ENEE537 Renewable Energy and Instructor: Nasser Ismail

Photovoltaic Systems (Nasser Ismail

Maximum Power
Point Trackers
(MPPTs) and
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

Charge Controllers

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F2021-
2022

Charge Controller Function

• In applications where batteries are used , it is critical to
prevent overcharging or deep-discharging of batteries to
preserve their life and ensure good performance
• This is achieved using what is called charge controllers
• Charge controllers manage interactions and energy flows
between a PV array, battery bank, and electrical load.

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Set Points
• Charge controllers regulate the charging and
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discharging of a battery
• Charge controllers senses the voltage of the

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battery ( or State Off Charge “SOC”) and decides
either to disconnect it from the source (PV array)
to prevent from overcharging
• It also prevent deep discharging by disconnecting
the load
• The charge control algorithm has set points
(threshold values) depending upon which it takes
the decisions

Commonly used Set points

• Voltage Regulation (VR) set-point: It is the maximum
voltage up to which a battery can be charged (without
getting overcharged).
• If this threshold is reached, the controller either
disconnects the battery from the source or starts
regulating the current delivered to the battery

Charge controllers protect batteries from overcharge by terminating or limiting charging current

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Commonly used Set points

• Voltage Regulation Hysterisis (VRH): It is the difference between VR
and the voltage at which the controller reconnects the battery to the
PV source and starts charging
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

• If VRH is too small , it will result in tighter regulation but the control

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will be oscillatory and may affect the battery life.
• At the same time , a large value of VRH may lead to slight
overcharging every cycle
• VRH is important in determining how effectively the controller
charges the battery
• In practice a trade-off is reached
for VRH

Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD):

• Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD): It is the minimum
voltage up to which the battery can be allowed to
discharge, without getting deep discharged, it is also
defined as the maximum Depth Of Discharge “DOD”
of the battery
• The charge controller disconnects the load from the
battery terminals as soon as the battery voltage
touches LVD to prevent it from over-discharging

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Load Disconnect
( protect from Overdischarge)
•Charge controllers
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protect batteries from

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over-discharge by
disconnecting loads at
low battery voltage.

Low Voltage Disconnect Hysterisis

• Low Voltage Disconnect Hysterisis (LVDH): It is the
difference between LVD value and the battery
voltage at which load can be reconnected to the
battery terminals
• If LVDH is too small the load will be switched on and
off more frequently which can affect the battery and
the load adversely

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•Most commercial
charge controllers
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include displays or

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LEDs to indicate
battery voltage,
state of charge,
and/or present
operating mode.

Types of Charge Controllers

• There are 4 types:

Shunt (Linear)
Series (Linear)
Switching (DC-DC converter)
MPPT

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Shunt type
• Switch S1 is connected in shunt with the PV panel, which is turned
on when the battery voltage reaches its over voltage limit (VR).
• The PV array is short-circuited and it no more feeds the battery.
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

• The blocking diode prevents short circuiting of the battery and also
prevents the battery to discharge through the PV array during the

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nights and low insolation periods.
• The switch S2 allows the battery to discharge through the load.
• When the battery voltage reaches the threshold value (LVD), the
switch S2 is turned off to prevent deep discharging

Series type charge controller

• The switch S1 is turned off to prevent the battery from getting
overcharged. A major drawback of this method is the additional
loss in the switch S1 which now carries the PV output current
charging the battery.
• Depending on the application and type of battery used, different
charge controller configurations are used which either completely
disconnect the array from the battery or allow a regulated current
to flow through the battery to maintain the battery voltage.

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DC to DC converter type charge

controller (Switching)
• The series and shunt type of charge controllers are not efficient
• if a DC to DC converter is used to interface the battery- and load
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combination with the PV array, it provides a smoother control and

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efficient and optimum use of the PV source.
• A buck, boost or buck-boost type DC to DC converter can be used to
regulate the output of the PV array to feed the load. The DC to DC
converter offers the following advantages:
• (a) There are no additional losses due to the conduction of switches
such as Sl and S2.

DC to DC converter type charge

controller
• (b) The regulation of battery charging current and battery voltage is
superior.
• (c) The output voltage of the PV array and the battery voltage need
not be identical now. So the PV" can be operated at the MPP

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MPPT Charge controllers

• The battery charging methods described above pump whatever
energy is coming out from the PV array into the battery.
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

• To charge battery in a more efficient manner, the PV array is

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operated at a point where the PV output power is maximum.
• The output power of the PV array changes with the change in
voltage across it.
• To extract maximum power from the PV array, a DC to DC
converter is used between the PV array and the battery.
• The duty cycle of the DC to DC converter is controlled to
impose optimum voltage across the PV array which
corresponds to maximum power point (MPP).

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

(MPPT)
• When a solar PV module is used in a system, its operating point is
decided by the load to which it is connected.
• Also, since solar radiation falling on a PV module varies
throughout the day, the operating point of module also changes
throughout the day.
• As an example, the operating point of a PV module and a resistive
load for 12 noon, 10 am and 8 am is schematically shown in Fig.
denoted by a, b and c.

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MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

(MPPT)
• Ideally, under all operating conditions, we would like to transfer
maximum power from a PV module to the load.
• In Fig. the trajectory of a point at which the solar PV module will
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give maximum power is also shown.

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• Thus, for maximum power transfer, instead of operating at points
a, b and c the module should be operating at points a ‘ b' and c'.
• In order to ensure the operation of PV modules for maximum
power transfer, a special method called Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) is employed in PV systems, which is explained in
the following paragraphs.

MPPT and Sun Tracking

• Here it should be noted that the MPPT is not the same
as the mechanical tracking (also called sun-tracking,
discussed earlier) of solar PV modules.
• In the case of sun-tracking. PV modules are rotated
mechanically so that the radiation intercepted by a
module is maximum (hence maximizing power
generation) under a given condition, while in the case
of MPPT, electronic circuitry is used to ensure that
maximum amount of generated power is transferred to
the load.

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• The maximum power tracking mechanism makes use of an

algorithm and an electronic circuitry.
• The mechanism is based on the principle of impedance
matching between load and PV module, which is necessary for
maximum power transfer.
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

• This impedance matching is done by using a DC to DC converter,

the impedance is matched by changing the duty cycle (d)

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• Figure shows a simple block diagram for MPPT.

Impedance Matching
• The power from the solar module is calculated by measuring the
voltage and current.
• This power is an input to the algorithm which then adjusts the duty
cycle of the switch, resulting in the adjustment of the reflected load
impedance according to the power output of PV module.
• For instance, the relation between the input voltage (Vi) and the
output voltage (Vo) and impedance of load (RL) reflected at the
input side (Ri) of a buck type DC to DC converter can be given as:
𝑉𝑜 =d 𝑉𝑖 and Io=Iin/d
Ri=Vi/Ii=(Vo/d)/(dIo); Vo/Io=RL
𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑖 = 2
𝑑
d is duty cycle,
• By varying d , Ri is changed to match Rpv at the MPP

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Input Impedance for DC-DC Converters

Converter Type Input Impedance
Instructor: Nasser Ismail

2
Buck 1

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𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐿
𝑑
Boost 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐿 1 − 𝑑 2

2
Buck-Boost 1−𝑑
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐿
𝑑

• d can be varied from 0 to 1 , input impedance also varies

• For Buck the reflected impedance is higher than load
impedance, for the boost it is lower and for buck boost it
can be lower or higher

90
80
70
60
50
40
30 RPV
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Output Impedance for PV module
450

400

350

300

250

200

150 buck

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
𝟐
𝐕𝐢 𝟏
𝐑 𝐢𝐧 = = 𝐑 𝐋 Input Impedance for Buck
𝐈𝐢 𝐝
For 𝐑 𝐋 =1

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MPPT Mehods
• There are some conventional methods for MPPT.
• These methods include:
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1. Constant Voltage method

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2. Open Circuit Voltage method
3. Short Circuit Current method
4. Perturb and Observe method*
5. Incremental Conductance method*
6. Temperature method
7. Temperature Parametric method
Details of some MPPT algorithms are discussed
ENEE5307 Photovoltaic Systems Nasser Ismail

Constant Voltage Method

• This method simply uses single voltage to represent the Vmp.
• In some cases this value is programmed by an external resistor
connected to a current source pin of the control IC.
• In this case, this resistor can be part of a network that includes
a NTC thermistor so the value can be temperature
compensated.
• For the various different irradiance variations, the method will
collect about 80% of the available maximum power.
• The actual performance will be determined by the average
level of irradiance.
• In the cases of low levels of irradiance the results can be
better.

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Open Circuit Voltage Method

• An improvement on this method uses Voc to calculate Vmp.
• Once the system obtains the Voc value, Vmp is calculated by,
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• Vmp=kVoc

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• The k value is typically between to 0.7 to 0.8. It is necessary to
update Voc occasionally to compensate for any temperature change.
• Sampling the Voc value can also help correct for temperature
changes and to some degree changes in irradiance.
• Monitoring the input current can indicate when the Voc should be
re-measured.
• The k value is a function of the logarithmic function of the
irradiance, increasing in value as the irradiance increases.
• An improvement to the Voc method is to also take this into account

MPPT circuit for constant

current/constant voltage method

I or V

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Incremental Conductance Method

• The incremental
conductance method
based on the fact that,
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the slope of the PV

array power curve is

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zero at the MPP,
positive on the left of
the MPP.
• And negative on the
right on the MPP.
• This can be given by,

• The ratio of I/V, called the instantaneous

conductance, is based on measurements of PV
current and voltage taken at fixed increments
of time.
• The ratio DI /DV, called the incremental
conductance, refers to changes that might have
occurred in I and V during one of those time
steps.
• Figure shows one interpretation of these
conductance's on a PV I-V curve.
• The instantaneous conductance is the slope of a
line drawn from the origin to the operating
point.
• The incremental conductance is the negative
slope of the I-V curve at that same operating
point.

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• We could imagine, therefore, that the MPP can be found by incrementing

the duty cycle of the converter until the ratio of the incremental changes
DV and DI equals I/V; that is, until the angles f and q are equal.
• Having located the MPP, the duty cycle of the converter remains fixed until
subsequent I and V measurements indicate that a change is needed.
• That change may be the result of temperature or insolation shifts in the I-V
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curve, which move the MPP.

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• For example, if insolation increases, the MPP will move somewhat to the
right. At the next time step, the sensors will indicate an increase in current
DI, but until the duty cycle changes, D V is still zero.
• That increase in insolation has moved the MPP to the right so the PV
voltage needs to increase; that is, the duty cycle needs to increase.

Start
Measure V(k), I(k)
InCond
DV=V(k)-V(k-1)
DI=I(k)-I(k-1)

Yes
DV=0

Yes No Yes
DI=0
dI/dV=-I/V
No
No Yes
Yes DI > 0
dI/dV>-I/V
No
No
Increase Decrease Decrease Increase No
No module module module module Change
Change voltage voltage voltage voltage

Update History: V(k-1)=V(k)

I(k-1)=I(k)

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Practical Implementation
• Practically, due to the noise and errors, satisfying the condition of Δ I/ΔV =
−I/V may be very difficult .
• Therefore, this condition can be satisfied with good approximation by
• |ΔI/ΔV + I/V| < ε, where ε is a positive small value.
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• Based on this algorithm, the operating point is either located in the BC

interval or

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• oscillating among the AB and CD intervals, Selecting the step size (ΔVref),
shown in, is a trade-off between accurate steady tracking and dynamic
response.
• If larger step sizes are used for quicker dynamic responses, the tracking
accuracy decreases and the tracking point oscillates around the MPP.
• On the other hand, when small step sizes are selected, the tracking
accuracy will increase. In the meantime, the time duration required to
reach the MPP will increase

Perturb and Observe (P&O) Method

or “Hill Climbing method”
• In this method the controller adjusts the voltage by a
small amount from the array and measures power, if the
power increases, further adjustments in the direction are
tried until power no longer increases.
• This is called P&O method. Due to ease of implementation
it is one of the most commonly used MPPT method.
• The voltage to a cell is increased initially, if the output
power increase, the voltage is continually increased until
the output power starts decreasing.
• Once the output power starts decreasing, the voltage to
the cell decreased until maximum power is reached. This
process is continued until the MPPT is attained.
• This result is an oscillation of the output power around the
MPP.

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Instructor: Nasser Ismail

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• In this algorithm the operating voltage of the PV module is
perturbed by a small increment, and the resulting change of power,
P is observed.
• If the P is positive, then it is supposed that it has moved the
operating point closer to the MPP.
• Thus, further voltage perturbations in the same direction should
move the operating point toward the MPP.
• If the P is negative, the operating point has moved away from the
MPP, and the direction of perturbation should be reversed to move
back toward the MPP.

Hill Climbing method (perturb and

observe) Buck Converter
• The algorithm of this scheme is described below along with the
help of mathematical expressions

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• if the slope is positive (Pnew > Pold) the

duty cycle is increased (d = d + Dd).
• This means that the slope is positive and the
module is operating in the constant current
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region.

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• In case of the slope being negative (Pnew <
Pold ) then the duty cycle is reduced
(d = d- Dd), as the operating region in this
case is the constant voltage region.
• This algorithm can be implemented using a
microcontroller.

Start P& O
Hill Climbing method
Set Duty d

Read Vnew,Inew Vold=Vnew,Pold= Pnew

Pnew=Vnew,Inew d=d+Dd
No
Pnew> Pold Vnew> Vold
Yes
No
Yes
Vnew> Vold
Yes
No
d=d-Dd

Vold=Vnew,Pold= Pnew

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Example
• A given PV array is governed by the following /- V
characteristic equation:
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𝑉𝑃𝑉(𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)
−7
• 𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 3.068 − 1.417𝑥101.417𝑥10 𝑒 0.0324 −1

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• It is desired to feed a resistive load of 2 ohm from this
array, through a buck converter interface.
• If the converter is operating at an initial duty cycle
10%, determine the number of iterative steps
required to reach the MPP using the hill climbing
algorithm, as the duty cycle is varied in steps of d =
2%.

• Solution: In this example, first we need to

calculate the duty cycle corresponding to MPP.
• For this, we have to calculate the optimum value
of resistance that should be connected across PV
module so that it operates at MPP.
• We have already derived a relationship between
the converter's duty cycle and the ratio of output
to input resistance in the case of a buck converter
• From the I-V characteristic equation of the PV
array for the given environmental condition, we
have:
𝑉𝑃𝑉(𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)
−7
𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 3.068 − 1.417𝑥101.417𝑥10 𝑒 0.0324 −1

𝑉𝑃𝑉
𝑉𝑃𝑉(𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙) =
𝑁𝑎 𝑥𝑁𝑆𝑒

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• Partially differentiating the I-V characteristic

equation w.r.t. VPV, we get
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• Using Newton-Raphson method, the optimum

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voltage of the module at given environmental
conditions is obtained as 16.53 V.
• The corresponding optimum value of the current is
obtained by using I-V characteristics and is given by:
16.53
𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 3.068 − 1.417𝑥101.417𝑥10−7 𝑒 0.0324 − 1
=2.87 A

• Thus, the resistance required to operate the

PV array at MPP is given by:
𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟑
𝐑 𝐢𝐧 = = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝒐𝒉𝒎 (> 𝐑 𝐋 = 𝟐 𝒐𝒉𝒎)
𝟐. 𝟖𝟕
• The corresponding duty cycle required by the
buck converter is given by:
𝟐
𝐕𝐢 𝟏 𝟏/𝟐
𝐑 𝐢𝐧 = = 𝐑𝐋 𝐑𝐋 𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
𝐈𝐢 𝐝 𝒅𝑴𝑷𝑷_𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒄𝒕 = = =0.589
𝐑 𝐢𝐧 𝟓.𝟕𝟓
• Further, optimum PV array power is given by:

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• Required change in duty cycle is given by:

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• Using the hill climbing method, the number of

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iterations required can be calculated as follows:
• Initial duty cycle dinit = 10%
• Iteration steps taken = 2%
• Number of iteration steps (Nhill) required by hill
climbing method is given by:

http://www.aurorasolarenergy.com/solar-power-optimizer/

Power Optimizers

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Instructor: Nasser Ismail

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Set points?
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