Rise of Rome (753 BCE – 476 AD)

Ancient Rome refers to the Roman civilization from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD.
It includes three major political phases:
●​ Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC) – Ruled by kings.
●​ Roman Republic (509–27 BC) – Governed by elected officials and a Senate.
●​ Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) – Ruled by emperors, leading to its height and eventual decline.
Fall of Rome: The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD, marking the end of Ancient Rome.

Early Italy and Founding of Rome

●​ Ancient Rome began as an Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber in the Italian
peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a
combination of treaties and military strength.
●​ Earliest settlements around Rome date back to c. 1000 BC.
●​ Large-scale organization began around c. 800 BC.
●​ Key archaeological findings:
○​ First graves on the Esquiline Hill (8th century BC).
○​ Clay and timber wall at the Palatine Hill (mid-8th century BC).
●​ Urban Development:
○​ c. 650 BC – Romans began draining valleys to create the Roman Forum.
○​ 6th century BC – Constructed the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill.
The Founding Myths of Rome
A. Romulus and Remus (Traditional Legend)
●​ Twin brothers born from Mars (god of war) and a princess of Alba Longa.
●​ Sentenced to death but saved by a she-wolf.
●​ Restored their grandfather to the throne and decided to found a new city.
●​ Dispute over the city's leadership → Romulus killed Remus and became Rome’s first ruler.
●​ Romulus’ settlement on Palatine Hill was called "Roma Quadrata" (Square Rome).
●​ Date of foundation:
○​ Attributed to at least 3rd century BC.
○​ Marcus Terentius Varro placed it at 753 BC.
B. The Aeneas Myth (Alternative Legend)
●​ Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus recorded another version.
●​ Aeneas, a Trojan prince, fled Troy after the Trojan War to find a new city.
●​ Landed on the banks of the Tiber River with other Trojans.
●​ Roma, a woman among them, burned their ships to force them to stay.
●​ They named the city Rome in her honor.
●​ This story was immortalized in Virgil’s epic poem, The Aeneid.
Early Rome and Monarchy
●​ Early Rome was ruled by kings, confirmed by 6th-century BC texts.
●​ Monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings, mostly unrelated by blood.
●​ After the monarchy’s abolition, a vestigial priestly king (rex sacrorum) remained for religious functions.
Roman Expansion in the 6th Century BC
●​ By the late 6th century BC, Rome controlled about 780 square kilometers (300 square miles).
●​ Estimated population: up to 35,000 people.
●​ Key Developments:
○​ c. 625 BC – Construction of the Regia (royal palace).
○​ Formation of the Senate and early political organizations.
●​ Roman influence expanded over Latin neighbors.
○​ Later myths (e.g., The Aeneid) claimed that all Latins descended from Aeneas (a Trojan Hero, son of
Prince Achises and Aphrodite).
○​ Archaeological evidence confirms a shared Latin culture.
○​ Jus Latii (Latin Rights) granted marriage and citizenship privileges among Latin cities.
○​ Common religious festivals reinforced Latin unity.
●​ By the end of the 6th century BC, Rome dominated most of Latium (region of central western italy).
The Roman Republic
●​ By the late 6th century BC, Rome and its Italian neighbors experienced widespread warfare.
●​ Last King of Rome: Tarquin the Proud (Lucius Tarquinius Superbus).
●​ Event: 509 BC – Tarquin was overthrown, and Rome established a Republic.
●​ Key Features of the Republic:
○​ Annually elected magistrates replaced the king.
○​ Separation of powers with a system of checks and balances.
○​ Two consuls led the government and had imperium (military command).
○​ The Senate (initially for patricians) became increasingly powerful.
Roman Republican Government
●​ Key Officials:
○​ Consuls – Two elected leaders with executive and military power.
○​ Tribunes – Protected plebeian rights from patrician abuse.
○​ Quaestors – Handled financial matters.
○​ Aediles – Managed public works, markets, and festivals.
○​ Praetors – Acted as judges and military commanders.
○​ Censors – Conducted census and supervised morality.
●​ Voting Assemblies:
○​ Comitia Centuriata – Voted on war and peace and elected high-ranking officials.
○​ Comitia Tributa – Elected lower officials and passed some laws.
The Sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 BC)
●​ Who attacked Rome? The Gauls, led by Brennus, expanded into Italy.
●​ 16 July 390 BC – Battle of the Allia:
○​ Romans were defeated, and the Gauls sacked Rome.
○​ The Capitoline Hill held out in a seven-month siege.
●​ Ransom & Retaliation:
○​ The Gauls demanded 1,000 pounds of gold for peace.
○​ Romans accused them of using false scales.
○​ Roman general Camillus led a counterattack, defeating the Gauls.
○​ Famous quote: "With **iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."
The Punic Wars
The First Punic War (264–241 BC)
●​ Opponent: Carthage, Rome’s main rival in the Western Mediterranean.
●​ Cause of War:
○​ The city of Messana sought Carthage’s help against Hiero II of Syracuse.
○​ Later, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians.
○​ Rome feared Carthage’s influence near its Greek cities in Southern Italy.
●​ Challenges:
○​ Carthage had a powerful navy, while Rome had little naval experience.
●​ Outcome:
○​ After 20+ years of war, Rome defeated Carthage.
○​ A peace treaty was signed.
○​ Rome’s first overseas conquest: Sicily became Rome’s first province.
The Second Punic War (218–202 BC)
●​ Cause:
○​ Rome imposed war reparations on Carthage after the First Punic War.
●​ Key Leader:
○​ Hannibal (Carthaginian general) launched a bold invasion of Italy.
●​ Hannibal’s Invasion of Italy:
○​ Marched from Hispania (Spain) through the Alps into Italy.
○​ Lasted 16 years, devastating the Italian countryside.
●​ Final Battle:
○​ Battle of Zama (202 BC) – Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal.
 ○​ Carthage was forced to surrender and lost Spain to Rome.​

The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) – Carthage’s Destruction

●​ Cause:
○​ Carthage, after paying off its war indemnity, wanted to be independent again.
○​ Rome viewed this as a threat and declared war.
●​ Key Event:
○​ Scipio Aemilianus led the Roman attack on Carthage.
○​ Carthage resisted but was ultimately destroyed in 146 BC.
●​ Outcome:
○​ Carthage was burned to the ground.
○​ Its citizens were enslaved.
○​ The region became the Roman province of Africa.

Effects of the Punic Wars

●​ Rome’s first overseas conquests:
○​ Sicily, Spain (Hispania), and North Africa.
●​ Rome emerged as a dominant imperial power in the Mediterranean.
●​ The destruction of Carthage ended its influence forever.​

The Late Republic

Rome’s Expansion and Internal Struggles (2nd Century BC)
●​ After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires, Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean
Sea.
●​ Effects of Expansion:
○​ Wealth gap widened – Senators became rich from war profits, while soldiers lost their farms due to long
military campaigns.
○​ Latifundia (large estates) run by foreign slaves reduced paid jobs for Roman citizens.
○​ Rise of the equestrian class (merchants who profited from war, trade, and tax farming).
●​ Political Issues:
○​ Lex Claudia (218 BC) – Banned Senators from commercial business, limiting their wealth.
○​ Senate resisted reforms and blocked changes that would benefit plebeians and equestrians.
○​ Urban unemployed formed violent gangs controlled by rival senators.

The Gracchi Reforms and Political Conflict

●​ Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (Gracchi brothers) – Tribunes who tried to pass land reforms to help the plebeians.
●​ Outcome:
○​ Both brothers were assassinated by Senate-backed opposition.
○​ Senate reversed their reforms, leading to a deep divide between the populares (common people) and
optimates (nobles).​

Gaius Marius and the Marian Reforms (107–100 BC)

●​ Marius became consul in 107 BC after claiming his rival, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, was failing in the
Jugurthine War.
●​ Key Military Reforms:
○​ Allowed landless men (the poor) to join the Roman army.
○​ Created a professional, loyal army that owed allegiance to generals, not the Republic.
●​ Marius held an unprecedented seven consulships (107, 104–100, 86 BC).
●​ Fought the Germanic tribes (Cimbri & Teutones), securing Rome’s northern borders.​

The Social War (91–88 BC) – Rome vs. Its Allies

●​ Italian allies (socii) demanded Roman citizenship and voting rights.
●​ Marcus Livius Drusus supported the reform but was assassinated.
●​ Socii rebelled against Rome, leading to the Social War.
 ●​ Rome eventually granted citizenship to most Italian allies.​

The Marius vs. Sulla Conflict (88–82 BC)

●​ 88 BC – Lucius Cornelius Sulla elected consul.
●​ Conflict over command:
○​ Sulla was ordered to fight Mithridates VI of Pontus, but Marius’s supporters took command away from
him.
○​ Sulla’s illegal response: Marched his army into Rome, executing Marius’s supporters.
●​ Marius fled but returned in 87 BC while Sulla was away.
○​ Seized power in Rome, led a massacre of opponents, and became consul for the seventh time.
○​ Died in 86 BC of poor health.​

Sulla’s Dictatorship & Reign of Terror (82–79 BC)

●​ 83 BC – Sulla marched on Rome again, defeating his enemies.
●​ Time of Terror:
○​ Thousands of senators, equestrians, and nobles executed.
○​ Proscriptions: Enemies of the state were hunted down and killed.
●​ Sulla’s Rule:
○​ Declared himself dictator (82 BC) with absolute power.
○​ Weakened the Tribune of the Plebs to reduce populist power.
○​ Strengthened the Senate’s authority.
●​ Retired in 79 BC, marking the start of the Republic’s decline.

Caesar and the First Triumvirate

Political Divisions in Rome (Mid-1st Century BC)
●​ Rome was divided into two main political factions:
○​ Populares – Supported by common people (plebeians, poor farmers, and urban masses).
○​ Optimates – The aristocratic elite (patricians & senators) who wanted to maintain control.
●​ Sulla’s Reforms (81 BC):
○​ Weakened the Tribune of the Plebs, limiting populist power.
○​ Strengthened the Senate, favoring the Optimates.
●​ Growing Social and Economic Problems:
○​ Massive wealth gap – Aristocracy became super-rich, while farmers lost their land.
○​ Debt-ridden citizens and unemployed urban masses formed violent mobs controlled by rival politicians.​

The Catilinarian Conspiracy (63 BC)

●​ A failed populist uprising led by Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline).
●​ Objective: Overthrow the Senate and seize power.
●​ Outcome:
○​ Marcus Tullius Cicero, the consul, crushed the rebellion.
○​ Conspirators were executed without trial.
○​ Strengthened the Optimates, but tensions in Rome increased.

Formation of the First Triumvirate (60 BC)

●​ A secret political alliance between:
○​ Gaius Julius Caesar – Ambitious general and politician.
○​ Marcus Licinius Crassus – The richest man in Rome, financer of Caesar’s early career.
○​ Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) – Celebrated general, married Caesar’s daughter Julia.
●​ Purpose of the Triumvirate:
○​ Bypass the Senate and control Rome’s political decisions.
○​ Each member pursued their own interests:
■​ Caesar – Wanted a military command and consulship.
■​ Crassus – Desired wealth and influence in the East.
 ■​ Pompey – Wanted land for his veterans and recognition of his conquests.​

Collapse of the First Triumvirate

●​ 54 BC – Caesar’s daughter Julia died in childbirth, breaking Caesar’s personal tie to Pompey.
●​ 53 BC – Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed at the Battle of Carrhae.
●​ With Crassus gone, Caesar and Pompey became rivals:
○​ Pompey aligned with the Senate and Optimates.
○​ The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome.
Caesar’s Civil War (49–45 BC)
●​ 49 BC – Caesar crosses the Rubicon River with his army, declaring war on the Republic.
○​ Famous Quote: "Alea iacta est" ("The die is cast").
●​ Key Battles:
○​ Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC) – Caesar defeated Pompey in Greece.
○​ Pompey fled to Egypt but was assassinated by Ptolemy XIII’s forces.
○​ Caesar eliminated remaining Optimates leaders:
■​ Metellus Scipio (Pompey’s ally, defeated in Africa).
■​ Cato the Younger (Stoic senator, committed suicide rather than surrender).​

Caesar’s Dictatorship and Assassination (46–44 BC)

●​ Caesar declared himself Dictator for Life (44 BC).
●​ Reforms:
○​ Expanded citizenship to more provinces.
○​ Introduced land reforms for the poor.
○​ Reorganized the Roman calendar (Julian Calendar).
●​ Assassination:
○​ March 15, 44 BC (Ides of March) – Murdered by senators led by Brutus and Cassius.​

Octavian and the Second Triumvirate

Aftermath of Caesar’s Assassination (44 BC)
●​ Julius Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC (Ides of March) by senators led by Brutus and Cassius.
●​ Rome fell into political chaos.
●​ Mark Antony, Caesar’s close ally, initially took control of Rome.
●​ Gaius Octavius (Octavian), Caesar’s adopted heir, arrived in Rome and sought to claim power.
●​ Octavian aligned with Caesar’s supporters (Caesarians) to avenge Caesar’s death.

Formation of the Second Triumvirate (43 BC)

●​ A formal political alliance between:
○​ Octavian – Caesar’s adopted son and heir.
○​ Mark Antony – Caesar’s trusted general and ally.
○​ Marcus Aemilius Lepidus – Caesar’s friend and a powerful statesman.
●​ Legally established in 43 BC, unlike the First Triumvirate.
●​ Proscriptions:
○​ 130–300 senators and equites (knights) were executed.
○​ Their property was confiscated as punishment for supporting Caesar’s assassins.​

Battle of Philippi (42 BC) – Defeating Caesar’s Assassins

●​ Julius Caesar was deified by the Senate as Divus Iulius (the Divine Julius).
●​ Octavian took the title Divi Filius ("Son of the Deified") to strengthen his legitimacy.
●​ In 42 BC, the Second Triumvirate fought the Liberatores (Caesar’s assassins):
○​ Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus were defeated at the Battle of Philippi.
○​ Both Brutus and Cassius committed suicide after their defeat.
●​ This solidified Octavian and Antony’s dominance over Rome.​
Division of the Roman Empire
●​ The Second Triumvirate divided Rome’s territories:
○​ Lepidus – Controlled Africa.
○​ Antony – Controlled the Eastern provinces (Greece, Egypt, and Asia Minor).
○​ Octavian – Controlled Italy, Gaul, and Hispania.​

Collapse of the Second Triumvirate

●​ 38 BC: The Second Triumvirate was renewed for another 5 years.
●​ 36 BC: Lepidus was forced into retirement after betraying Octavian in Sicily.
●​ Antony and Cleopatra's Affair (32 BC):
○​ Antony moved to Egypt and lived with Cleopatra VII.
○​ He adopted a luxurious and Hellenistic lifestyle, which many Romans saw as un-Roman.
○​ Antony’s Donations of Alexandria (34 BC):
■​ Cleopatra was titled "Queen of Kings".
■​ Antony gave their children royal titles over Roman territories, angering Rome.​

War Between Octavian and Antony (32–31 BC)

●​ Rome declared war on Antony and Cleopatra in 32 BC.
●​ Battle of Actium (31 BC):
○​ Decisive naval battle off the coast of Greece.
○​ Octavian’s forces, led by Marcus Agrippa, destroyed Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet.
○​ Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt.
●​ 31 BC – Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria.
●​ 30 BC – Egypt became a Roman province, marking the end of the Hellenistic Age.

The Start of the Roman Crisis

How Did the Roman Empire Reach This Crisis?
●​ Before the crisis, Rome had enjoyed relative stability during the Pax Romana (27 BC – 180 AD) under emperors
like Augustus, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius.
●​ However, after the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 AD, Rome faced increasing problems:
○​ Commodus (180–192 AD) – Corrupt and incompetent, his assassination led to civil war.
○​ Severan Dynasty (193–235 AD) – A military-focused rule that spent excessive funds on the army.
○​ Alexander Severus (222–235 AD) – His assassination triggered the Crisis of the Third Century.​

The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD)

●​ The Roman Empire entered a period of chaos, marked by:
1.​ Civil Wars – Generals constantly fought for the throne.
2.​ External Invasions – Germanic tribes, Goths, and the Sassanid Persians attacked the Empire.
3.​ Political Instability – 26 emperors in just 49 years, most dying violently.
4.​ Economic Collapse – Hyperinflation, devaluation of coins, and a failing economy.
5.​ Pandemics – The Plague of Cyprian (250 AD) killed a huge portion of the population.
6.​ Religious Changes – Mithraism and Christianity spread rapidly as traditional Roman values declined.​

The "Barracks Emperors" (235–284 AD)

●​ Emperors were no longer from noble families; most were soldiers who seized power by force.
●​ First ruler of this era:
○​ Maximinus Thrax (235–238 AD) – A military general who ruled for only 3 years.
●​ Most emperors lasted only months, such as:
○​ Gordian I & Gordian II
○​ Balbinus & Hostilian
●​ Result: Emperors focused on fighting rivals for power instead of governing the Empire.​

The Fragmentation of the Roman Empire (260 AD)

●​ The Roman Empire temporarily split into three separate states:
 ○​ The Palmyrene Empire (260–273 AD)
■​ Ruled by Queen Zenobia.
■​ Included Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
○​ The Gallic Empire (260–274 AD)
■​ Ruled by Postumus.
■​ Included Gaul (modern France), Britannia, and parts of Spain.
○​ The Central Roman Empire
■​ Controlled by the "official" emperors, but weakened.
●​ What caused this split?
○​ Emperor Valerian (253–260 AD) was captured by the Sassanid Persians, a humiliating event for Rome.
○​ Provinces broke away from Rome, seeing its weakness.

Recovery from the Crisis

●​ The crisis began to recede under:
○​ Claudius Gothicus (268–270 AD) – Defeated the Goths, securing Rome’s borders.
○​ Aurelian (271–275 AD) –
■​ Reconquered the Palmyrene and Gallic Empires, reunifying Rome.
■​ Strengthened Rome’s defensive walls.
●​ Final Resolution:
○​ Emperor Diocletian (284–305 AD) finally ended the crisis by reorganizing the Empire.

Diocletian
Why Was the Tetrarchy Created?
●​ The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD) weakened the empire with:
○​ Frequent civil wars (26 emperors in 49 years).
○​ Economic collapse (hyperinflation, devaluation of currency).
○​ Barbarian and Persian invasions.
●​ Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305 AD) restored stability by introducing major reforms.​

The Tetrarchy (Rule of Four)

●​ Established by Diocletian in 293 AD to make governing the empire more efficient.
●​ Empire divided into two halves:
○​ Eastern Roman Empire → Ruled by Diocletian (Augustus) and Galerius (Caesar).
○​ Western Roman Empire → Ruled by Maximian (Augustus) and Constantius Chlorus (Caesar).
●​ Purpose of the Tetrarchy:
○​ Prevent civil wars over succession.
○​ Strengthen defenses by stationing rulers near frontiers.
○​ Improve administration in the vast empire.​

3. Diocletian’s Military and Political Reforms

●​ Strengthened the military → Expelled Persians from Syria and defeated barbarian tribes.
●​ Adopted Eastern monarchy traditions:
○​ Emperors wore elaborate robes and crowns.
○​ Proskynesis (prostration before the emperor) became mandatory.
○​ Ended the illusion of the Republic (previous emperors had maintained some Republican traditions).
●​ New Imperial Capitals (290–330 AD):
○​ Nicomedia, Milan, Antioch, Thessalonica, Sirmium, Trier.​

Economic and Tax Reforms

●​ Diocletian restructured taxation to increase state revenue.
●​ Tried to stop inflation by issuing the Edict on Maximum Prices (301 AD):
○​ Set price limits for goods and services.
○​ Failed because merchants refused to sell goods at fixed prices.
 ●​ Reformed the coinage system to stabilize the economy.​

The Persecution of Christians (303–311 AD)

●​ The Great Persecution (303 AD) was launched by Diocletian and Galerius:
○​ Ordered the destruction of Christian churches and scriptures.
○​ Banned Christian worship and forced citizens to sacrifice to Roman gods.
○​ Thousands of Christians were imprisoned, tortured, or executed.
●​ Persecution failed, and Christianity continued to spread.​

6. Abdication of Diocletian (305 AD)

●​ Diocletian and Maximian abdicated together, the first Roman emperors to voluntarily resign.
●​ Significance:
○​ Officially ended the Principate (rule of a single emperor), which had existed since Augustus.
○​ Began the Dominate, a more autocratic form of rule.
●​ Tetrarchy began to collapse after his resignation, leading to civil war.​

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine’s Rise to Power
●​ 306 AD: Constantine became a tetrarch after the death of his father, Constantius Chlorus.
●​ Fought rival tetrarchs to gain full control of the Roman Empire.
●​ Key victories in the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy:
○​ Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 AD) – Defeated Maxentius and gained control of the Western Roman
Empire.
○​ Battle of Chrysopolis (324 AD) – Defeated Licinius, reunifying the entire Roman Empire under one ruler.

Constantine and Christianity

●​ Edict of Milan (313 AD)
○​ Issued by Constantine and Licinius.
○​ Granted freedom of worship to Christians, ending official persecution.
●​ Conversion to Christianity:
○​ Before the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 AD), Constantine reportedly saw a vision of a cross with the
phrase "In hoc signo vinces" ("In this sign, you will conquer").
○​ Ordered his soldiers to paint the Chi-Rho symbol (☧) on their shields.
○​ Won the battle and later embraced Christianity.
●​ Christianization of the Roman Empire:
○​ Funded the building of Christian churches, including St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.
○​ Gave privileges to Christian clergy.
○​ Enforced Sunday as a day of rest (321 AD).
●​ Impact: Began the gradual Christianization of Europe, which was later completed by the Catholic Church in the
Middle Ages.​

Founding of Constantinople (330 AD)

●​ Why move the capital?
○​ Rome had lost its importance since the Crisis of the Third Century.
○​ Needed a capital closer to trade routes and military frontiers.
●​ What was Byzantium renamed?
○​ Officially called Nova Roma ("New Rome").
○​ Became widely known as Constantinople ("City of Constantine").
●​ Importance of Constantinople:
○​ Became the new political and religious center of the Empire.
○​ Stronger defensive position than Rome.
○​ Survived for over 1,000 years as the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
Constantine’s Reforms
●​ Reunited the Empire under one ruler, ending the Tetrarchy.
●​ Monetary and economic reforms stabilized the economy.
●​ Reorganized the army and administration, strengthening the empire.
●​ Legacy:
○​ Marked the transition from Ancient Rome to the Christian Roman Empire.
○​ His reign set the foundation for Medieval Europe.​

Brief Pagan Revival: Emperor Julian (361–363 AD)

●​ Julian the Apostate (Constantine’s nephew) tried to restore Paganism.
●​ Rejected Christianity, promoting Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion.
●​ Died in battle, and his policies were reversed—Christian emperors continued ruling.

Fall of the Roman Empire

Why Did the Western Roman Empire Collapse?
●​ By the late 4th and 5th centuries, Rome was weakened by internal and external crises:
○​ Frequent defeats in battle against the Sassanid Persians and Germanic tribes.
○​ Division of the empire (395 AD) after Theodosius I's death, splitting it into:
■​ Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) → Ruled by Arcadius.
■​ Western Roman Empire → Ruled by Honorius.
○​ Death of Stilicho (408 AD) – Rome lost its best general.
○​ Rome sacked by the Visigoths (410 AD) → First time in 800 years.​

Barbarian Invasions and the Fall of the West (5th Century AD)
●​ Rome lost key territories:
○​ North Africa → Conquered by the Vandals.
○​ Gaul (France) → Taken by the Visigoths.
○​ Hispania (Spain) → Split between the Visigoths and Suebi.
○​ Britannia → Abandoned by the central government.
●​ Attila the Hun (r. 434–453 AD) invaded Rome’s territories but was stopped by a coalition of Romans and Visigoths
(451 AD, Battle of the Catalaunian Plains).

The End of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD)

●​ 476 AD – Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
○​ Orestes (Romulus' father) refused to meet barbarian demands → Odoacer led a revolt.
○​ Odoacer invaded Ravenna, killed Orestes, and dethroned Romulus Augustulus.
○​ Marks the end of Classical Antiquity and the start of the Middle Ages.
●​ Julius Nepos (ruled in Dalmatia) lived until 480 AD, and some historians consider him the last true Western
Roman Emperor.
●​ Western Rome had lasted for 1200 years (753 BC – 476 AD), nearly 700 years as a major power.​

The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) Survives

●​ The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) thrived for nearly 1,000 more years.
●​ Justinian I (r. 527–565 AD):
○​ Reconquered Italy, North Africa, and parts of Spain from the barbarians.
○​ Rebuilt Hagia Sophia and established Justinian’s Code of Laws.
●​ 7th–9th centuries: Islamic Expansion Threatens Byzantium
○​ Byzantium lost Egypt, North Africa, and Syria to the Islamic Caliphates.
○​ Constantinople withstood multiple sieges by the Arabs.​

Final Decline and Fall of the Byzantine Empire

●​ Battle of Manzikert (1071 AD) – The Byzantines suffered a major defeat to the Seljuk Turks, leading to their
decline.
●​ 1095 AD – The Crusades begin after Emperor Alexios I Komnenos asked for Western help.
 ●​ 1204 AD – Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, breaking the empire into smaller states.
●​ 1453 AD – Fall of Constantinople
○​ Mehmed II ("Mehmed the Conqueror") and the Ottoman Turks captured the city.
○​ The Eastern Roman Empire officially ended.​

RANDOM FACTS OF THE RISE AND FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE

Rise of Early Rome (753 BCE - 509 BCE)

1.​ Rome was traditionally founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, who became its first king.
2.​ The early Romans were influenced by the Etruscans, who ruled them before the Republic was established.
3.​ The Romans adopted the Etruscan alphabet, which was itself adapted from the Greek alphabet.
4.​ Rome was originally ruled by kings before it became a Republic in 509 BCE.
5.​ The last Roman king, Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown due to his tyranny.
6.​ The city of Rome was built on seven hills, which provided a natural defensive advantage.
7.​ Legendary twins Romulus and Remus were said to have been raised by a she-wolf before Romulus founded
Rome.
8.​ The early Romans adopted Etruscan religious practices, including augury (interpreting omens from bird flight).​

Roman Republic (509 BCE - 27 BCE)

9.​ The Roman Republic was governed by a Senate and two consuls who served for one year.
10.​ Roman society was divided into Patricians (aristocrats) and Plebeians (commoners).
11.​ The Twelve Tables (451 BCE) was Rome's first written law code.
12.​ Cincinnatus, a legendary Roman leader, was called to be dictator but gave up power after just 16 days.
13.​ The Romans used the Legion, a flexible and powerful military unit, to expand their territory.
14.​ The Punic Wars (264-146 BCE) were fought between Rome and Carthage.
15.​ Hannibal Barca of Carthage famously crossed the Alps with war elephants to attack Rome.
16.​ Rome defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) and destroyed the city.
17.​ The Roman army had a strict discipline system, including decimation, where 1 in 10 soldiers was executed as
punishment.
18.​ The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, were reformers who tried to help the poor but were assassinated.
19.​ Gaius Marius reformed the Roman army by allowing landless citizens to enlist, professionalizing the military.
20.​ The Social War (91-88 BCE) was fought between Rome and its Italian allies who demanded Roman citizenship.​

Transition to Empire (1st Century BCE)

21.​ Julius Caesar was a brilliant general who conquered Gaul (modern-day France).
22.​ Caesar became dictator for life in 44 BCE but was assassinated by senators on March 15, 44 BCE (Ides of
March).
23.​ The first Triumvirate was formed by Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.
24.​ The second Triumvirate consisted of Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony, and Lepidus.
25.​ Cleopatra VII of Egypt allied with Mark Antony against Rome.
26.​ Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE).
27.​ Octavian became Rome’s first emperor in 27 BCE, taking the name Augustus.
28.​ The Ara Pacis, an altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace, symbolized Augustus' rule.
29.​ Augustus introduced the Praetorian Guard, an elite unit tasked with protecting the emperor.
30.​ The Julio-Claudian Dynasty included emperors like Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.​

Roman Empire (27 BCE - 476 CE)

31.​ The Pax Romana (27 BCE - 180 CE) was a 200-year period of peace and stability in the Roman Empire.
32.​ The Romans built over 50,000 miles of roads, with the phrase "All roads lead to Rome."
33.​ The Colosseum was completed in 80 CE by Emperor Titus.
34.​ Gladiators fought in arenas for entertainment, often as slaves or prisoners.
35.​ The Pantheon, a temple to all gods, was built during the reign of Hadrian (117-138 CE).
36.​ Roman aqueducts brought fresh water to cities and could stretch over 50 miles.
37.​ Concrete was a Roman invention that allowed them to build durable structures.
 38.​ Trajan (98-117 CE) expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent.
39.​ Hadrian’s Wall was built in Britain to keep out barbarian invaders.
40.​ Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) was a Stoic philosopher emperor and wrote "Meditations."
41.​ Commodus (180-192 CE), son of Marcus Aurelius, was a cruel emperor who thought he was a gladiator.
42.​ The Third Century Crisis (235-284 CE) saw the empire nearly collapse due to civil war, plague, and economic
troubles.
43.​ Diocletian (284-305 CE) split the empire into Eastern and Western halves to make governing easier.
44.​ The Tetrarchy was a system introduced by Diocletian where the empire was ruled by four co-emperors.
45.​ The Crisis of the Third Century saw 26 emperors in just 50 years, most of whom died violently.​

Fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th Century CE)

46.​ Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337 CE) legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan (313 CE).
47.​ Constantine moved the capital to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
48.​ Theodosius I (379-395 CE) made Christianity the official state religion of Rome.
49.​ The Huns, led by Attila, attacked both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.
50.​ Rome was sacked by the Visigoths under Alaric I in 410 CE.
51.​ Rome was sacked again in 455 CE by the Vandals.
52.​ The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown in 476 CE.
53.​ Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain, became the first King of Italy in 476 CE, marking the fall of the Western Roman
Empire.
54.​ The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) continued to exist for nearly 1,000 years after the fall of the
Western Empire.
55.​ The Justinian Code, created by Emperor Justinian I (527-565 CE), preserved Roman laws for centuries.​

Roman Legacy
56.​ Latin, the language of the Romans, evolved into the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese,
and Romanian).
57.​ Roman numerals (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) are still used today in certain contexts.
58.​ The concept of Senate and Republic influenced modern governments, including the United States.
59.​ Roman architecture inspired buildings like the U.S. Capitol and St. Peter’s Basilica.
60.​ Roman law and legal systems still influence laws in many countries today.