigation is described to make an informed decision on what tool geometry to use. This is
followed by a description of the experimental program highlighting the equipment used and test
protocol followed. The results obtained are presented in the following chapter.

55
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 General remarks

This investigation was conducted to determine the effects of HSM on the surface integrity of titanium
grade 4. Tests were conducted on the selected three surface integrity indicators, surface roughness,
hardness, and residual stress. White layer thickness and chip morphology were also measured. Results
from these tests are presented mainly in form of tables and charts evaluated from raw data. The raw
data from all the tests conducted are available in Appendix C. Discussions of these results ensue
partly during presentation of the result and mostly at the end of each relevant section. These results
constitute the main component of this study.

4.2 Surface roughness

Surface roughness measurements were taken at various positions as discussed in 3.2.2 and shown in
Figure 3.6. Evaluation and discussion of these results were then made with reference to the cutting
speed, DoC and partly with reference to the position were measurements were taken on the machined
bar. The surface roughness parameter used in these results was the average surface roughness (Ra).
Discussion on the surface roughness follows with reference to the standard fine finish of 1.6µm Ra
[25]. The variation of the surface roughness as a function of cutting speed for the 1mm and 0.2mm
depths of cut are presented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, and Figures 4.1 and 4.3. Figures 4.2 and 4.4 present
roughness data measured at different intervals of the full cut length of 13.5mm. Position 1 is
associated with the surface roughness at the beginning of the specific cut. Position 3 is associated with
‘near’ the end of the cut length and position 2 is then an intermediate value.

4.2.1 Roughness at 1mm depth of cut

The average surface roughness values for the rough cuts indicate that surface roughness remained
below the standard fine finish of 1.6µm for all cutting speeds (Figure 4.1). Roughness started off as
being higher (40% of the standard fine finish) at low cutting speeds before decreasing to the lowest
values of approximately 31% of the standard fine finish at some intermediate cutting speeds of
approximately 150m/min – 210m/min. Machining at high cutting speeds (230m/min – 250m/min)
resulted in higher roughness values, approximately 42% of the standard fine finish. Ginting et al.
(2007) [74] found similar results for dry machined titanium alloys (Ti-6242S). In their study, they
found that for various types of cutting tools and feed rates, high roughness values were obtained at a

56
low cutting speed of 100m/min (termed low level in their study). They obtained the best roughness
values at cutting speeds of 110 – 115m/min (mid-level). The roughness then increased as cutting
speeds were increased further to a cutting speed of 125m/min (high-level) [74].

Table 4.1: Surface roughness values at various cutting speeds, 1mm DoC

SPEED Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Average STD.

(m/min) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) Ra (µm) DEV.
70 0.65 0.68 0.75 0.7 0.05
90 0.63 0.65 0.73 0.67 0.05
110 0.42 0.41 0.43 0.42 0.01
130 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.75 0.02
150 0.68 0.53 0.52 0.57 0.09
170 0.34 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.02
190 0.58 0.51 0.53 0.54 0.04
210 0.75 0.38 0.43 0.52 0.20
230 0.82 0.4 0.5 0.77 0.52
250 0.93 0.49 0.74 0.72 0.22

Figure 4.1: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed (line is a second order
polynomial fit)

57
Figure 4.2 shows that the samples that were machined at low cutting speeds had their best surface
roughness values at measuring position 2. High roughness values were obtained at measuring
positions 1 and 3. These values were approximately 30% and 40% of the 1.6µm standard fine finish
respectively. This finding was related to similar results from a study by Ulutan et al. (2010) [84]. In
their study Ulutan & Ozel noted that when a new cutting tool was used, the surface roughness values
found were higher than those obtained from machining with slightly used tools. The tool wear close to
a cutting tool’s ‘half-life’ resulted in slightly improved surface roughness values than when the tool
was new [84].

Ulutan et al. (2010) [84] attributed these improvements in the roughness values to the effects of tool
wear. They considered this effect to be the ‘warming up’ of the tool material [84]. They believed that
new tools have micron-level sharp edges or peaks on their surfaces. These edges can be trimmed by
the machining process to create a smoother contact surface with the workpiece [84]. Therefore, when
a cutting tool has been slightly used, its performance on the workpiece is marginally improved such
that the surface roughness values decrease [84]. However, when the tool is used further, it begins to
wear even more, and this causes anomalies in the tool-workpiece contact surface, which increases the
surface roughness values significantly [65, 84].

Figure 4.2 and Table 4.1 also show that at the low and intermediate cutting speeds, there was less
difference in the surface roughness values obtained from the three positions (Std. Dev. < 0.1).
Referring to the study by Ulutan et al. (2010) [84], this may be used to indicate that there was no
significant tool wear at these cutting speeds. High cutting speeds resulted in significant roughness
variations (Std. Dev. > 0.1) when observed with respect to measuring positions. At these high cutting
speeds (210m/min – 250m/min), the elevated roughness values were obtained at positions 1 and 3,
approximately 52% and 35% of the standard fine finish respectively. An average surface roughness
value of approximately 26% of the standard fine finish was obtained at position 2. This, again, is in
agreement to the results by Ulutan et al. where a cutting tool’s ‘half-life’ resulted in improved surface
roughness.

58
 Figure 4.2: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed at different positions

4.2.2 Roughness at 0.2mm depth of cut

The general trend for surface roughness, for a finishing cut (0.2mm), for all measuring positions
indicate that roughness values were once again higher at low cutting speeds. These values then
gradually decreased as the cutting speed was increased. Roughness remained in the region of 70% of
the 1.6µm standard fine finish [25] for both intermediate and high cutting speeds (Figure 4.3).

Results shown in Figure 4.4 indicate that there was little variations in the roughness in terms of the
position at which measurement were conducted for both intermediate and high cutting speeds. Low
cutting speeds show slight variation in roughness. The surface roughness decreased to minimum as
cutting speed was increased. Further increase in cutting speed did not result in high roughness values
as was observed for the 1mm DoC.

59
 Table 4.2: Surface roughness values at various cutting speeds, 0.2mm DoC

SPEED Position 1 Ra Position 2 Ra Position 3 Ra Average STD.

(m/min) (µm) (µm) (µm) Ra (µm) DEV.
70 0.56 0.69 0.75 0.67 0.10
90 0.53 0.64 0.66 0.61 0.07
110 0.89 0.84 0.9 0.88 0.03
130 0.6 0.6 0.68 0.63 0.05
150 0.38 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.05
170 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.46 0.02
190 0.65 0.52 0.33 0.5 0.16
210 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.02
230 0.42 0.4 0.38 0.4 0.02
250 0.57 0.59 0.64 0.6 0.04

Figure 4.3: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed (line is a second order
polynomial fit)

60
 Figure 4.4: Surface roughness (Ra) presented as a function of cutting speed at differents positions

4.2.3 Comparison of surface roughness for 1mm and 0.2mm depth of cuts

The results presented in the previous section indicate that surface roughness produced by machining,
both rough and finish machining, may be dependent on the cutting speed used. The roughness values
were relatively high at low speeds (Figure 4.5). These values then decreased to a minimum as the
cutting speeds were increased to some intermediate cutting speeds. This decrease in surface roughness
was, however more significant for the finish cuts than it was for the rough cuts specifically for speeds
greater than 150m/min. Further increase in the cutting speed resulted in an increase in the surface
roughness for rough cuts. When the variation in roughness was evaluated with respect to the
machining positions, significant roughness changes were observed for rough cuts when compared to
finish cuts.

The surface roughness behaviour measured at a DoC of 1mm portrayed similar behaviour as that
explained by Ulutan et al. (2010) [84] specifically at high cutting speeds. Machining at these elevated
parameters, in this case high DoC and high cutting speeds, may have caused more tool wear inducing
the higher surface roughness. Che Haron et al. (2004) [72] indicated that materials tend to adhere to
the cutting tool when machining using elevated machining parameters which may also explain these
high roughness values. Optimal roughness values for rough cuts were obtained at intermediate cutting
speeds and when a slightly worn cutting tool was used.

At depths of cut of 0.2mm, slight roughness variations were noticed at low cutting speeds when the
roughness values were evaluated in terms of cut length. These may have been caused by the effect of
61
the micron chip edges on the new tool as explained by Ulutan et al (2010) [84]. This variation almost
disappeared at intermediate and high cutting speeds. It would seem that a new cutting edge produces a
certain roughness which, according to the literature, is a function of the finite surface roughness of the
tool edge surface roughness. During initial machining, the surface finish improves slightly because of
wear and then produces the best surface finish [84]. As the tool wears further the surface finish then
becomes progressively poorer. This process is accelerated at high speeds and large depth of cuts
because of the increasing thermal loading that high cutting speed and large DoC imply. This may then
imply that limited tool wear occurred for finish cuts.

When evaluating the surface roughness with respect to cutting speeds only, the high surface
roughness values at low cutting speeds may have been caused by the low speed frictional and welding
effects along with higher plastic deformation. Due to the low thermal conductivity in the titanium,
high cutting speeds result in elevated temperatures that cause damage to both the tool and the
workpiece. Machining with worn out tool may also have contributed to the resulting high surface
roughness on the material. Optimal surface roughness values were obtained at intermediate cutting
speeds. Higher cutting speeds may cause tool wear because of deformation on the flank face or of the
workpiece material adhering to the tool nose [72].

In general higher roughness values were observed at the lower and higher speeds. The lowest
roughness was obtained at intermediate speeds centred at approximately 150-230m/min. This
intermediate cutting speed range spanned a wider range (150 – 230m/min) for the lower cut depth
(see Figure 4.5). A fair amount of scatter was present especially at the lower speeds of approximately
120m/min. An attempt was made to quantify this scatter and also, to clearly define the ‘intermediate’
cutting speed range where low surface roughness values were obtained. This attempt was
unsuccessful as the current results had to be compared with the data of the other alloys (Ti-45Al-2Nb-
2Mn-0.8%vol [85], Ti-6246 [18], Ti-6242S [74]) from similar studies. This failed mainly because the
cutting speed ranges used in these investigations for these alloys were vastly different.

Rapid tool deterioration was observed at cutting speeds in excess of approximately 210m/min for the
1mm cut depth and slightly higher for the 0.2mm cut. Che Haron (2001) [18] also found the same
roughness trend for Ti-6246 but at different cutting speed levels when compared to grade 4. This may
have been due to the difference in the machining parameters used as well as the material machined. In
their study, high cutting parameters (feed rates of 0.25-0.35mm/rev and DoC of 2mm) were used.
Turning was however used for both cases. Further testing will then have to be conducted to determine
whether the differences in the speed levels was machine or process related.
62
 Table 4.3: Comparison of surface roughness values between roughing and finishing cuts

Speed Rough Finish

(m/min) (Ra-µm) (Ra-µm)
70 0.7 0.67
90 0.67 0.61
110 0.43 0.88
130 0.76 0.63
150 0.58 0.44
170 0.36 0.47
190 0.55 0.5
210 0.53 0.44
230 0.78 0.4
250 0.73 0.61

Figure 4.5: General surface roughness rends presented as a function of cutting speed

4.2.4 Comparison of surface roughness for grades 2, 4 and 5 alloys

Surface roughness results for titanium grades 2, 4 and 5 are presented in Tables 4.4 – 4.5 and Figures
4.6 – 4.7. Grades 2 and 5 were machined under the same conditions and using the same parameters as
grade 4 [82]. Surface roughness for grade 4 was found to be generally higher than that of grades 2 and
5. These results also show that surface roughness for all these grades improved with an increase in the
cutting speed then gradually became high with a further increase in cutting speed. Unlike with grade

63
4, grades 2 and 5 had better surface roughness for rough cuts than they had for finish cuts. However,
these results also indicate that when the surface roughness was evaluated with respect to cutting
speeds, the trends for all these titanium grades are similar in all the cases [82].

The observed maximum surface roughness values for these titanium grades may have occurred at
cutting speed that coincides with rapid tool deterioration. The speed, at which rapid tool deterioration
may occur was, as expected, inversely related to the mechanical properties of the work piece material.
Grade 2 was the least sensitive to cutting speed followed by grade 4 and then grade 5 which was the
most sensitive. This was best illustrated when comparing the spanned cutting speed range for the
minimum surface roughness. This range was the widest for grade 2 and smallest for grade 5 with
grade 4 in between. This was once again to be expected as a result of their different yield strengths.
The higher strength materials necessitated higher power levels (and therefore heat build-up) that may
have produced rapid localised heating which in turn may eventually have caused rapid tool
degradation.

Table 4.4: Surface roughness for various grades of titanium machined at 1mm DoC (Gr.2 & Gr. 5
Ref. 82)

Speed Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 5

[m/min] Ra [µm] Ra [µm] Ra [µm]
70 0.55 0.70 0.31
90 0.67
100 0.51 0.43
110 0.43
130 0.76
150 0.28 0.58 0.25
170 0.36
190 0.55
200 0.39 0.36
210 0.53
230 0.78
250 0.34 0.73
270
290
300 0.36
350 0.4
400 0.52

64
Figure 4.6: Surface roughness presented as a function of cutting speed for a DoC of 1mm (Gr. 2 & Gr.
5 Ref. 82)

Table 4.5: Surface roughness for various grades of titanium machined at 0.2mm DoC (Gr. 2 & Gr. 5
Ref. 82)

Speed Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 5

[m/min] Ra [µm] Ra [µm] Ra [µm]
50 0.52 -- --
70 0.67 0.59
90 0.61
100 0.25
110 0.88
130 0.63
150 0.54 0.44 0.35
170 0.47
190 0.50
200 0.32
210 0.44
230 0.40
250 0.61 0.46
270
290
300 0.44
450 0.63

65
Figure 4.7: Surface roughness presented as a function of cutting speed for a DoC of 1mm (Gr. 2 & Gr.
5 Ref. 82)

66
4.3 Surface and sub-surface hardness

Sub-surface hardness measurements were conducted to evaluate the effect of machining on the
surface and subsurface material properties. Hardness was measured from approximately 30µm
beneath the machined surface to 1000µm. Edge integrity and measurement scale problems made
measurements lower than 30µm difficult. A minimum of three measurements per depth were taken.
Average hardness and deviation from the bulk hardness for each depth was then calculated. Bulk
material hardness was measured in the far field of various samples and averaged out at 285HV100.
Hardness values in the range of ±2 standard deviations from the bulk material hardness were
considered to be in the acceptable bulk microhardness range [25]. Values outside this range were
considered altered by the machining process and accounted as the machining-affected zone (MAZ).

4.3.1 Hardness at 1mm depth of cut

Figure 4.8 presents hardness trends, for different cutting speeds, plotted as a function of depth for the
rough cut. A manually drawn trend line illustrates the overall trend. This clearly illustrates that the
machining introduced hardness changes up to a depth of approximately 450µm. Mantle et al. (2001)
[85] and Ginting et al. (2007) [74] measured similar depths, albeit slightly lower (300µm), for Ti-
6246 for depths of cuts varying between 0.5 and 0.2mm during milling. This alteration to the near
surface hardness may be explained as result of the interaction between the plastic deformation and the
associated heating during the cutting process.

An initial increase of hardness near the surface (<60µm) is followed by a dramatic drop at
approximately 100µm. This is especially evident at the lowest cutting speed of 70m/min (see Figure
4.9). Softening of approximately 20HV100 below the bulk material hardness is displayed. This is
similar as obtained by Che-Haron (2001) [18] during turning of Ti-6246. He explained the initial
hardening as a result of work hardening and the softening as being caused by the over-ageing of the
materials [18]. Che-Haron et al. (2004) [72] found that a work hardened surface layer, with higher
hardness than the bulk hardness, existed up to a depth of 100µm. They also found that the subsurface
hardness at about 200µm was less than the bulk material in the turned Ti–6Al–4V surface. On the
other hand, Ezugwu et al. (2007) [25] reported an all softened sub-surface region on Ti-6Al-4V turned
with high pressure coolant. Hashimoto et al. (2006) [26] explained that the apparent paradox of
“surface softening” was caused by the edge effect on a measured surface during micro indentation.

67
In the current results for grade 4, initially, the surface is severely work hardened during the cutting
process. Although the cutting temperature may be high cooling occurs quickly via the flood cooling
process and the near surface material is locked into this highly work hardened state. At around 100µm
the temperature is sufficiently high and the cooling rate sufficiently low that the material in this
region remains at this high temperature for long enough that substantial thermal softening occurs.
This softening effect and region is reduced with an increase in cutting speed and nearly disappears
altogether at a cutting speed of 250m/min (see Figures 4.9 – 4.11). This is probably due to the
increased surface cooling rate associated with higher speeds.

The softening region is immediately followed by what seems to be a re-attaining of the overall surface
work hardening trend with an associated increase in hardness that then eventually drops to the bulk
material hardness. In essence this then implies that the machining introduces a localized work
hardening up to a depth of approximately 450µm. The maximum hardness at the surface then falls to
eventually attain the bulk material hardness. Because of local transient heat transfer behaviour a
region between approximately 50 and 150µm depth develops where thermal softening occurs. With
an increase in cutting speed this changes as the thermal load and cooling effects changes.

Another interesting observation that was made was that the smallest heat affected zone (in depth)
occurred at the intermediate speed of 170m/min which also corresponds to the speed where the best
overall surface finish was observed. It is believed that this speed corresponds to a heat transfer
behavioural change where the localised softening effect starts to disappear and tool deterioration
associated with high local surface temperatures starts to influence behaviour. Further investigation is
probably required to confirm this.

68
Figure 4.8: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for different cutting speeds

Figure 4.9: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 70m/min cutting speed

69
Figure 4.10: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 170m/min cutting speed

Figure 4.11: Micro hardness depth profile for 1mm DoC for 250m/min cutting speed

70
4.3.2 Hardness at 0.2mm depth of cut

In essence the surface hardening behaviour of the finishing cut was similar to the rough cut as
described in the previous paragraph (see Figure 4.12). The biggest difference was observed however
in the depth and extent of the heat softening region that was observed in the rough cut behaviour.
Softening to hardness lower than the bulk material hardness did not occur. At intermediate and higher
cutting speed no softening effect was displayed at all. A gradual reduction in hardness from the
maximum value at the surface was evident. This difference in behaviour stems directly from the lower
thermal load imposed by the lower cut depth although similar maximum hardening behaviour is
displayed because of the cutting process.

Figure 4.12: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for different cutting speeds

71
Figure 4.13: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 170m/min cutting speed

Figure 4.14: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 70m/min cutting speed

72
Figure 4.15: Micro hardness depth profile for 0.2mm DoC for 250m/min cutting speed

73
4.4 Residual stress

Residual stress is defined as the stress that still exists in an elastic body after all the external loads are
removed [86]. These stresses are the expected consequences of thermal-mechanical processing of
metals [87-88]. In the study of these machining induced residual stresses, one or more stress
components are usually investigated [87-88]. The stress components investigated in this study were
the longitudinal (σ11), transverse (σ22) (see figure 4.16), principal and Von Mises stresses. The
longitudinal stresses (axial direction - σ11) corresponding to cutting direction and the transverse
stresses (radial – σ22) corresponding to feed motion were obtained directly from stress tensor tables
while all the other stress components were calculated from the tensor tables. Residual stress results
obtained using XRD are presented largely in Appendix C4, in their raw form as stress tensor tables.

Figure 4.16: Machining stress components

The longitudinal and transverse stresses were significantly affected by the changes in the cutting
speed. The longitudinal stresses seem to have been more sensitive to the change in the cutting speed
than the transversal stresses. Longitudinal stresses were tensile at low cutting speed and became more
compressive as speed increased to some intermediate cutting speed. The stresses then reversed back to
tensile with further increase in cutting speeds. The maximum compressive stresses obtained, as shown
in figures 4.17- 4.18, were 136MPa at 170m/min for the 0.2mm DoC and 110MPa at 210m/min for
the 1mm DoC. The transversal stresses remained compressive for the range of cutting speeds used in

74
both cases of DoC. Similar stress results were observed in studies by Mantle et al. (2001) [85], and
Vosough (2005) [45].

The Von Mises stresses also varied with the change in the cutting speed. Stress of approximately
100MPa (± 20% of yield) were induced on the surface of samples machined at the DoC of 1mm. This
was observed for low speeds as can be seen in Figure 4.17, and these stresses increased to
approximately 150MPa at some intermediate cutting speeds. Further increase in the cutting speed
resulted in lower Von Mises stresses. The Von Mises stresses observed on the samples machined at a
DoC of 0.2mm (see Figure 4.19) were approximately 200MPa (±37% of yield). This occurred at the
cutting speeds of up to approximately 200m/min after which the stresses started to reduce slightly.

A change in the cutting speeds also had some effects on the principal stresses. Maximum principal
stresses gradually lowered as the cutting speed was increased. On the other hand, the minimum
stresses had the same trend as the transverse stresses. However, it can be seen in Figure 4.19 and
Tables 4.6 – 4.7 that the minimum stresses remained compressive for the whole range of cutting
speeds. Furthermore, these results indicate presence of slightly higher principal stresses (both
maximum and minimum) for the 0.2mm DoC than for the 1mm DoC. These principal stresses also
indicate that finish cuts seem to be more sensitive to the changes in the cutting speeds than the rough
cuts. This may seem contradictory with results obtained by Pawade et al. (2008) [79] who indicated
higher compressive residual stresses for 1mm DoC due to high material volume removal rate.

75
Table 4.6: Residual stress for grade 4 machined at DoC 1mm

Speed Longitudinal Transverse Shear Max Principal Min Principal Von Mises
(m/min) σ11 (MPa) σ22 (MPa) τ12 (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
70 79.7 -66.1 76.1 82.6 -69.4 132
90 -75.6 -125 80.3 6.2 -154.4 108
110 -25.4 -95.9 66.6 11.6 -121.6 123
130 -13.8 -69.1 70.4 20.9 -120 139
170 -82.1 -76.3 71.3 7.4 -135.3 128
210 -101 -89 91.1 12.4 -169.7 164
250 -44 -61 61.3 8 -114.6 134
290 30.2 -59.7 52.2 39.4 -65 76

Figure 4.17: Stress presented as a function of cutting speed for 1mm DoC

Table 4.7: Residual stress for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm

Speed Longitudinal Transverse Shear Max Principal Min Principal Von Mises
(m/min) σ11 (MPa) σ22 (MPa) τ12 (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
70 47.6 7.7 102.2 130.8 -73.6 179
90 -1 -19 106.2 97.8 -114.6 184
110 -64.3 -17.3 122.4 85.9 -159 213
130 -79.5 -73.9 132.7 60.3 -205 238
170 -136 -59 144.9 49.2 -240.7 267
210 -116 -38.1 115.3 40.3 -190.2 212
250 0.7 -33.1 56.6 38.7 -74.3 100
290 46.8 10.3 43.6 61 -26.2 104

76
 Figure 4.18: Stress presented as a function of cutting speed for 0.2mm DoC

Figure 4.19: Principal stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for both 0.2mm and 1mm DoC

Pawade et al. (2008) [79] examined the effects of cutting parameters on residual stress for Inconel 718
which is a hard-to-machine material similar to titanium. In this investigation, they considered cutting
speeds of 125 to 300m/min as low speeds and 300 to 475m/min as high speeds. At the low cutting
speeds, they found that the residual stresses increased in the tensile direction, whereas at the high
speeds, the residual stresses changed direction from tensile to compressive. The explanation of the
results by is based on the understanding of thermal and mechanical machining deformations.

77
Thermally dominant machining deformations tend to induce tensile residual stresses in the machined
surface, whereas mechanically dominant machining deformations induce compressive residual stress
[74, 83, 87-88]. At the low cutting speeds, the volume removal rate is the lowest and the rate of heat
dissipation by the chip is also the lowest. Therefore, more heat dissipates into the machined surface
and this causes thermally dominant machining deformation [74, 83]. On the contrary, at high cutting
speeds, the volume removal rate and the corresponding rate of heat dissipation by the chip are the
highest. As a result, less heat is dissipated into the workpiece. The deformation at higher cutting speed
is therefore more influenced by the mechanical action rather than temperature [74, 79]. As DoC is
increased, residual stresses changed from tensile to high values of compressive residual stresses [79].
Here, as expected, the effects of DoC would be similar with the effects of cutting speed as both these
variables change the volume removal rate [83].

Von Mises stress plots for grade 4 were finally compared to those of grades 2 and 5 [82] in Table 4.8
and Figure 4.20 – 4.21. These show that grade 4 obtained the lowest turning induced residual stresses
for the same cutting conditions followed by grade 2 and then grade 5. This implies residual stresses of
approximately 50% of yield for grades 2 and 5 and only 20% for grade 4 at cutting speeds of
approximately 70 – 120m/min. This also shows that the variation in the magnitude of the principal
stresses is more sensitive to the cutting speed for grades 2 and 5 titanium alloys than it is for grade 4.
Grade 4 seems to have a clear advantage for the specific conditions investigated here. It is believed
that the slightly higher yield stress when compared to grade 2 helps with the prevention of built-up
edge during the machining process. The yield strength and thermal conductivity for grade 4 are
however still substantially lower than grade 5 and these may be largely responsible for the better
performance.

The general trend for the minimum principal stresses (figure 4.21) indicates that grades 4 and 5 may
have similar trends with respect to cutting speed. Vela´squez et al. (2010) [80] showed that increasing
cutting speed on grade 5 caused strain hardening which induced high compressive stresses. Further
increase in cutting speed caused tensile stresses induced by thermal quenching of the machined
surface [80]. A similar trend is seen in figure 4.21 with grades 4 and 5 titanium alloys.

78
 Table 4.8: Comparison of Von Mises stresses for grade 2, 4 and 5 at DoC 1mm

Speed Grade 2 Grade 4 Grade 5

[m/min] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
70 202.3 131.8 458.6
90 197.6
100 184.6 443
110 123.4
130 138.6
150 125.8 460.7
170 128
200 342.1
210 164
250 227.5 67.5 534.3
290 132.6
300 301.6
350 263
400 241
450 278
500 255

Figure 4.20: Von Mises stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for titanium grades 2, 4 and
5, for 1mm DoC

79
Figure 4.21: Minimum principal stresses presented as a function of cutting speed for titanium grades
2, 4 and 5, for 1mm DoC

80
4.5 White layer thickness

Observations of the white layer were made on the cross section of the samples by use of scanning
electron microscopy. A SEM image showing the white layer and a region of possible hardening is
presented in Figure 4.22 (see Appendix C3 for more SEM images). Scanning-electron microscopy
revealed the presence of a white layer on all the samples for both finish cut and rough cut (figure
4.23). Evidently, white layer formation occurred on all the machined surfaces. The variation of the
white layer as a function of cutting speed was inconclusive. Large variations were measured.
Typically the white layer varied between 1.25µm and 2.5µm with an average of ±1.75µm. It may
seem that both DoC and cutting speed had some effects on the formation of the white layer. Literature
has shown that formation of the white layer may be a result of either machining thermal effects or
machining forces or a combination of the two.

White layers are often observed in steels. Some studies have suggested that white layers are
composed of a martensitic phase induced by thermal phase transformation [82]. This phase
transformation induces a change in the grain structure of the material at the surface which may affect
the hardness of the material. Interestingly, white layers have also been observed for materials that
have surface temperatures not exceeding the transformation temperature of austenite [80]. In the case
of the study by Vela´squez et al. (2010) [80], formation of the white layer was attributed to machining
forces that caused the modification of the microstructure below the surface. This modification did not
possess any particular distinctiveness when observed using SEM and appeared in white colour only
when they are observed under optical microscope [80].

Appendix C4.4 contains a report from NECSA confirming that the machined and tested grade 4
samples (tested up to 10µm deep) have the same diffraction peak positions as the parent material. This
absence of the shift in the diffraction peak position indicates that no phase transformation occurred in
the tested region [81]. This then indicates that phase transformation may not have contributed to the
formation of the observed white layer on grade 4 samples. All observed white layer thickness was
below 5µm. Current observations from this study on the white layer seemed to be in contrast with the
above literature. This observation certainly requires that more study be conducted to determine the
causes of the formation of the white layer and the effects of the machining processes and parameters
to the size of the white layer.

81
 Figure 4.22: SEM image for sample cross section of G4 Ti, cutting speed 110m/min, DoC 0.2mm

Table 4.9: White layer thickness for finish and rough cuts

SPEED DoC_0.2mm DoC_1mm

m/min (µm) (µm)
70 1.49 2.16
90 1.35 1.08
110 2.56 2.43
130 1.16 1.62
150 2.79 1.08
170 1.63 1.35
190 1.16 2.43
210 - 1.62
230 1.63 1.89
250 1.16 1.08

Figure 4.23: Second order polynomial graph for observed white layer thickness for finish and rough
cuts on grade 4

82
4.6 Surface irregularities

SEM images of the machined grade 4 surfaces (Figure 4.24 and Appendix C3.3) revealed that
machining caused several types of surface irregularities. Some of these were found to be similar to
those found on the machined surfaces of grades 2 and 5 [82]. The major surface irregularities
observed after machining grade 4 alloy were deformation of feed marks, micro-pits, and re-deposited
work material (chip) onto already machined surface. Some of these defects were identified as heat-
affected-zones, plastic deformation, smearing, tears and crevices (from deep tearing) [82].

Figure 4.24: Examples of surface flaws caused by machining as observed using scanning-electron
microscopy

• Feed marks are observed at all machined surface samples. Feed marks occur as natural surface
flaws caused by the feed process. Ezugwu et al. (2007) [25] explained these to be a result of
plastic flow of material during the cutting process. Plastic flow of material on machined
surfaces may results in higher surface roughness values and higher residual stress levels [25,
79]. More significant feed marks would be produced if the material is machined under severe
cutting conditions. Flank wear would also cause significant feed marks [25, 74].

• Scoring may be indicated by short, sudden changes in roughness [82]. Smearing is indicated
by flattened peaks on the images and low amplitude values while-as tool transfer produces the
exact opposite (re-deposited material increases the peak amplitude) [82]. Tearing, on the other

83
 hand, has the same effect on the roughness amplitude level as smearing but the SEM images
show large amounts of material removed from the workpiece.

• Crevices/Tearing is randomly observed on machined surface samples. Parts of the cutting tool
peel off from the tool and get deposited on the machined surface. Since the parts of the cutting
tool are harder than the workpiece material, they slide between tool and the machined surface
tearing away the machined surface [25, 74].

• Re-deposits: This flaw is caused by molten chip that were produced during the cutting. These
chips are welded onto the machined surface to form a composite surface [25, 74]. These
particular irregularities can be observed where the cutting conditions are suitable. The
conditions should be capable of generating elevated temperatures at the cutting interface that
can enhance the welding process [25, 74].

A summary of the appearance of these surface flaws on the machined surface with respect to cutting
speed and DoC is given in table 4.10.

Table 4.10: Surface effects identified from surface traces*

Grade 4
(Feed = 0.2mm/rev)
Finish Rough
(Lubricated) (Lubricated)

70 SC SC
Cutting Speed (m/min)

90 R -
110 TT, S
130 - -
150 - -
170 S S
190 T -
210 S TT
230 S, R TT
250 T, R TT,R

*V-vibration, S-smearing, T-tearing, TT-tool transfer, R-re-deposited material and SC-scoring [82]

84
The defects observed on the machined surfaces were found to follow some sort of trend with respect
to the cutting speed at which the samples were machined. As cutting speed was varied, certain flaws
may have appeared at specific stages that depended on the cutting speeds. The stages are as follows
[82]:

1. Lower cutting speeds produce a higher value of roughness. Low speed frictional and welding
effects along with higher plastic deformation may have contributed to the poor surface finish.

2. The roughness then decreases as the cutting speed increases. This is because higher cutting
speeds decrease the tool-workpiece contact time reducing plastic deformation, welding and
tearing effects and smearing.

3. The roughness reaches a minimum value. At this cutting speed, plastic deformation, welding
and tearing effects and smearing are minimal. Heating load may also have been optimal. Local
work-piece and chip heating may help with the adiabatic shearing on the chip and cutting
process.

4. The roughness values then increase. This is because of higher cutting temperatures that allow
more readily for tool wear and tool-workpiece welding and tearing.

85
4.7 Chip morphology

Chip formation and its morphology are important aspects of machining that are commonly considered
to evaluate the machinability of titanium alloys and other hard-to-machine materials [37, 89]. Chip
morphology may also be used to provide useful information for tool design as well as an
understanding on the effects of machining parameters on some surface integrity indicators. By
examining the chip thickness, width and the lamella structure, one may be able to understand the
changes occurring to the material removal rate [38, 79]. Pawade et al. (2008) [79] states that the
dominance of mechanical or thermal type deformation in machining is governed by the ability of
chips to dissipate heat. The ability of the chips to dissipate heat is mainly dependent on the volume
removal rate.

One of the fundamental characteristic of the machining of titanium alloys is the formation of saw-
tooth chips which was observed with all the chips from this study. Saw-tooth formation is largely
believed to involve localized shearing which is associated with the generation of cyclic forces [37,
90]. Early studies on the formation of saw-tooth note that grains within the shear bands of the chips
undergo heavy deformation [37]. This deformation causes the phase transformation of the α phase
from the HCP α structure to the BCC β structure [37].

In contrast, Vela´squez et al. (2010) [80] reported that no such phase transformation occurred in the
shear bands. There is clearly a lack of consistent agreement surrounding not only the chip formation
mechanisms but also the metallurgical aspects of the segmented chip [89]. Therefore, this study will
only present and discuss the results obtained, and will not let these results bear much weight on the
effects of HSM to surface integrity of grade 4.

Chips can be said to have three faces which are the lamella structured free surface, the cross section
and the smooth back surface [91]. The images of the lamella structured free surface on the chips are
presented partly in figure 4.29 and detailed in Appendix C5. The lamella structured free surface is
characterized by jagged and rough appearances, which are caused by the shearing mechanism [91].
The chip width (Figure 4.28) and serration thickness (Table 4.12 and Figure 4.30) were evaluated
from this face of the chips. These were examined using SEM together with the machined surfaces of
the chips.

The cross section enabled investigation of the other part of the chip tooth geometry. The parameters
defined in figure 4.25 and 4.26 were used to define some aspects of the chip geometry [91]. This
enabled a study of the cross section of the chips to be conducted with respect to the tooth ratio (see
86
Table 4.11) and chip thickness (see Table 4.13 and Figure 4.31). Distance between two serrated teeth
(Pc), (t) tooth thickness, and (Lc) chip width. The chip ratio, ratio of saw tooth height to tooth
thickness, as is defined in equation 1 [91] confirms the formation of saw-tooth for grade 4;

t1 (1)
r=
t2

Figure 4.25: Cross section of chip top surface showing teeth serration [91]

Figure 4.26: Chip terminology

Results from the tooth height (T1) to chip thickness (T2) ratio indicate that only saw tooth chips were
produced by all the machining parameters used. Formation of continuous chips is indicated by this
ratio increasing, with 1 being a completely continuous chip [91]. Table 4.11 shows all values are
below 0.5 indicating complete saw tooth formation throughout the cutting speed range. [92]. Grade 4
had saw tooth chips for all the cutting conditions used in this case.

87
 Table 4.11: Ratio for distinguishing continuous and saw tooth chip type on grade 4

SPEED
[m/min] DoC_0.2mm DoC_1mm
70 0.13 0.32
90 0.09 0.31
110 0.24 0.35
130 0.34 0.27
150 0.19 0.31
170 0.41 0.39
190 0.20 0.27
210 0.18 0.48
230 0.47 0.34
250 0.43 0.40
270 0.22 0.48
290 0.26 0.45

Figure 4.27 presents images of the chip structure grouped with respect to cutting speed and DoC.
These chips were classified according to the ISO 3685 for tool-life testing [38]. The chips obtained
from machining at DoC of 0.2mm were predominantly snarled washer type helical chips (or ISO type
4.3) for cutting speeds below 190m/min. Snarled tubular chips (ISO type 2.3), were obtained for
cutting speeds higher than 190m/min. Both chip types are long though the ISO type 2.3 tends to be
longer.

Long washer type helical chips (ISO type 4.1), were obtained during machining at DoC of 1mm. This
chip type has shorter chip length when compared to the ISO types 4.3 and 2.3. Chip length generally
indicates the time of contact on the tool-workpiece interface during machining [89]. This is important
for machining of titanium because of its low thermal conductivity. A relatively long contact time will
contribute to tool wear through abrasion which may further affect tool life [89].

88
 Figure 4.27: Chip structure for grade 4 machined at various speeds, DoC 0.2mm and 1mm

Chips collected from turning all had smaller width for depths of cut of 0.2mm (0.6mm - 0.7mm) and
significantly larger width (1.6mm - 1.7mm) for the 1mm DoC as shown in figure 4.28. This clearly
indicates high material removal rate for rough cutting. Chip width largely determines the contact area
of the cutting tool/chip interface, which directly affects tool temperature, wear and the tool life [89].
The chip width, for both depths of cuts, almost remained constant with the change in cutting speed.
From the lengths and width of the chips, the structure of the chips formed may then be said to be more
of a function of the DoC rather than the cutting speed.

The back surface of all the chips collected after machining was generally found to be smooth and
shiny. During cutting operations, the back surface of a machined chip slides over the tool rake face
experiencing high contact and shear stresses [89, 91]. This also constrains the plastic deformation of
the back surface. The combined actions of these high contact pressures and constraints make the back
surface smooth and shiny [89, 91]. Furthermore, this back surface was found to contain certain
machining deposits. Electron-dispersive scanning (EDS) was used to determine the composition of
these deposits. It was noted that these deposits predominantly contained a large amount of carbon (C),
oxygen (O), chlorine (Cl) and silica (SiO2) and trace amounts of aluminium (Al), sulphur (S),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na). These are probably residues of the cutting fluid used.
Detailed results of this study are presented in detail in Appendix C5.3.

89
 Figure 4.28: Chip width for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm

SEM images of the chip’s lamella structured free surface in figure 4.29 indicate that change in cutting
speed had an effect on the change in the lamella structure. The structures of the lamella formed at low
speed were not uniform. They were intertwined, cracked in certain sections and appeared at a higher
frequency (more serrations per unit chip length) as shown in figure 4.29(a). On the other hand, the
lamella formed at higher cutting speeds (figure 4.29b) was uniform across the chip width. This was
observed for both depths of cuts, except at a DoC of 1mm, the serration frequency was lower than that
at DoC of 0.2mm at al cutting speeds. The number of the lamella structures occurring within the same
measurement distance is different in the different sections on the free surface [94]. The number of
lamella structures is also different at different cutting speeds. The chip frequency was also found to be
a function of the serration thickness as shown in Table 4.12 and Figure 4.30. An increase in the
cutting parameters (speed and DoC) seems to cause a decrease in the serration frequency.

Figure 4.29 also shows that the size and shape of each serration changed when observed across the
width of the chips. This change in the serration size and shape was more significant at DoC of 0.2mm
than it was at DoC of 1mm. These results also show that the teeth on the chips formed at depths of cut
of 0.2mm were fully compressed on the one end of the chip width. The opposite end of the chip
width would then have fully developed serrations. This then implied that the frequency of the
serrations in the one end of the chips would be much higher than that in the other section [89].

This change in the shape could be explained by the findings made in the studies by Zhang et al.
(2009) [91] and Sun et al. (2008) [89]. These researchers state that the lamella structured free surface
has two sections of different orientations. The major section, which is said to be formed by the side
90
cutting edge, and the corner section that is formed by the tool nose edge. The material in the corner
section becomes thinner compared with the major section due to the nose radius of the corner cutting
edge [89]. Both researches, however, note that DoC has little effect on the size and shape of the
serration when compared to the effects of the cutting speed. This is contrary to the current results.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.29: SEM scans for lamellae structured free surface of grade 4 chips machined at (a) 50m/min
and (b) 310m/min, DoC 1mm.

91
 Table 4.12: Chip serration thickness evaluated on collected chips from machined grade 4

SPEED DoC_0.2mm DoC_1mm

(m/min) (µm) (µm)
70 41 88
90 59 88
110 82 83
130 57 124
150 77 115
170 68 126
190 85 124
210 85 96
230 88 75
250 80 107
270 106 104
290 80 104

Figure 4.30: Chip serration thickness for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm

Figure 4.31 shows that increasing cutting speed resulted in a significant increase in the chip thickness
for chips machined at DoC of 0.2mm. At a DoC of 1mm, the increase in chip thickness was less
significant. Chip thickness on finish cut chips remained considerably lower for cutting speeds up to
150m/min. The changes in the chip thickness seem to be related to the geometry of the saw-tooth
formed. Barry et al. (2001) [39] found that at low values of cutting speeds, aperiodic saw-tooth chips

92
were produced. Increases in either or both cutting speed and DoC resulted in a transition from
aperiodic to periodic saw-tooth chip formation.

Table 4.13: Chip thickness evaluation on collected chips from machined grade 4

SPEED DoC_0.2mm DoC_1mm

(m/min) (µm) (µm)
70 24 65
90 15 49
110 41 58
130 53 54
150 31 53
170 70 64
190 35 46
210 30 91
230 78 51
250 79 73
270 38 81
290 44 88

Figure 4.31: Chip thickness for grade 4 machined at DoC 0.2mm and 1mm

4.8 Conclusion

The current chapter presented the main body of the experimental results obtained for the current
investigation. Final conclusions are made in the next chapter.
93
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

5.1 General remarks

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of HSM on the surface integrity of grade 4. Surface
integrity refers to the properties of the outermost layer of a machined component which may be quite
different from the substrate. Surface integrity was introduced and defined in the first two chapters of
this report. The importance of surface integrity on the functionality of titanium components was also
discussed. It was observed that surface integrity is evaluated by determining the properties of certain
surface integrity indicators that are directly affected by machining processes and parameters. The
third chapter presented the methods used to evaluate the selected surface integrity indicators in
relation to the machining parameters. The surface integrity indicators selected for investigation for the
current research were surface roughness, hardness and residual stress as a function of cutting speed
and DoC. Results of these evaluations were then presented and discussed in the preceding chapter.
The conclusion drawn from these results and discussions are finally presented in this chapter.

This summary firstly presents a general discussion on the observed effects of cutting speed and DoC
on the surface integrity of grade 4. It then briefly discusses effects of cutting speed and DoC on the
individual surface integrity indicators. A brief summary is finally provided discussing the effects of
cutting speed on grades 2, 4 and 5 titanium alloys.

5.2 Surface integrity of titanium grade 4

Surface integrity has no particular means of evaluation but may be evaluated effectively based on
some indicators. These indicators, individually, provide an indication of the effects of machining
parameters on the machined surfaces. Acceptable surface integrity would then be described based on
the selected optimum results from each of these indicators. Machining parameters used as variables
were depths of cut of 0.2mm (finish cuts) and 1mm (rough cuts), and cutting speeds ranging from
70m/min to 250m/min. Cutting speeds were grouped as low speeds (s < 150m/min), intermediate
(150< s <230) and high speeds (s > 230). This grouping of cutting speeds was similar to that (low,
medium and high level) used by Ginting et al. (2007) [74] in their studies.

94
5.2.1 Surface roughness

Surface roughness values observed at low cutting speeds were generally high. The roughness values
then decreased to the optimum low values as speed was increased to some intermediate cutting
speeds. This particular trend was similar for both depths of cuts. Further increase in the cutting speed
caused a respective increase in the surface roughness but only for the titanium machined at DoC of
1mm.

The improved surface roughness at intermediate cutting speeds may have been caused by the decrease
in the tool-workpiece contact time reducing plastic deformation, welding and tearing effects and
smearing. Further increase in cutting speed caused tool wear and this may be one of the causes of the
higher surface roughness values at these high cutting speeds. This was specifically noticeable for the
DoC of 1mm. Intermediate cutting speeds resulted with the lowest roughness values for both depths
of cut of 1mm and 0.2mm. This speed range also represents part of the high performance machining
range for titanium alloys.

5.2.2 Surface and sub-surface hardness

Observations made on hardness results were done with respect to cutting speed, DoC and distance
below machined surface. Subsurface regions were grouped into three which were the soft region, hard
region and the bulk microhardness region. Hardness was noted to be primarily the result of a
domination of either mechanical effects or thermal effects of machining. The soft region was where
thermal effects dominated while mechanical effects dominated in the hard region. The bulk
microhardness region is where the least effects or none at all, of machining were observed.

It is expected that increasing DoC leads to an increase in cutting forces, which in turn generates high
temperatures. Increasing cutting speed also causes generation of high temperatures in the tool-work
interface. The high temperatures provide enough energy for the propagation of the pinned
dislocations. This process often leads to thermal softening of the material. This may explain the soft
region at this DoC except at high cutting speeds where no softening is observed. Though high
temperatures are generated at high speed, the increase in the cutting speed also meant an increase in
the cooling rate which may explain the absence of this soft region.

95
5.2.3 Residual stress

The Von Mises stresses obtained only gave an indication of the overall stress with no regard to
direction and or sign. Von Mises stresses were low at low cutting speeds, increased slightly to a
maximum at intermediate speeds then lowered as cutting speeds were increased further. This trend
was observed for both 0.2mm and 1mm depths of cut. Low cutting speeds caused thermally dominant
machining deformations hence inducing tensile residual stresses in the machined surface.
Intermediate cutting speeds, however, caused mechanically dominant machining deformations hence
induce compressive residual stresses.

At the low cutting speeds, the volume removal rate was the lowest and the rate of heat dissipation by
the chip was also the lowest. More heat, therefore, was expected to have dissipated into the machined
surface thereby causing thermally dominant machining deformation. On the contrary, at high cutting
speeds, the volume removal rate and the corresponding rate of heat dissipation by the chip were the
highest. This resulted in less heat dissipating into the workpiece. The deformation at higher cutting
speed was therefore more influenced by the mechanical action rather than temperature.

An increase in the DoC was expected to have the same effects as increasing cutting speed. Both
variables were expected to yield high volume removal rates. However this was not the case for grade
4. This difference in the results was attributed to the difference in the material properties of grade 4 as
compared to those mostly used in similar studies.

Residual stress was clearly a function of cutting speed. These stresses were more sensitive to DoC
than they are to cutting speed. Machining at intermediate cutting speeds and finish DoC may have
resulted in desirable residual stresses.

5.2.4 Chip morphology

Structure of chips obtained was long washer type helical for 1mm DoC and these were over 50mm
long. When machining at 0.2mm DoC, chips had lengths greater than 100mm. Importance of the
length of the chips is the indication that it has on the tool-workpiece contact time during machining.
Longer chips tend to cause wear on the tool by abrasion.

Results of the chip geometry were all as expected, having higher values for chips machined at 1mm
DoC. All chips collected were of saw-tooth type for both 0.2mm and 1mm DoC. Saw-tooth chips

96
indicate a general good surface finish and as shown from the surface roughness results, sub-micron
roughness values were achieved at all cutting speeds.

5.3 Surface integrity of titanium alloys

Results on surface roughness and residual stress from this study were compared to those of grades 2
and 5 titanium alloys from previous studies. Similar machining parameters were used for these three
grades of titanium alloys. Also, similar examination equipment was employed for evaluating the
samples. Comparable effects of cutting speed on the surface roughness and residual stress were
observed for these three grades of titanium.

Generally, surface roughness for titanium alloys started off high at low cutting speeds then it
improved to some minimum value at intermediate cutting speed. The cutting speed at which the low
surface roughness values were observed depended on the grade of titanium. Roughness then increased
at further increase of cutting speed. Surface roughness for grade 4 machined at 1mm DoC was higher
than that of grade 2 and grade 5 machined with the same parameters. Grade 5 had the lowest surface
roughness values.

Possible cutting speed range was observed to be dependent on the grade of titanium being machined.
This could be because of the differences in the mechanical properties of these grades of titanium.
Grade 2 could be machined on the highest cutting speed range and at high cutting speeds up to
450m/min. Grade 5 had the lowest speed range and at low cutting speeds when compared to the other
two grades. The entire cutting speed range used for all the titanium alloys is, however, high when
compared to conventional machining speeds hence HSM.

Explanation provided for grade 4 on residual stress also applies for grade 5. For grade 5, this is as
expected and also found in recent studies on its residual stresses. More research needs to be conducted
in order to explain the behaviour of grade 2 and more specifically in order to compare results between
titanium alloys

5.4 Conclusion

Results show that a combination of intermediate cutting speeds and low DoC may have desirable
effects on the surface integrity of grade 4. Highest compressive stresses were obtained when
machining with these conditions. High compressive stresses are favourable in cases where the fatigue
life of a material is an important factor in the functionality of a component. Subsurface hardening was

97
noticed at 0.2mm DoC, with no subsurface softening at all cutting speeds. Surface hardness higher
than the bulk hardness tends to improve the wear resistance of the machined material. Though surface
roughness values for all depths of cut were below the standard fine finish of 1.6µm, roughness values
of samples machined at 0.2mm DoC continued to decrease with increase in cutting speed. Low
surface roughness values may also influence the improvement of fatigue life of the machined
components. These machining conditions, (intermediate cutting speeds and low DoC), seem to have
promoted mechanically dominated deformation during machining rather than thermal dominated
deformation. Thermal dominated deformation was prominent on titanium machined at DoC of 1mm.

5.5 Recommendations

• Effects of cutting forces were not considered in this study and it is believed that they may have
a significant role. Work on cutting forces during machining of titanium is currently underway.
• Tool wear on the inserts used for machining grade 4 was not considered and this may provide
clarity in some results, specifically surface roughness.
• Residual stress data were applicable for the first 10µm only. Depth profile of the residual
stress need to be conducted in order to compare results for grade 4 with those available by
most researches in this regard.
• Hardness tests conducted were from a minimum depth of 30µm below machined surface.
Problems involving edge retention during sample mounting hindered ability to do these tests at
even lower depths. There is need to determine means to ensure better edge retention of the
samples.

Perhaps the results from this study can also be used to form part of the guidelines, if not the solution
to recent observations and recommendations made on the optimisation of the generated surface
properties through the machining processes. Two of these observations are;

• Therefore, the controlled generation of suitable surface and sub-surface properties by

machining processes must be the vision of modern production (Brinksmeier et al. 2010) [71].
• A targeted optimisation of the surface properties has high potential to realise and raise the
performance of energy efficient lightweight constructions (Schubert et.al 2010) [93].

Machining processes produce chips of various characteristics that are related to the same factors
affecting surface integrity [25]. A change in any of these factors may cause changes in the chip
formation otherwise for any given set of conditions; chip formation remains the same [25]. Better

98
understanding of chip formation caused by machining titanium and its alloys may enable the
identification of optimal machining conditions [94]. An understanding of the chip morphology would
clearly be vital to all the study on surface integrity of titanium. It would then be of great importance to
future studies on surface integrity to firstly focus on removing the ambiguity currently surrounding
saw tooth formation and metallurgy of these chips.

99
CHAPTER 6: REFERENCES

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[2] http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/titanium/673303.pdf (5 May 2011)

[3] http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/South-Africa (accessed on 13 September 2010)

[4] http://www.aerosud.co.za/products.htm (accessed on 19 November 2010)

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108
CHAPTER 7: APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: LITERATURE

A1 – Data Sets for Evaluation of Surface Integrity -Machining Data Handbook

Minimum Surface Integrity Data Set

1. Surface texture
• Roughness measurement (per ANSI B46.1-1978) or micro topographic map
• Lay designation or photo
• Occasionally includes scanning electron microscope (SEM) series of photos at
increasing magnifications (recommended series 20, 200, 1000 and 2000X)
2. Macrostructure
• Macro-cracks or surface imperfections (pits, laps, etc.)
• Macro-tech indications (e.g., fluorescent penetrant or magnetic flux or similar)
• Chemical etchant tests
3. Microstructure
• Micro-cracks
• Plastic deformation (section parallel to lay suggested)
• Phase transformations
• Inter-granular attack
• Micro defects (laps, inclusions, etc.)
• Built-up edge or deposits of debris
• Recast layers
• Selective etching
• Metallurgical transformations
4. Micro-hardness alterations (Heat-affected zones)

Standard Surface Integrity Data Set

1. Minimum data set
2. Residual stress profile – or distortion requirements
3. Fatigue tests (screening only – recommend using full-reverse bending at room temperature
using tapered area flat specimens with results to 107 cycles

Extended Surface Integrity Data Set

1. Standard data set
2. Fatigue tests – statistical data to establish design data
3. Stress corrosion tests at selected environmental conditions
4. Additional mechanical testing
• Tensile Testing & Surface Chemistry
• Stress-rupture
• Creep

109
• Specialized: friction, wear, sealing, bearing performance
• Fracture toughness
• Low cycle fatigue
• Elevated or cryogenic temperature
• Crack propagation

110
A2 – Mounting Technique for Specimens used in Surface Integrity Testing -
Machining Data Handbook

111
A3 – Properties of Titanium Grades

Table A3.1: Chemical Requirements

Table A3.2: Tensile and Bend Requirements

112
A4 – Technical specifications for some of the equipment used in this study

A4.1 CNC lathe RT – 20S

113
A4.2 Stereo microscope Olympus SZX16

114
A4.3 Handheld roughness tester TR200

APPENDICES B & C (See enclosed CD)

115
 AN INVESTIGATION ON THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED
MACHINING ON THE SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM
ALLOY

By

PHILIP MAWANGA

APPENDICES B & C

Presented In Partial Fulfilment Of The Requirements

For The Degree

MAGISTRAE INGENERIAE

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In The

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT

ENVIRONMENT

At The

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: Prof. R.F. Laubscher

CO-SUPERVISOR: N. Janse van Ransburg

January 2012
Table of Contents
APPENDIX B: TOOL TESTS ................................................................................................. 15

B1 Surface Roughness ......................................................................................................... 15

B1.1 Surface profile images ............................................................................................. 15

B1.2 Surface profile parameters ....................................................................................... 20

B2 Tool Wear images........................................................................................................... 38

APPENDIX C: GRADE 4 TEST RESULTS........................................................................... 43

C1 Surface Roughness ......................................................................................................... 43

C1.1 Surface profile images ............................................................................................. 43

C1.2 Surface profile parameters ....................................................................................... 58
C1.3 Anova – Surface Roughness .................................................................................... 76

C2 Hardness ......................................................................................................................... 81

C2.1 Hardness tables ........................................................................................................ 81

C2.2 Hardness graphs....................................................................................................... 83

C3 Microscopy ..................................................................................................................... 85

C3.1 Microstructure images ............................................................................................. 85

C3.2 SEM white layer ...................................................................................................... 95
C3.3 SEM machined surface .......................................................................................... 111

C4 Residual Stress ............................................................................................................. 116

C4.1 Tensor tables .......................................................................................................... 116

C4.2 Complete stress table ............................................................................................. 120
C4.3 Intensity graphs ..................................................................................................... 121
C4.4 NECSA X-Ray Diffraction Analysis Report ......................................................... 122
C5.1 Camera images ...................................................................................................... 123
C5.2 EDS Data ............................................................................................................... 128

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 1

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
List of Figures

Figures B1.1 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at

50m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.596µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.741µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 15
Figures B1.2 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
70m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.662µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra -
1.457µm)respectively. .............................................................................................................. 15
Figures B1.3 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
90m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.545µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra -
1.703µm)respectively. .............................................................................................................. 15
Figures B1.4 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
110m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.695µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.731µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 16
Figures B1.5 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
130m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.519µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.374µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 16
Figures B1.6 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
150m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.48µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra -
1.791µm)respectively. .............................................................................................................. 16
Figures B1.7 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
170m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.389µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.545µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 17
Figures B1.8 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
190m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.504µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.614µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 17
Figures B1.9 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
210m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.517µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.484µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 17

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 2

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B1.10 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
230m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.588µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.764µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 18
Figures B1.11 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
250m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.507µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
- 1.597µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 18
Figures B1.12 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
270m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.768µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
– 2.082µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 18
Figures B1.13 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
290m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.759µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
– 2.162µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 19
Figures B1.14 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
310m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 1.150µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
– 2.201µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 19
Figures B1.15 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
330m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 1.409µm) and insert with no chip breaker (Ra
– 2.004µm)respectively. ........................................................................................................... 19
Figures B2.1 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (34.34µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (31.89µm) respectively acquired when machining at 50m/min. ................................. 38
Figures B2.2 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (34.54µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (29.23µm) respectively acquired when machining at 70m/min. ................................. 38
Figures B2.3 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (47.83µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (37.20µm)respectively acquired when machining at 90m/min. .................................. 38
Figures B2.4 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (58.46µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (106.29µm)respectively acquired when machining at 110m/min. .............................. 39
Figures B2.5 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (63.77µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (55.80µm)respectively acquired when machining at 130m/min. ................................ 39
Figures B2.6 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (71.75µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (63.77µm)respectively acquired when machining at 150m/min ................................. 39
Figures B2.7 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (79.72µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (69.09µm)respectively acquired when machining at 170m/min ................................. 40
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 3
SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B2.8 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (94.32µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (77.06µm)respectively acquired when machining at 190m/min. ................................ 40
Figures B2.9 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (199.30µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (85.03µm)respectively acquired when machining at 210m/min. ................................ 40
Figures B2.10 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (164.75µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (87.69µm)respectively acquired when machining at 230m/min. ........................ 41
Figures B2.11 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (390.62µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (122.23µm)respectively acquired when machining at 250m/min ....................... 41
Figures B2.12 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (443.76µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (536.77µm)respectively acquired when machining at 270m/min ....................... 41
Figures B2.13 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (515.51µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (411.88µm)respectively acquired when machining at 290m/min. ...................... 42
Figures B2.14 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (600.55µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (1007.14µm)respectively acquired when machining at 310m/min ..................... 42
Figures B2.15 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (696.22µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (754.68µm)respectively acquired when machining at 330m/min. ...................... 42
Figures C1.1a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 50m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1m (right). ... 43
Figures C1.2a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 70m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 44
Figures C1.3a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 90m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 45
Figures C1.4a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 110m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 46
Figures C1.5a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 130m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 47
Figures C1.6a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 150m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 48
Figures C1.7a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 170m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 49
Figures C1.8a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 190m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right). 50
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Figures C1.9a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 210m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right) . 51
Figures C1.10a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 230m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 52
Figures C1.11a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 250m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 53
Figures C1.12a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 270m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 54
Figures C1.13a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 290m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 55
Figures C1.14a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 310m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 56
Figures C1.15a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 330m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right)........................................................................................................................................ 57
Figure C1.16: ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated marginal surface roughness means
(Ra) for the two depth of cuts (1-Finish, 2-Rough) ................................................................. 78
Figure C1.17: ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated marginal surface roughness means
(Ra) for the cutting speed ......................................................................................................... 78
Figure C1.18: second order polynomial fit on the ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated
marginal surface roughness means (Ra) for the cutting speed ................................................. 79
Figure C2.1: Hardness at cutting speeds 70 – 90m/min........................................................... 83
Figure C2.2: Hardness at cutting speeds 150 – 170m/min....................................................... 83
Figure C2.3: Hardness at cutting speeds 230 – 250m/min....................................................... 84
Figure C3.1: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .... 85

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Figure C3.2: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .... 85
Figure C3.3: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .... 85
Figure C3.4: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 86
Figure C3.5: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 86
Figure C3.6: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 86
Figure C3.7: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 87
Figure C3.8: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 87
Figure C3.9: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 87
Figure C3.10: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 88
Figure C3.11: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 88
Figure C3.12: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 88
Figure C3.13: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 89
Figure C3.14: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 89
Figure C3.15: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X .. 89
Figure C3.16: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X . 90
Figure C3.17: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X . 90
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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.18: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X . 90
Figure C3.19: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X91
Figure C3.20: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X91
Figure C3.21: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X91
Figure C3.22: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X92
Figure C3.23: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X92
Figure C3.24: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X92
Figure C3.25: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X93
Figure C3.26: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X93
Figure C3.27: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X93
Figure C3.28: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X94
Figure C3.29: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X94
Figure C3.30: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X94
Figure C3.31: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 95
Figure C3.32: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 96
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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.33: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 96
Figure C3.34: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 97
Figure C3.35: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 97
Figure C3.36: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 98
Figure C3.37: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 98
Figure C3.38: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 99
Figure C3.39: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively ............................................................................................................ 99
Figure C3.40: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 100
Figure C3.41: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 100
Figure C3.42: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 101

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Figure C3.43: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 101
Figure C3.44: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 102
Figure C3.45: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 102
Figure C3.46: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 103
Figure C3.47: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 104
Figure C3.48: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 104
Figure C3.49: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 105
Figure C3.50: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 105
Figure C3.51: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 106
Figure C3.52: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 106

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Figure C3.53: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 107
Figure C3.54: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 107
Figure C3.55: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 108
Figure C3.56: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 108
Figure C3.57: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 109
Figure C3.58: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 109
Figure C3.59: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 110
Figure C3.60: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively .......................................................................................................... 110
Figure C3.61: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 50m/min ...................................................................... 111
Figure C3.62: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 70m/min ...................................................................... 111
Figure C3.63: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 90m/min ...................................................................... 111
Figure C3.64: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 110m/min .................................................................... 112
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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.65: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 130m/min .................................................................... 112
Figure C3.66: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 150m/min .................................................................... 112
Figure C3.67: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 170m/min .................................................................... 113
Figure C3.68: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 190m/min .................................................................... 113
Figure C3.69: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 210m/min .................................................................... 113
Figure C3.70: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 230m/min .................................................................... 114
Figure C3.71: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 250m/min .................................................................... 114
Figure C3.72: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 270m/min .................................................................... 114
Figure C3.73: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 290m/min .................................................................... 115
Figure C3.74: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 310m/min .................................................................... 115
Figure C3.75: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 330m/min .................................................................... 115
Figure C4.1: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 90m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm and
(b) 0.2mm ............................................................................................................................... 121
Figure C4.2: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 130m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm
and (b) 0.2mm ........................................................................................................................ 121
Figure C4.3: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 170m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm
and (b) 0.2mm ........................................................................................................................ 121
Figure C5.1: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 50m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 123
Figure C5.2: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 70m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 123
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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.3: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 90m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 123
Figure C5.4: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 110m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 124
Figure C5.5: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 130m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 124
Figure C5.6: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 150m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 124
Figure C5.7: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 170m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 125
Figure C5.8: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 190m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 125
Figure C5.9: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 210m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 125
Figure C5.10: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 230m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 126
Figure C5.11: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 250m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 126
Figure C5.12: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 270m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 126
Figure C5.13: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 290m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 127
Figure C5.14: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 310m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm ....................................................................................................................................... 127
Figure C5.15: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 50m/min (1mm DoC), shown at
magnifications X100, X200 and X600 .................................................................................. 129
Figure C5.16: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 70m/min (1mm DoC) ............. 129
Figure C5.17: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 90m/min (1mm DoC) ............ 130
Figure C5.18: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 110m/min (1mm DoC) showing
different positions along the chip at magnification X100 ...................................................... 130
Figure C5.19: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 170m/min (1mm DoC) ........... 131

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure 5.20: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 190m/min (1mm DoC) showing
different positions of a fully developed chip.......................................................................... 131
Figure C5.21: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 210m/min (1mm DoC) ........... 132

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
List of Tables

Table C1.1: ANOVA test to determine effects of variables (DoC & Cutting speed) on surface
roughness ................................................................................................................................. 77

Table C2.1: Hardness values for Grade 4 machined at a depth of cut 1mm and varying speeds
.................................................................................................................................................. 81

Table C2.2: Hardness values for Grade 4 machined at a depth of cut 0.2mm and varying
speeds ....................................................................................................................................... 82

Table C4.1: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 50m/min ....... 116

Table C4.2: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 90m/min ....... 116

Table C4.3: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 130m/min ..... 116

Table C4.4: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 170m/min ..... 116

Table C4.5: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 210m/min ..... 117

Table C4.6: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 250m/min ..... 117

Table C4.7: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 290m/min ..... 117

Table C4.8: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 330m/min ..... 117

Table C4.9: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 90m/min .......... 117

Table C4.10: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 130m/min ...... 118

Table C4.11: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 170m/min ...... 118

Table C4.12: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 210m/min ...... 118

Table C4.13: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 250m/min ...... 118

Table C4.14: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 290m/min ...... 118

Table C4.15: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 330m/min ...... 119

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
APPENDIX B: TOOL TESTS
B1 Surface Roughness
B1.1 Surface profile images

a) b)
Figures B1.1 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
50m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.596µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.741µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.2 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
70m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.662µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.457µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.3 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
90m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.545µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.703µm)respectively.

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
a) b)
Figures B1.4 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
110m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.695µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.731µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.5 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
130m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.519µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.374µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.6 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
150m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.48µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.791µm)respectively.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
a) b)
Figures B1.7 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
170m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.389µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.545µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.8 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
190m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.504µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.614µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.9 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
210m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.517µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.484µm)respectively.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
a) b)
Figures B1.10 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
230m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.588µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.764µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.11 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
250m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.507µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra - 1.597µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.12 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
270m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.768µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra – 2.082µm)respectively.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
a) b)
Figures B1.13 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
290m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 0.759µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra – 2.162µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.14 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
310m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 1.150µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra – 2.201µm)respectively.

a) b)
Figures B1.15 a & b: Surface roughness of grade 5 titanium (Ti-4Al-5V) machined at
330m/min, using insert with chip breaker (Ra – 1.409µm) and insert with no chip breaker
(Ra – 2.004µm)respectively.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
B1.2 Surface profile parameters
GRADE 5, CHIP BREAKER INSERT

POSITION 1.

50m/min:
2010/02/15 09:35:53 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.440um Rq = 0.536um Rz = 2.620um
Rt = 3.177um Rp = 1.466um Rv = 1.154um
RS = 0.036mm RSm = 0.085mm RSk = 0.522

70m/min:
2010/02/15 09:37:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.125um Rq = 1.328um Rz = 4.632um
Rt = 8.685um Rp = 2.541um Rv = 2.090um
RS = 0.108mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = -1.213

90m/min:
2010/02/15 09:38:03 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.527um Rq = 0.628um Rz = 2.669um
Rt = 3.163um Rp = 1.565um Rv = 1.103um
RS = 0.046mm RSm = 0.167mm RSk = 0.621

110m/min:
2010/02/15 09:40:22 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.585um Rq = 0.686um Rz = 2.563um
Rt = 2.954um Rp = 1.316um Rv = 1.246um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = 0.319

130m/min:
2010/02/15 09:41:57 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.525um Rq = 0.651um Rz = 2.967um
Rt = 3.476um Rp = 1.717um Rv = 1.250um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.093mm RSk = 0.456

150m/min:
2010/02/15 09:43:02 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.442um Rq = 0.531um Rz = 2.137um
Rt = 2.498um Rp = 1.073um Rv = 1.063um
RS = 0.041mm RSm = 0.111mm RSk = 0.247

170m/min;
2010/02/15 09:44:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.906um Rq = 1.024um Rz = 3.338um
Rt = 6.843um Rp = 1.857um Rv = 1.481um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.286mm RSk = -0.643
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 20
SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/15 09:45:41 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.441um Rq = 0.540um Rz = 2.525um
Rt = 2.868um Rp = 1.261um Rv = 1.263um
RS = 0.036mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = -0.273

210m/min:
2010/02/15 09:46:48 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.520um Rq = 0.643um Rz = 2.718um
Rt = 3.985um Rp = 1.394um Rv = 1.323um
RS = 0.048mm RSm = 0.125mm RSk = -0.058

230m/min:
2010/02/15 09:48:45 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.469um Rq = 0.580um Rz = 2.794um
Rt = 3.286um Rp = 1.521um Rv = 1.272um
RS = 0.037mm RSm = 0.082mm RSk = 0.035

250m/min:
2010/02/15 09:49:51 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.431um Rq = 0.532um Rz = 2.432um
Rt = 2.951um Rp = 1.007um Rv = 1.425um
RS = 0.036mm RSm = 0.083mm RSk = -1.379

270m/min:
2010/02/15 09:51:00 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.651um Rq = 0.782um Rz = 2.729um
Rt = 4.248um Rp = 1.522um Rv = 1.206um
RS = 0.066mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = 0.499

290m/min:
2010/02/15 09:52:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.746 um Rq = 0.902 um Rz = 3.429 um
Rt = 6.241 um Rp = 2.004 um Rv = 1.425 um
RS = 0.138 mm RSm = 0.364 mm RSk = 0.798

310m/min:
2010/02/15 09:53:02 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.244um Rq = 1.528um Rz = 4.654um
Rt = 8.403um Rp = 3.147um Rv = 1.507um
RS = 0.125mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = 1.722

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/15 09:53:59 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.691um Rq = 1.921um Rz = 4.771um
Rt = 9.136um Rp = 2.865um Rv = 1.906um
RS = 0.200mm RSm = 0.667mm RSk = 0.915

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 2.

50m/min:
2010/02/05 02:05:16 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.596um Rq = 0.727um Rz = 2.918um
Rt = 3.831um Rp = 1.587um Rv = 1.330um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = 0.319

70m/min:
2010/02/05 02:08:57 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.662um Rq = 0.795um Rz = 3.239um
Rt = 3.733um Rp = 1.671um Rv = 1.567um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = 0.267

90m/min:
2010/02/05 02:11:57 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.545um Rq = 0.662um Rz = 2.726um
Rt = 3.263um Rp = 1.471um Rv = 1.254um
RS = 0.053mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = 0.375

110m/min:
2010/02/05 02:17:38 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.695um Rq = 0.842um Rz = 3.302um
Rt = 4.164um Rp = 1.703um Rv = 1.599um
RS = 0.060mm RSm = 0.160mm RSk = 0.011

130m/min:
2010/02/05 05:25:43 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.519um Rq = 0.646um Rz = 2.863um
Rt = 4.400um Rp = 1.622um Rv = 1.240um
RS = 0.056mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.212

150m/min:
2010/02/05 05:28:49 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.480um Rq = 0.576um Rz = 2.495um
Rt = 2.939um Rp = 1.113um Rv = 1.381um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.093mm RSk = -0.623

170m/min:
2010/02/05 05:31:26 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.389um Rq = 0.477um Rz = 2.402um
Rt = 2.822um Rp = 1.175um Rv = 1.226um
RS = 0.031mm RSm = 0.067mm RSk = 0.084

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/05 05:35:07 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.504um Rq = 0.624um Rz = 2.967um
Rt = 3.508um Rp = 1.513um Rv = 1.454um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.111mm RSk = 0.015

210m/min:
2010/02/05 05:39:28 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.517um Rq = 0.631um Rz = 2.771um
Rt = 3.273um Rp = 1.442um Rv = 1.328um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.114mm RSk = 0.239

230m/min:
2010/02/05 05:42:17 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.588um Rq = 0.698um Rz = 2.722um
Rt = 3.155um Rp = 1.583um Rv = 1.138um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.108mm RSk = 0.471

250m/min:
2010/02/05 05:49:57 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.507um Rq = 0.628um Rz = 2.642um
Rt = 3.429um Rp = 1.564um Rv = 1.077um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.098mm RSk = 0.448

270m/min:
2010/02/05 05:56:04 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.768um Rq = 0.928um Rz = 3.304um
Rt = 4.821um Rp = 1.924um Rv = 1.379um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.946

290m/min:
2010/02/05 05:58:52 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.759um Rq = 0.852um Rz = 2.818um
Rt = 4.370um Rp = 1.744um Rv = 1.074um
RS = 0.082mm RSm = 0.308mm RSk = 1.591

310m/min:
2010/02/05 06:01:36 PM ISO data:
Ra = 1.150um Rq = 1.385um Rz = 4.629um
Rt = 7.545um Rp = 2.724um Rv = 1.905um
RS = 0.095mm RSm = 0.267mm RSk = 0.411

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/05 06:05:29 PM ISO data:
Ra = 1.409um Rq = 1.687um Rz = 5.542um
Rt = 8.349um Rp = 2.696um Rv = 2.845um
RS = 0.105mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = -0.496

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 25

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 3.

50m/min;
2010/02/15 10:03:02 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.536um Rq = 0.654um Rz = 2.882um
Rt = 3.647um Rp = 1.687um Rv = 1.195um
RS = 0.043mm RSm = 0.108mm RSk = 0.619

70m/min:
2010/02/15 10:06:23 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.597um Rq = 0.724um Rz = 3.165um
Rt = 3.676um Rp = 1.590um Rv = 1.575um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.121mm RSk = 0.106

90m/min:
2010/02/15 10:08:49 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.920um Rq = 1.127um Rz = 3.353um
Rt = 7.495um Rp = 1.337um Rv = 2.015um
RS = 0.133mm RSm = 0.200mm RSk = -8.497

110m/min:
2010/02/15 10:09:48 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.890um Rq = 1.166um Rz = 3.486um
Rt = 7.951um Rp = 1.265um Rv = 2.221um
RS = 0.114mm RSm = 0.174mm RSk = -8.789

130m/min:
2010/02/15 10:12:40 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.528um Rq = 0.652um Rz = 2.920um
Rt = 3.334um Rp = 1.571um Rv = 1.348um
RS = 0.036mm RSm = 0.121mm RSk = 0.248

150m/min;
2010/02/15 10:14:18 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.413um Rq = 0.484um Rz = 2.095um
Rt = 2.583um Rp = 1.033um Rv = 1.062um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.082mm RSk = -0.014

170m/min:
2010/02/15 10:17:24 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.378um Rq = 0.475um Rz = 2.519um
Rt = 2.925um Rp = 1.234um Rv = 1.284um
RS = 0.035mm RSm = 0.080mm RSk = 0.085

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/15 10:20:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.684um Rq = 0.941um Rz = 3.465um
Rt = 7.181um Rp = 1.288um Rv = 2.177um
RS = 0.111mm RSm = 0.200mm RSk = -7.420

210m/min:
2010/02/15 10:21:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.539um Rq = 0.648um Rz = 2.737um
Rt = 3.068um Rp = 1.390um Rv = 1.347um
RS = 0.037mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = 0.296

230m/min:
2010/02/15 10:22:08 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.534um Rq = 0.629um Rz = 2.530um
Rt = 2.819um Rp = 1.387um Rv = 1.143um
RS = 0.055mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = 0.615

250m/min:
2010/02/15 10:23:54 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.492um Rq = 1.748um Rz = 6.309um
Rt = 7.519um Rp = 3.481um Rv = 2.827um
RS = 0.111mm RSm = 0.200mm RSk = 0.655

270m/min:
2010/02/15 10:26:34 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.283 um Rq = 1.581 um Rz = 5.918 um
Rt = 9.211 um Rp = 3.113 um Rv = 2.804 um
RS = 0.143 mm RSm = 0.200 mm RSk = -0.427

290m/min;
2010/02/15 10:27:43 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.274um Rq = 1.531um Rz = 5.914um
Rt = 7.504um Rp = 3.418um Rv = 2.496um
RS = 0.070mm RSm = 0.200mm RSk = 0.318

310m/min:
2010/02/15 10:29:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.350um Rq = 1.640um Rz = 6.226um
Rt = 8.553um Rp = 3.564um Rv = 2.662um
RS = 0.114mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = -0.166

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 27

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/15 10:29:53 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.163um Rq = 1.364um Rz = 4.903um
Rt = 7.783um Rp = 2.819um Rv = 2.083um
RS = 0.098mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = 0.582

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 GRADE 5, NO CHIP BREAKER INSERT

POSITION 1.

50m/min:
2010/02/15 08:42:48 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.630um Rq = 1.880um Rz = 7.053um
Rt = 7.444um Rp = 4.023um Rv = 3.030um
RS = 0.077mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = 0.298

70m/min:
2010/02/15 08:44:41 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.349um Rq = 1.539um Rz = 5.530um
Rt = 5.921um Rp = 3.211um Rv = 2.319um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.464

90m/min:
2010/02/15 08:46:37 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.627um Rq = 1.865um Rz = 7.320um
Rt = 8.422um Rp = 4.222um Rv = 3.098um
RS = 0.100mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.342

110m/min:
2010/02/15 08:47:38 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.684um Rq = 1.904um Rz = 6.658um
Rt = 8.478um Rp = 3.816um Rv = 2.842um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.244

130m/min:
2010/02/15 08:48:53 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.365um Rq = 1.559um Rz = 5.988um
Rt = 6.849um Rp = 3.260um Rv = 2.728um
RS = 0.082mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.297

150m/min:
2010/02/15 08:49:58 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.630um Rq = 1.875um Rz = 6.831um
Rt = 7.181um Rp = 4.004um Rv = 2.827um
RS = 0.105mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.512

170m/min:
2010/02/15 08:50:55 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.544um Rq = 1.796um Rz = 6.912um
Rt = 7.390um Rp = 4.029um Rv = 2.882um
RS = 0.060mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = 0.472

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 29

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/15 08:51:57 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.485um Rq = 1.760um Rz = 7.192um
Rt = 8.817um Rp = 3.884um Rv = 3.308um
RS = 0.077mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.328

210m/min:
2010/02/15 08:54:45 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.368um Rq = 1.609um Rz = 6.147um
Rt = 7.125um Rp = 3.583um Rv = 2.564um
RS = 0.057mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.563

230m/min:
2010/02/15 08:55:51 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.697um Rq = 1.962um Rz = 6.783um
Rt = 7.256um Rp = 4.248um Rv = 2.534um
RS = 0.095mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.773

250m/min:
2010/02/15 08:57:08 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.524um Rq = 1.761um Rz = 5.977um
Rt = 6.298um Rp = 3.516um Rv = 2.460um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.174mm RSk = 0.601

270m/min:
2010/02/15 08:58:13 AM ISO data:
Ra = 2.000um Rq = 2.279um Rz = 7.489um
Rt = 7.875um Rp = 4.198um Rv = 3.290um
RS = 0.069mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.497

290m/min:
2010/02/15 09:00:00 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.553um Rq = 1.843um Rz = 6.653um
Rt = 6.982um Rp = 4.016um Rv = 2.637um
RS = 0.118mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.707

310m/min:
2010/02/15 09:01:08 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.926um Rq = 1.185um Rz = 5.346um
Rt = 6.579um Rp = 3.135um Rv = 2.210um
RS = 0.089mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = 1.053

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/15 09:02:09 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.295um Rq = 1.502um Rz = 5.658um
Rt = 6.053um Rp = 3.365um Rv = 2.293um
RS = 0.085mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.449

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 31

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 2.

50m/min:
2010/02/05 08:29:30 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.741um Rq = 2.011um Rz = 7.834um
Rt = 8.212um Rp = 4.339um Rv = 3.494um
RS = 0.075mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.263

70m/min:
2010/02/05 08:40:20 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.457um Rq = 1.658um Rz = 5.840um
Rt = 6.311um Rp = 3.310um Rv = 2.530um
RS = 0.093mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.346

90m/min:
2010/02/05 08:47:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.703um Rq = 1.952um Rz = 7.398um
Rt = 7.761um Rp = 4.527um Rv = 2.871um
RS = 0.082mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.632

110m/min:
2010/02/05 08:54:32 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.731um Rq = 1.963um Rz = 6.744um
Rt = 7.193um Rp = 4.025um Rv = 2.718um
RS = 0.087mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.457

130m/min:
2010/02/05 08:58:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.374um Rq = 1.602um Rz = 6.424um
Rt = 6.987um Rp = 3.631um Rv = 2.792um
RS = 0.082mm RSm = 0.200mm RSk = 0.533

150m/min:
2010/02/05 09:03:29 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.791um Rq = 2.058um Rz = 7.473um
Rt = 7.957um Rp = 4.313um Rv = 3.159um
RS = 0.089mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.335

170m/min:
2010/02/05 09:13:24 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.545um Rq = 1.789um Rz = 6.867um
Rt = 7.095um Rp = 4.014um Rv = 2.853um
RS = 0.057mm RSm = 0.125mm RSk = 0.555

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min;
2010/02/05 09:17:54 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.614um Rq = 1.843um Rz = 6.687um
Rt = 7.340um Rp = 4.021um Rv = 2.665um
RS = 0.069mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.537

210m/min;
2010/02/05 09:21:12 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.484um Rq = 1.729um Rz = 6.438um
Rt = 6.918um Rp = 3.753um Rv = 2.685um
RS = 0.059mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.571

230m/min:
2010/02/05 09:25:21 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.764um Rq = 2.061um Rz = 6.957um
Rt = 7.212um Rp = 4.182um Rv = 2.775um
RS = 0.098mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.618

250m/min:
2010/02/05 09:29:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.597um Rq = 1.835um Rz = 6.158um
Rt = 6.379um Rp = 3.573um Rv = 2.585um
RS = 0.098mm RSm = 0.182mm RSk = 0.518

270m/min:
2010/02/05 12:18:44 PM ISO data:
Ra = 2.082um Rq = 2.386um Rz = 8.151um
Rt = 8.682um Rp = 4.560um Rv = 3.590um
RS = 0.071mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.499

290m/min:
2010/02/05 12:21:41 PM ISO data:
Ra = 2.162um Rq = 2.600um Rz = 9.690um
Rt = 14.950um Rp = 5.092um Rv = 4.598um
RS = 0.148mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = -0.208

310m/min:
2010/02/05 12:26:19 PM ISO data:
Ra = 2.201um Rq = 2.547um Rz = 9.360um
Rt = 14.810um Rp = 5.676um Rv = 3.684um
RS = 0.148mm RSm = 0.267mm RSk = 1.706

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/05 12:32:32 PM ISO data:
Ra = 2.004um Rq = 2.296um Rz = 8.141um
Rt = 10.480um Rp = 4.476um Rv = 3.665um
RS = 0.200mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.263

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 3.

50m/min:
2010/02/15 09:08:03 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.730um Rq = 1.994um Rz = 7.544um
Rt = 8.293um Rp = 4.259um Rv = 3.285um
RS = 0.075mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.233

70m/min:
2010/02/15 09:09:04 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.448um Rq = 1.648um Rz = 5.831um
Rt = 6.326um Rp = 3.321um Rv = 2.509um
RS = 0.091mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.406

90m/min:
2010/02/15 09:09:56 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.763um Rq = 2.029um Rz = 7.928um
Rt = 10.750um Rp = 4.577um Rv = 3.351um
RS = 0.111mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.268

110m/min;
2010/02/15 09:11:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.794um Rq = 2.056um Rz = 7.242um
Rt = 8.578um Rp = 4.529um Rv = 2.713um
RS = 0.095mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.777

130m/min;
2010/02/15 09:14:49 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.266um Rq = 1.472um Rz = 5.655um
Rt = 6.241um Rp = 3.192um Rv = 2.462um
RS = 0.082mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.683

150m/min:
2010/02/15 09:19:08 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.685um Rq = 1.936um Rz = 7.031um
Rt = 7.331um Rp = 4.008um Rv = 3.023um
RS = 0.095mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.336

170m/min:
2010/02/15 09:20:53 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.472um Rq = 1.708um Rz = 6.730um
Rt = 8.403um Rp = 4.117um Rv = 2.613um
RS = 0.066mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.654

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/15 09:21:57 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.450um Rq = 1.666um Rz = 6.012um
Rt = 6.598um Rp = 3.643um Rv = 2.368um
RS = 0.078mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.560

210m/min:
2010/02/15 09:22:55 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.293um Rq = 1.525um Rz = 6.000um
Rt = 6.241um Rp = 3.451um Rv = 2.549um
RS = 0.071mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.555

230m/min:
2010/02/15 09:23:55 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.969um Rq = 2.196um Rz = 6.895um
Rt = 7.256um Rp = 3.895um Rv = 3.000um
RS = 0.074mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 0.352

250m/min:
2010/02/15 09:25:36 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.398um Rq = 1.619um Rz = 5.504um
Rt = 5.827um Rp = 3.211um Rv = 2.293um
RS = 0.108mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.681

270m/min:
2010/02/15 09:26:52 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.917um Rq = 2.198um Rz = 7.185um
Rt = 8.159um Rp = 3.782um Rv = 3.402um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.445

290m/min;
2010/02/15 09:27:56 AM ISO data:
Ra = 2.015um Rq = 2.406um Rz = 8.834um
Rt = 11.010um Rp = 3.083um Rv = 5.751um
RS = 0.108mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = -0.961

310m/min:
2010/02/15 09:29:52 AM ISO data:
Ra = 1.921um Rq = 2.293um Rz = 7.219um
Rt = 12.590um Rp = 4.098um Rv = 3.120um
RS = 0.143mm RSm = 0.235mm RSk = 0.257

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/15 09:31:29 AM ISO data:
Ra = 2.138um Rq = 2.447um Rz = 8.497um
Rt = 10.880um Rp = 4.433um Rv = 4.064um
RS = 0.190mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = 0.144

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
B2 Tool Wear images

Figures B2.1 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (34.34µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (31.89µm) respectively acquired when machining at 50m/min.

Figures B2.2 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (34.54µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (29.23µm) respectively acquired when machining at 70m/min.

Figures B2.3 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (47.83µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (37.20µm)respectively acquired when machining at 90m/min.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B2.4 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (58.46µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (106.29µm)respectively acquired when machining at 110m/min.

Figures B2.5 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (63.77µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (55.80µm)respectively acquired when machining at 130m/min.

Figures B2.6 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (71.75µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (63.77µm)respectively acquired when machining at 150m/min.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B2.7 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (79.72µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (69.09µm)respectively acquired when machining at 170m/min.

Figures B2.8 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (94.32µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (77.06µm)respectively acquired when machining at 190m/min.

Figures B2.9 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (199.30µm) and insert with no chip
breaker (85.03µm)respectively acquired when machining at 210m/min.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B2.10 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (164.75µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (87.69µm)respectively acquired when machining at 230m/min.

Figures B2.11 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (390.62µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (122.23µm)respectively acquired when machining at 250m/min.

Figures B2.12 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (443.76µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (536.77µm)respectively acquired when machining at 270m/min.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figures B2.13 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (515.51µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (411.88µm)respectively acquired when machining at 290m/min.

Figures B2.14 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (600.55µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (1007.14µm)respectively acquired when machining at 310m/min.

Figures B2.15 a & b: Tool wear on insert with chip breaker (696.22µm) and insert with no
chip breaker (754.68µm)respectively acquired when machining at 330m/min.

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
APPENDIX C: GRADE 4 TEST RESULTS
C1 Surface Roughness
C1.1 Surface profile images

1a)

1b)

1c)
Figures C1.1a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 50m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1m (right).

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
2a)

2b)

2c)
Figures C1.2a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 70m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm
(right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 3a)

3b)

3c)
Figures C1.3a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 90m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
4a)

4b)

4c)
Figures C1.4a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 110m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 5a)

5b)

5c)
Figures C1.5a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 130m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 6a)

6b)

6c)
Figures C1.6a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 150m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
7a)

7b)

7c)
Figures C1.7a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 170m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
8a)

8b)

8c)
Figures C1.8a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 190m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
9a)

9b)

9c)
Figures C1.9a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 210m/min measured
at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 10a)

10b)

10c)
Figures C1.10a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 230m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
11a)

11b)

11c)
Figures C1.11a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 250m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 12a)

12b)

12c)
Figures C1.12a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 270m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 13a)

13b)

13c)
Figures C1.13a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 290m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 14a)

14b)

14c)
Figures C1.14a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 310m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
15a)

15b)

15c)
Figures C1.15a, b & c: Surface roughness of grade 4 titanium machined at 330m/min
measured at positions 1, 2 & 3 respectively, at a depth of cut (DoC) of 0.2mm (left) and
1mm (right).

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C1.2 Surface profile parameters
GRADE 4, FINISH CUT – 0.2mm.

POSITION 1.

50m/mim:
2010/02/17 12:02:00 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.394um Rq = 0.481um Rz = 2.225um
Rt = 2.782um Rp = 1.090um Rv = 1.135um
RS = 0.033mm RSm = 0.111mm RSk = 0.081

70m/min:
2010/02/17 12:04:14 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.562um Rq = 0.695um Rz = 3.009um
Rt = 3.448um Rp = 1.903um Rv = 1.105um
RS = 0.051mm RSm = 0.095mm RSk = 1.078

90m/min:
2010/02/17 12:08:08 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.534um Rq = 0.616um Rz = 2.361um
Rt = 2.783um Rp = 1.253um Rv = 1.107um
RS = 0.033mm RSm = 0.148mm RSk = 0.071

110m/min:
2010/02/17 12:06:20 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.895um Rq = 1.069um Rz = 3.688um
Rt = 5.395um Rp = 2.015um Rv = 1.673um
RS = 0.089mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = -0.440

130m/min:
2010/02/17 12:09:51 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.601um Rq = 0.714um Rz = 3.245um
Rt = 5.386um Rp = 1.711um Rv = 1.533um
RS = 0.085mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.558

150m/min:
2010/02/17 12:11:20 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.389um Rq = 0.517um Rz = 2.304um
Rt = 2.462um Rp = 1.503um Rv = 0.800um
RS = 0.045mm RSm = 0.089mm RSk = 1.515

170m/min:
2010/02/17 12:12:28 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.453um Rq = 0.519um Rz = 2.126um
Rt = 3.030um Rp = 1.233um Rv = 0.892um
RS = 0.037mm RSm = 0.148mm RSk = 0.511
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190m/min:
2010/02/17 12:14:34 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.654um Rq = 0.763um Rz = 2.530um
Rt = 4.455um Rp = 1.413um Rv = 1.116um
RS = 0.043mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = -0.907

210m/min:
2010/02/17 12:15:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.413um Rq = 0.492um Rz = 2.052um
Rt = 2.443um Rp = 1.199um Rv = 0.853um
RS = 0.034mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = 0.856

230m/min:
2010/02/17 12:16:41 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.421um Rq = 0.520um Rz = 2.177um
Rt = 3.101um Rp = 1.150um Rv = 1.026um
RS = 0.034mm RSm = 0.087mm RSk = 0.156

250m/min:
2010/02/17 12:17:57 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.577um Rq = 0.681um Rz = 2.872um
Rt = 3.628um Rp = 1.430um Rv = 1.442um
RS = 0.054mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = -0.265

270m/min:
2010/02/17 12:20:13 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.669um Rq = 0.811um Rz = 3.135um
Rt = 5.094um Rp = 1.849um Rv = 1.285um
RS = 0.074mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = -0.389

290m/min:
2010/02/17 12:22:02 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.637 um Rq = 0.764 um Rz = 2.823 um
Rt = 3.835 um Rp = 1.511 um Rv = 1.312 um
RS = 0.053 mm RSm = 0.190 mm RSk = -0.035

310m/min:
2010/02/17 12:23:14 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.492um Rq = 0.610um Rz = 2.368um
Rt = 3.158um Rp = 1.571um Rv = 0.797um
RS = 0.043mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 1.696

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/17 12:24:20 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.512um Rq = 0.618um Rz = 2.462um
Rt = 4.041um Rp = 1.406um Rv = 1.056um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = -0.129

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POSITION 2.

50m/min:
2010/02/12 10:11:48 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.476um Rq = 0.576um Rz = 2.601um
Rt = 2.935um Rp = 1.352um Rv = 1.248um
RS = 0.034mm RSm = 0.093mm RSk = 0.012

70m/min:
2010/02/12 10:16:58 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.697um Rq = 0.819um Rz = 3.068um
Rt = 3.372um Rp = 1.833um Rv = 1.234um
RS = 0.066mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = 0.704

90m/min:
2010/02/12 10:22:28 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.641um Rq = 0.731um Rz = 2.614um
Rt = 2.764um Rp = 1.415um Rv = 1.198um
RS = 0.036mm RSm = 0.100mm RSk = 0.462

110m/min:
2010/02/12 10:25:34 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.843um Rq = 0.993um Rz = 3.906um
Rt = 4.217um Rp = 2.203um Rv = 1.702um
RS = 0.066mm RSm = 0.125mm RSk = 0.289

130m/min:
2010/02/12 10:28:01 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.609um Rq = 0.718um Rz = 3.209um
Rt = 3.619um Rp = 1.613um Rv = 1.595um
RS = 0.038mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = 0.147

150m/min:
2010/02/12 10:31:28 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.473um Rq = 0.612um Rz = 2.768um
Rt = 3.248um Rp = 1.761um Rv = 1.006um
RS = 0.053mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = 1.075

170m/min:
2010/02/12 10:36:33 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.468um Rq = 0.529um Rz = 2.116um
Rt = 2.697um Rp = 1.128um Rv = 0.987um
RS = 0.035mm RSm = 0.121mm RSk = -0.070

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190m/min:
2010/02/12 10:39:09 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.524um Rq = 0.763um Rz = 3.148um
Rt = 8.131um Rp = 1.288um Rv = 1.860um
RS = 0.138mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = -11.390

210m/min:
2010/02/12 10:42:25 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.436um Rq = 0.517um Rz = 2.323um
Rt = 2.954um Rp = 1.193um Rv = 1.130um
RS = 0.038mm RSm = 0.108mm RSk = 0.072

230m/min:
2010/02/12 10:45:02 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.404um Rq = 0.487um Rz = 2.091um
Rt = 2.545um Rp = 0.946um Rv = 1.145um
RS = 0.027mm RSm = 0.067mm RSk = -0.353

250m/min:
2010/02/12 10:47:26 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.593um Rq = 0.675um Rz = 2.418um
Rt = 2.669um Rp = 1.367um Rv = 1.050um
RS = 0.041mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.478

270m/min:
2010/02/12 10:52:39 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.520um Rq = 0.647um Rz = 2.849um
Rt = 3.163um Rp = 1.643um Rv = 1.206um
RS = 0.043mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = 0.810

290m/min:
2010/02/12 10:55:18 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.610um Rq = 0.696um Rz = 2.601um
Rt = 2.868um Rp = 1.369um Rv = 1.231um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.182mm RSk = 0.222

310m/min:
2010/02/12 10:58:37 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.490um Rq = 0.595um Rz = 2.591um
Rt = 3.201um Rp = 1.459um Rv = 1.132um
RS = 0.044mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = 0.585

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/12 11:02:08 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.488um Rq = 0.572um Rz = 2.363um
Rt = 2.925um Rp = 1.172um Rv = 1.191um
RS = 0.043mm RSm = 0.121mm RSk = 0.156

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 3.

50m/min:
2010/02/17 01:36:04 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.511um Rq = 0.623um Rz = 2.791um
Rt = 3.020um Rp = 1.559um Rv = 1.231um
RS = 0.033mm RSm = 0.100mm RSk = 0.250

70m/min:
2010/02/17 01:37:13 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.755um Rq = 0.891um Rz = 3.446um
Rt = 3.752um Rp = 2.004um Rv = 1.442um
RS = 0.065mm RSm = 0.114mm RSk = 0.574

90m/min:
2010/02/17 01:38:18 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.661 um Rq = 0.785 um Rz = 3.057 um
Rt = 3.723 um Rp = 1.692 um Rv = 1.364 um
RS = 0.051 mm RSm = 0.108 mm RSk = 0.342

110m/min:
2010/02/17 01:39:22 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.902um Rq = 1.059um Rz = 4.045um
Rt = 4.303um Rp = 2.302um Rv = 1.742um
RS = 0.065mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = 0.293

130m/min:
2010/02/17 01:40:27 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.686um Rq = 0.809um Rz = 3.446um
Rt = 4.236um Rp = 1.645um Rv = 1.801um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = -0.364

150m/min:
2010/02/17 01:41:43 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.454um Rq = 0.595um Rz = 2.625um
Rt = 3.011um Rp = 1.702um Rv = 0.923um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = 1.254

170m/min:
2010/02/17 01:42:45 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.482um Rq = 0.546um Rz = 2.171um
Rt = 2.621um Rp = 1.081um Rv = 1.090um
RS = 0.037mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = -0.055

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SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/17 01:43:46 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.331um Rq = 0.429um Rz = 2.031um
Rt = 2.308um Rp = 1.181um Rv = 0.849um
RS = 0.028mm RSm = 0.058mm RSk = 0.862

210m/min:
2010/02/17 01:44:45 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.459um Rq = 0.532um Rz = 2.431um
Rt = 2.811um Rp = 1.386um Rv = 1.044um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.245

230m/min:
2010/02/17 01:45:45 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.388 um Rq = 0.479 um Rz = 2.270 um
Rt = 2.431 um Rp = 1.301 um Rv = 0.968 um
RS = 0.026 mm RSm = 0.068 mm RSk = 0.770

250m/min:
2010/02/17 01:46:43 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.648um Rq = 0.754um Rz = 3.079um
Rt = 3.438um Rp = 1.468um Rv = 1.611um
RS = 0.055mm RSm = 0.222mm RSk = -0.118

270m/min:
2010/02/17 01:47:45 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.582um Rq = 0.697um Rz = 3.210um
Rt = 4.911um Rp = 1.926um Rv = 1.284um
RS = 0.058mm RSm = 0.167mm RSk = 0.443

290m/min:
2010/02/17 01:49:05 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.661um Rq = 0.760um Rz = 2.996um
Rt = 3.353um Rp = 1.683um Rv = 1.312um
RS = 0.047mm RSm = 0.190mm RSk = 0.428

310m/min:
2010/02/17 01:50:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.544um Rq = 0.672um Rz = 3.086um
Rt = 4.305um Rp = 1.970um Rv = 1.116um
RS = 0.067mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 1.065

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/17 01:52:17 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.495um Rq = 0.588um Rz = 2.361um
Rt = 2.707um Rp = 1.353um Rv = 1.007um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.143mm RSk = 0.667

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 GRADE 4, ROUGH CUT – 1mm.

POSITION 1.

50m/min:
2010/02/13 04:41:44 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.485um Rq = 0.611um Rz = 2.874um
Rt = 3.239um Rp = 1.717um Rv = 1.157um
RS = 0.059mm RSm = 0.103mm RSk = 0.420

70m/min:
2010/02/13 04:44:09 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.756um Rq = 0.897um Rz = 3.788um
Rt = 6.611um Rp = 2.342um Rv = 1.445um
RS = 0.083mm RSm = 0.154mm RSk = 0.908

90m/min:
2010/02/13 04:46:13 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.735um Rq = 0.904um Rz = 3.980um
Rt = 6.868um Rp = 2.061um Rv = 1.918um
RS = 0.091mm RSm = 0.133mm RSk = -0.538

110m/min:
2010/02/13 04:49:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.439um Rq = 0.555um Rz = 2.771um
Rt = 3.139um Rp = 1.616um Rv = 1.154um
RS = 0.056mm RSm = 0.143mm RSk = 0.713

130m/min:
2010/02/13 04:51:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.778um Rq = 0.930um Rz = 3.947um
Rt = 5.865um Rp = 1.801um Rv = 2.146um
RS = 0.077mm RSm = 0.160mm RSk = -0.607

150m/min:
2010/02/13 04:52:50 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.525um Rq = 0.619um Rz = 2.744um
Rt = 3.327um Rp = 1.346um Rv = 1.398um
RS = 0.039mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = -0.378

170m/min:
2010/02/13 04:57:23 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.352um Rq = 0.432um Rz = 2.045um
Rt = 2.594um Rp = 1.120um Rv = 0.924um
RS = 0.028mm RSm = 0.087mm RSk = 0.120

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/13 05:00:40 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.536um Rq = 0.634um Rz = 2.425um
Rt = 2.613um Rp = 1.409um Rv = 1.015um
RS = 0.038mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = 0.900

210m/min:
2010/02/13 05:01:55 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.438um Rq = 0.546um Rz = 2.139um
Rt = 3.139um Rp = 1.165um Rv = 0.973um
RS = 0.037mm RSm = 0.095mm RSk = 0.146

230m/min:
2010/02/13 05:03:01 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.502um Rq = 0.584um Rz = 2.293um
Rt = 2.669um Rp = 1.327um Rv = 0.966um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.111mm RSk = 0.762

250m/min:
2010/02/13 05:04:29 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.749um Rq = 0.872um Rz = 2.789um
Rt = 5.075um Rp = 1.229um Rv = 1.560um
RS = 0.089mm RSm = 0.250mm RSk = -0.655

270m/min:
2010/02/13 05:06:41 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.587um Rq = 0.704um Rz = 2.832um
Rt = 3.362um Rp = 1.609um Rv = 1.223um
RS = 0.047mm RSm = 0.091mm RSk = 0.624

290m/min:
2010/02/13 05:08:23 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.479um Rq = 0.589um Rz = 2.391um
Rt = 3.722um Rp = 1.146um Rv = 1.244um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.114mm RSk = -0.731

310m/min:
2010/02/13 05:11:19 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.421um Rq = 0.496um Rz = 2.051um
Rt = 2.317um Rp = 0.889um Rv = 1.162um
RS = 0.038mm RSm = 0.075mm RSk = -0.448

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/13 05:12:31 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.494um Rq = 0.558um Rz = 2.268um
Rt = 2.669um Rp = 1.162um Rv = 1.105um
RS = 0.030mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.112

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 2.

50m/min:
2010/02/12 11:19:55 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.535um Rq = 0.657um Rz = 2.924um
Rt = 3.381um Rp = 1.580um Rv = 1.343um
RS = 0.062mm RSm = 0.143mm RSk = 0.276

70m/min:
2010/02/12 11:23:02 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.687um Rq = 0.779um Rz = 2.872um
Rt = 3.229um Rp = 1.548um Rv = 1.324um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.191

90m/min:
2010/02/12 11:26:36 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.650um Rq = 0.754um Rz = 3.152um
Rt = 3.381um Rp = 1.721um Rv = 1.430um
RS = 0.048mm RSm = 0.174mm RSk = 0.355

110m/min:
2010/02/12 11:29:37 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.417um Rq = 0.523um Rz = 2.469um
Rt = 2.792um Rp = 1.516um Rv = 0.953um
RS = 0.053mm RSm = 0.114mm RSk = 1.033

130m/min:
2010/02/12 11:31:57 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.751um Rq = 0.884um Rz = 3.480um
Rt = 4.008um Rp = 1.698um Rv = 1.782um
RS = 0.063mm RSm = 0.182mm RSk = -0.091

150m/min:
2010/02/12 11:34:28 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.533um Rq = 0.622um Rz = 2.766um
Rt = 3.210um Rp = 1.394um Rv = 1.371um
RS = 0.035mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = -0.312

170m/min:
2010/02/12 11:36:45 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.375um Rq = 0.452um Rz = 2.165um
Rt = 2.735um Rp = 1.181um Rv = 0.984um
RS = 0.034mm RSm = 0.103mm RSk = -0.031

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/12 11:39:11 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.515um Rq = 0.626um Rz = 2.610um
Rt = 3.210um Rp = 1.405um Rv = 1.204um
RS = 0.038mm RSm = 0.095mm RSk = 0.371

210m/min:
2010/02/12 11:42:48 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.388um Rq = 0.472um Rz = 2.165um
Rt = 2.336um Rp = 1.200um Rv = 0.965um
RS = 0.024mm RSm = 0.054mm RSk = 0.607

230m/min:
2010/02/12 11:45:11 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.480um Rq = 0.544um Rz = 2.010um
Rt = 2.270um Rp = 1.179um Rv = 0.830um
RS = 0.032mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = 0.569

250m/min:
2010/02/12 11:47:25 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.494um Rq = 0.602um Rz = 2.551um
Rt = 3.258um Rp = 1.386um Rv = 1.164um
RS = 0.040mm RSm = 0.103mm RSk = 0.304

270m/min:
2010/02/12 11:50:23 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.521um Rq = 0.625um Rz = 2.441um
Rt = 2.593um Rp = 1.400um Rv = 1.041um
RS = 0.035mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = 0.720

290m/min:
2010/02/12 11:54:07 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.372um Rq = 0.467um Rz = 2.278um
Rt = 2.650um Rp = 1.231um Rv = 1.046um
RS = 0.029mm RSm = 0.071mm RSk = 0.243

310m/min:
2010/02/12 11:56:15 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.556um Rq = 0.658um Rz = 2.663um
Rt = 3.229um Rp = 1.280um Rv = 1.383um
RS = 0.050mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = -0.288

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/12 11:58:23 AM ISO data:
Ra = 0.506um Rq = 0.568um Rz = 2.247um
Rt = 2.507um Rp = 1.187um Rv = 1.060um
RS = 0.029mm RSm = 0.129mm RSk = 0.095

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
POSITION 3.

50m/min:
2010/02/13 05:20:32 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.503um Rq = 0.626um Rz = 3.083um
Rt = 3.571um Rp = 1.706um Rv = 1.377um
RS = 0.055mm RSm = 0.105mm RSk = 0.246

70m/min:
2010/02/13 05:21:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.659um Rq = 0.760um Rz = 2.965um
Rt = 3.410um Rp = 1.628um Rv = 1.337um
RS = 0.041mm RSm = 0.138mm RSk = 0.186

90m/min:
2010/02/13 05:23:43 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.636um Rq = 0.750um Rz = 3.127um
Rt = 3.562um Rp = 1.662um Rv = 1.464um
RS = 0.045mm RSm = 0.160mm RSk = 0.008

110m/min:
2010/02/13 05:27:40 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.422um Rq = 0.538um Rz = 2.414um
Rt = 3.068um Rp = 1.529um Rv = 0.885um
RS = 0.049mm RSm = 0.103mm RSk = 1.235
130m/min:
2010/02/13 05:30:16 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.749um Rq = 0.902um Rz = 3.496um
Rt = 4.605um Rp = 1.586um Rv = 1.910um
RS = 0.067mm RSm = 0.167mm RSk = -0.854

150m/min:
2010/02/13 05:36:16 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.680um Rq = 0.813um Rz = 3.534um
Rt = 5.865um Rp = 1.722um Rv = 1.812um
RS = 0.056mm RSm = 0.148mm RSk = -0.451

170m/min:
2010/02/13 05:48:34 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.346um Rq = 0.431um Rz = 2.402um
Rt = 3.365um Rp = 1.500um Rv = 0.902um
RS = 0.042mm RSm = 0.098mm RSk = 0.753

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
190m/min:
2010/02/13 05:50:01 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.589um Rq = 0.731um Rz = 3.425um
Rt = 6.034um Rp = 1.947um Rv = 1.477um
RS = 0.070mm RSm = 0.148mm RSk = -0.041

210m/min:
2010/02/13 05:51:39 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.751um Rq = 1.086um Rz = 3.797um
Rt = 10.820um Rp = 1.285um Rv = 2.511um
RS = 0.222mm RSm = 0.667mm RSk = -18.910

230m/min:
2010/02/13 05:53:26 PM ISO data:
Ra = 1.351um Rq = 1.522um Rz = 5.579um
Rt = 16.390um Rp = 2.714um Rv = 2.865um
RS = 0.364mm RSm = 4.000mm RSk = -0.746

250m/min:
2010/02/13 05:56:01 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.931um Rq = 1.051um Rz = 3.556um
Rt = 10.150um Rp = 2.000um Rv = 1.556um
RS = 0.211mm RSm = 0.800mm RSk = 6.776

270m/min:
2010/02/13 05:58:22 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.511um Rq = 0.619um Rz = 2.462um
Rt = 2.811um Rp = 1.394um Rv = 1.067um
RS = 0.039mm RSm = 0.114mm RSk = 0.733

290m/min;
2010/02/13 06:00:07 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.435um Rq = 0.528um Rz = 2.532um
Rt = 2.982um Rp = 1.411um Rv = 1.120um
RS = 0.031mm RSm = 0.074mm RSk = 0.237

310m/min:
2010/02/13 06:01:41 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.565um Rq = 0.664um Rz = 2.830um
Rt = 3.030um Rp = 1.354um Rv = 1.476um
RS = 0.045mm RSm = 0.118mm RSk = -0.033

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
330m/min:
2010/02/13 06:02:38 PM ISO data:
Ra = 0.828um Rq = 1.029um Rz = 3.893um
Rt = 8.188um Rp = 2.416um Rv = 1.476um
RS = 0.103mm RSm = 0.211mm RSk = 4.773

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C1.3 Anova – Surface Roughness

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to perform a quantitative evaluation on the

surface roughness results. Due to the amount of results obtained for this section in the
experimental program, it was necessary to have a statistical tool used to ensure that all data
collected is put to use in the overall analysis hence reducing amount of uncertainty. The
following tools were used in this evaluation;

Independent Variables: - Depth 1 denotes finish machining /Depth of cut (DoC) =

0.2mm, with depth 2 indicating rough machining /DoC = 1mm
- Speed (m/min) denotes machining speed

Dependent Variable: Surface roughness (Ra) measured using a TR200 hand held
roughness tester with cut off length of 5mm

The two-way between-groups ANOVA enables one to simultaneously look at the individual
and combined effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. The specific
question(s) answered in this case were; what is the impact of depth of cut and machining
speed on the surface roughness of the machined grade 4 Ti? Does a specific independent
variable influence the relationship between the other independent variable and the dependent
variable? In this analysis a significant result (Sig. <0.05) suggested that the variance of the
surface roughness across the groups was not equal.

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 Table C1.1: ANOVA test to determine effects of variables (DoC & Cutting speed) on
surface roughness

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: Avg_roughness
Source Type III Partial
Sum of Mean Eta Noncent. Observed
Squares df Square F Sig. Squared Parameter Powerb
Corrected Model .228a 15 .015 1.326 .302 .587 19.890 .469
Intercept 8.900 1 8.900 777.862 .000 .982 777.862 1.000
Depth .004 1 .004 .378 .549 .026 .378 .088
Speed-m/min .223 14 .016 1.394 .271 .582 19.512 .485
Error .160 14 .011
Total 9.288 30
Corrected Total .388 29
a. R Squared = .587 (Adjusted R Squared = .144)
b. Computed using alpha = .05
From Table C1.1, in the sig. column, it was noted that for both independent variables (depth
of cut and cutting speed) the sig. values were greater than 0.05 (the selected alpha value). This
tells us that roughness measurement is NOT significantly different for depth of cut or cutting
speed, that is, the independent variables do not significantly affect the dependent variable.
Though both independent variables are not significant (that is, they both cannot be used to
predict surface roughness to a ‘good’ degree of certainty) machining speed stands a better
chance for evaluation of its effects on surface roughness.

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C1.16: ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated marginal surface roughness means
(Ra) for the two depth of cuts (1-Finish, 2-Rough)

Figure C1.17: ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated marginal surface roughness means
(Ra) for the cutting speed

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C1.18: second order polynomial fit on the ANOVA Post-Hoc test providing estimated
marginal surface roughness means (Ra) for the cutting speed

Figure C1.16 suggests that rough machining (DoC = 1mm) generally produces better surface
roughness than finish machining (DoC = 0.2mm). It is important to take note of the scale used
in this case as the actual difference between the estimated marginal means for finish and
rough machining is just 0.026µm (very low value). Figure C1.17 shows that surface
roughness oscillates as the cutting speed is increased. Two important facts in this case were
that for this graph, a complete range of cutting speed was used 50m/min – 330m/min and
again the scale magnifies this difference creating a ‘worse’ than actually is impression. Figure
C1.18 was then used to address the question on the speed range. In this graph, the second
order polynomial shows that roughness starts off high at low machining speeds then lowers as
the speed is increased.

The primary part of the ANOVA results is shown in Table C1.1, from which it is obvious that
both cutting speed and depth of cut are not significant. However, due to the difference in the
individual level of significance, it was decided to conduct the Post-Hoc test. Figures C1.17 –
C1.18 form part of the Post-Hoc tests of the ANOVA. Results in this section are secondary
and can only be used to support the primary results otherwise are invalid. It can then be safely

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
said that statistically, both depth of cut and cutting speed do not have unambiguous influence
in the surface roughness of the machined grade 4 titanium.

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C2 Hardness
C2.1 Hardness tables
Table C2.1: Hardness values for Grade 4 machined at a depth of cut 1mm and varying
speeds
Averag 70m/mi 90m/mi 150m/mi 170m/mi 230m/mi 250m/mi STD
Depth e n n n n n n DEV
0.03 302 323 305 291 308 287 296 11.8
0.05 279 276 290 307 278 268 256 4.1
0.07 280 268 292 282 269 277 290 3.8
0.09 276 266 276 283 262 285 285 6.2
0.13 283 270 287 282 273 294 291 1.5
0.17 293 305 306 280 282 291 291 5.3
0.21 291 301 303 274 279 292 296 4.1
0.25 289 284 302 276 286 285 298 2.5
0.29 290 299 292 283 284 292 288 3.3
0.31 286 291 284 286 278 284 290 0.4
0.35 289 294 292 299 284 287 279 2.9
0.39 285 299 296 289 274 279 272 0.1
0.43 289 292 288 299 290 285 278 2.6
0.47 283 285 283 281 286 280 282 1.5
0.5 284 287 278 282 281 290 286 0.7
0.55 283 280 282 285 282 286 284 1.3
0.6 283 285 281 279 285 279 288 1.5
0.65 286 283 284 282 288 286 290 0.4
0.7 283 281 279 281 285 286 286 1.4
0.75 283 279 290 279 279 287 281 1.8
0.8 285 289 287 282 285 281 283 0.4
0.85 282 280 280 282 283 279 285 2.5
0.9 286 291 286 285 285 282 288 0.8
0.95 286 291 287 279 291 285 284 0.8
1 285 281 284 287 284 291 282 0.1

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Table C2.2: Hardness values for Grade 4 machined at a depth of cut 0.2mm and varying
speeds.

Dept Averag 70m/mi 90m/mi 150m/mi 170m/mi 230m/mi 250m/mi STD.

h e n n n n n n DEV.
0.03 309 305 305 308 305 306 322 16.6
0.05 312 319 323 317 302 309 300 18.9
0.07 309 313 302 315 310 304 309 16.9
0.09 301 292 302 297 312 303 301 11.4
0.13 294 292 292 286 291 309 294 6.4
0.17 294 286 297 286 291 298 308 6.6
0.21 289 291 292 289 282 291 286 2.5
0.25 294 301 297 283 291 299 294 6.5
0.29 292 292 289 290 298 295 290 5.2
0.31 296 280 299 306 296 308 285 7.5
0.35 295 300 297 287 287 296 301 6.8
0.39 293 286 308 299 291 290 281 5.3
0.43 298 296 299 306 285 296 304 9.0
0.47 293 296 298 291 297 290 286 5.7
0.5 286 291 284 285 280 291 284 0.6
0.55 289 287 291 291 291 287 285 2.6
0.6 287 282 284 288 290 285 291 1.2
0.65 286 279 283 290 288 289 289 0.9
0.7 287 290 282 286 291 285 287 1.3
0.75 284 287 282 285 286 283 283 0.5
0.8 284 285 279 281 284 288 285 0.9
0.85 285 290 280 287 284 284 283 0.2
0.9 284 281 281 287 280 287 289 0.6
0.95 287 291 289 286 287 283 286 1.4
1 285 287 284 284 289 282 286 0.2

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C2.2 Hardness graphs

Figure C2.1: Hardness at cutting speeds 70 – 90m/min

Figure C2.2: Hardness at cutting speeds 150 – 170m/min

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Figure C2.3: Hardness at cutting speeds 230 – 250m/min

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C3 Microscopy
C3.1 Microstructure images
Grade 4 Rough

Figure C3.1: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.2: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.3: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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Figure C3.4: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.5: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.6: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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 Figure C3.7: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.8: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.9: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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Figure C3.10: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.11: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.12: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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 Figure C3.13: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.14: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.15: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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 Grade 4 Finish

Figure C3.16: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.17: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

Figure C3.18: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnification of 20X and 40X

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Figure C3.19: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.20: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.21: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

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Figure C3.22: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.23: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.24: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

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Figure C3.25: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.26: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.27: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.28: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.29: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

Figure C3.30: Metallurgical microscope images of cross section of specimen (feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnification of 20X and
40X

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C3.2 SEM white layer
Grade 4 Rough

Figure C3.31: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.32: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.33: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnifications of 500X, 1000X
and 2000X respectively

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.34: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.35: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.36: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.37: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.38: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.39: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.40: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.41: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.42: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.43: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.44: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.45: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 1mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively
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 Grade 4 Finish

Figure C3.46: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 50m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C3.47: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 70m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.48: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 90m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.49: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 110m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.50: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 130m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.51: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 150m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.52: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 170m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.53: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 190m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.54: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 210m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.55: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 230m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.56: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 250m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.57: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 270m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.58: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 290m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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Figure C3.59: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate
0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 310m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

Figure C3.60: SEM images of cross-section of grade 4 titanium specimen;(feed rate

0.2mm/rev; depth of cut 0.2mm; cutting speed 330m/min) at magnifications of 500X,
1000X and 2000X respectively

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C3.3 SEM machined surface

Figure C3.61: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 50m/min

Figure C3.62: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 70m/min

Figure C3.63: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 90m/min

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Figure C3.64: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 110m/min

Figure C3.65: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 130m/min

Figure C3.66: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 150m/min

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Figure C3.67: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 170m/min

Figure C3.68: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 190m/min

Figure C3.69: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 210m/min

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Figure C3.70: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 230m/min

Figure C3.71: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 250m/min

Figure C3.72: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 270m/min

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Figure C3.73: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 290m/min

Figure C3.74: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 310m/min

Figure C3.75: SEM images of sample machined surface for grade 4 titanium, depth of cut
0.2mm (left) and 1mm (right), speed 330m/min

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C4 Residual Stress
C4.1 Tensor tables
σxx τxy τxz
τyx σyy τyz
τzx τzy σzz

Table C4.1: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 50m/min

Table C4.2: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 90m/min

Table C4.3: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 130m/min

Table C4.4: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 170m/min

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 Table C4.5: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 210m/min

Table C4.6: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 250m/min

Table C4.7: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 290m/min

Table C4.8: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 0.2mm, speed – 330m/min

Table C4.9: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 90m/min

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
 Table C4.10: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 130m/min

Table C4.11: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 170m/min

Table C4.12: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 210m/min

Table C4.13: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 250m/min

Table C4.14: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 290m/min

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 Table C4.15: Stress tensor for grade 4 Ti machined at DoC – 1mm, speed – 330m/min

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C4.2 Complete stress table

(SEE ATTACHMENT)

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C4.3 Intensity graphs

Figure C4.1: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 90m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm and
(b) 0.2mm

Figure C4.2: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 130m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm
and (b) 0.2mm

Figure C4.3: Intensity graphs of samples machined at 170m/min for depths of cut (a) 1mm
and (b) 0.2mm

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C4.4 NECSA X-Ray Diffraction Analysis Report

(SEE ATTACHMENT)

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C5 Chip Analysis
C5.1 Camera images

Figure C5.1: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 50m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.2: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 70m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.3: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 90m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

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Figure C5.4: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 110m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.5: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 130m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.6: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 150m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

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Figure C5.7: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 170m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.8: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 190m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.9: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 210m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 125

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.10: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 230m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.11: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 250m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.12: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 270m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 126

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.13: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 290m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

Figure C5.14: Chips formed from machining grade 4 Ti at 310m/min, depth of cut 0.2mm &
1mm

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 127

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C5.2 EDS Data

(SEE ATTACHMENT)

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 128

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
C5.3 SEM Extra images

Figure C5.15: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 50m/min (1mm DoC), shown at
magnifications X100, X200 and X600

Figure C5.16: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 70m/min (1mm DoC)

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 129

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.17: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 90m/min (1mm DoC)

Figure C5.18: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 110m/min (1mm DoC) showing
different positions along the chip at magnification X100

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 130

SURFACE INTEGRITY OF GRADE 4 TITANIUM ALLOY
APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.19: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 170m/min (1mm DoC)

Figure 5.20: SEM images of chip free surface machined at 190m/min (1mm DoC) showing
different positions of a fully developed chip

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 131

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
Figure C5.21: SEM image of chip free surface machined at 210m/min (1mm DoC)

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SPEED MACHINING ON THE 132

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APPENDICES BY Philip B. Mawanga
NECSA Limited
P O Box 582 Pretoria 0001

Telephone: (+27) 12 305-5038 / 5400 / 5427

E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS REPORT: RS-DIFF-REP-10022 Page

1 of 17

CLIENT DETAILS
Name: Mr. Phillip Mawanga
Address: University of Johannesburg
Department: Mech. Engineering Science
Telephone: (+27) 72 298 7795
Facsimile:
e-mail: [email protected]

SAMPLE DESCRIPTION AND COMMENTS

The XRD measurements for phase identification were performed on six Ti alloy samples. The samples were exposed to
different machining speeds.

ANALYTICAL METHOD EMPLOYED

X-ray diffraction technique, in conjunction with 2007 PDF-2 database.

MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS:
Goniometer: θ-θ
Target Tube: Cu
Recording range: 20˚ to 125˚
Step size: 0.04˚
Counting time: 1.5s
Special conditions: None
Diffractometer: D8 Advance
Date measured: 07/ 07 / 2010
ANALYSIS REPORT

Sample reference: Ti4-0.2 mm_3 Ti4-0.2 mm_5 Ti4-0.2 mm_7

Laboratory reference: Ti4-pt2 mm_3 Ti4-pt2 mm_5 Ti4-pt2 mm_7

Sample reference: Ti4-1 mm_3 Ti4-1mm_5 Ti4-1mm_7

Laboratory reference: Ti4-1 mm_3 Ti4-1 mm_5 Ti4-1 mm_7

Figures 1 show the superposed X-ray diffraction patterns of the above samples on both linear and log scales. The figure
shows no difference in the diffraction pattern of the samples indicating their similarity. Stick patterns from the database
overlaid on the raw data confirms that the samples are indeed Ti alloy.

GENERAL COMMENTS:

Enquiries: Dr AM Venter / Mr. T.P. Ntsoane

Date: 2010/07/07
 130000

120000

110000

100000

90000
Lin (Counts)

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

2-Theta - Scale
Y + 18.0 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-7 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-7.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124. Y + 30.0 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-3 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-3.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.
Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import
Y + 21.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-3 - File: Ti4-1 mm-3.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.99 Y + 33.0 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-5 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-5.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.
Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import
Y + 24.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-5 - File: Ti4-1 mm-5.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.99
Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import
Y + 27.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-7 - File: Ti4-1 mm-7.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.99
Operations: Background 0.457,1.000 | Import

Figure 1a: Superposed powder diffraction pattern of Ti alloy samples machined at different speeds (linear scale).
 1e5

1e4
Log (Counts)

1000

100

10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

2-Theta - Scale
Ti4-pt 2 mm-7 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-7.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.996 ° - Step: 0. Y + 12.0 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-3 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-3.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.
Operations: Import Operations: Import
Y + 3.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-3 - File: Ti4-1 mm-3.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.996 Y + 15.0 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-5 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-5.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.
Operations: Import Operations: Import
Y + 6.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-5 - File: Ti4-1 mm-5.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.996
Operations: Import
Y + 9.0 mm - Ti4-pt 1 mm-7 - File: Ti4-1 mm-7.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.996
Operations: Import

Figure 1b: Superposed powder diffraction pattern of Ti alloy samples machined at different speeds (log scale).
 130000

120000

110000

100000

90000
Lin (Counts)

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

2-Theta - Scale
Y + 0.6 mm - Ti4-pt 2 mm-7 - File: Ti4-pt 2 mm-7.raw - Type: 2Th/Th locked - Start: 20.000 ° - End: 124.996 ° - Step: 0.039 ° - Step time: 285. s - Temp.: 25 °C (Room) - Time Started: 18 s - 2-Theta: 20.000 ° - Theta:
Operations: Strip kAlpha2 0.500 | Background 0.457,1.000 | Import
03-065-3362 (I) - Titanium - Ti - Y: 51.87 % - d x by: 1. - WL: 1.5406 - Hexagonal - a 2.95040 - b 2.95040 - c 4.68330 - alpha 90.000 - beta 90.000 - gamma 120.000 - Primitive - P63/mmc (194) - 2 - 35.3057 - I/Ic PDF

Figure 1c: Background subtracted powder diffraction pattern of Ti alloy sample overlaid with stick patterns of the proposed Ti phase.
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