246 • Chapter 7 / Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Iron–Carbon Alloys Recrystallization Normalizing

(Steels) (Processing) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 11)
Annealing temperature (°F) 1000
600 800
600 60

900 Acm
Tensile strength Normalizing

Temperature (°C)
50

Tensile strength (MPa)

500 Full annealing

Ductility (%EL)
800 A3
40

700 A1
400 30

Ductility
20 600
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
300
Recrystallization Composition (wt% C)

200 300 400 500

Annealing temperature (°C)

Important Terms and Concepts

cold working recovery slip system
critical resolved shear stress recrystallization solid-solution strengthening
dislocation density recrystallization temperature strain hardening
grain growth resolved shear stress
lattice strain slip

REFERENCES
Argon, A. S., Strengthening Mechanisms in Crystal Plasticity, Read, W. T., Jr., Dislocations in Crystals, McGraw-Hill, New
Oxford University Press, New York, 2008. York, 1953.
Hirth, J. P., and J. Lothe, Theory of Dislocations, 2nd edition, Weertman, J., and J. R. Weertman, Elementary Dislocation
Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1982. Reprinted by Theory, Macmillan, New York, 1964. Reprinted by Oxford
Krieger, Malabar, FL, 1992. University Press, New York, 1992.
Hull, D., and D. J. Bacon, Introduction to Dislocations, 5th
edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2011.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS

Basic Concepts far (in miles) would this chain extend? Now sup-
Characteristics of Dislocations pose that the density is increased to 109 mm⫺2 by
7.1 To provide some perspective on the dimensions cold working. What would be the chain length of
of atomic defects, consider a metal specimen dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material?
with a dislocation density of 105 mm⫺2. Suppose 7.2 Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign
that all the dislocations in 1000 mm3 (1 cm3) were and having slip planes separated by several atomic
somehow removed and linked end to end. How distances, as indicated in the following diagram.
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 Questions and Problems • 247

Briefly describe the defect that results when these Figure 3.3. Also, simple cubic is the crystal struc-
two dislocations become aligned with each other. ture for the edge dislocation of Figure 4.4, and
for its motion as presented in Figure 7.1. You
may also want to consult the answer to Concept
Check 7.1.
(b) On the basis of Equation 7.11, formulate an
7.3 Is it possible for two screw dislocations of oppo- expression for the magnitude of the Burgers vec-
site sign to annihilate each other? Explain your tor, 兩 b 兩 , for the simple cubic crystal structure.
answer.
7.4 For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations, Slip in Single Crystals
cite the relationship between the direction of the 7.11 Sometimes cos f cos l in Equation 7.2 is termed
applied shear stress and the direction of disloca- the Schmid factor. Determine the magnitude
tion line motion. of the Schmid factor for an FCC single crystal
oriented with its [120] direction parallel to the
Slip Systems loading axis.
7.5 (a) Define a slip system.
7.12 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such
(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? that the normal to the slip plane and the slip di-
Why or why not? rection are at angles of 60⬚ and 35⬚, respectively,
7.6 (a) Compare planar densities (Section 3.11 and with the tensile axis. If the critical resolved shear
Problem 3.60) for the (100), (110), and (111) stress is 6.2 MPa (900 psi), will an applied stress
planes for FCC. of 12 MPa (1750 psi) cause the single crystal to
yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?
(b) Compare planar densities (Problem 3.61) for
the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC. 7.13 A single crystal of zinc is oriented for a tensile
test such that its slip plane normal makes an an-
7.7 One slip system for the BCC crystal structure is
5110681119. In a manner similar to Figure 7.6b,
gle of 65⬚ with the tensile axis. Three possible slip
sketch a 51106-type plane for the BCC structure,
directions make angles of 30⬚, 48⬚, and 78⬚ with
the same tensile axis.
representing atom positions with circles. Now,
using arrows, indicate two different 81119 slip (a) Which of these three slip directions is most
directions within this plane. favored?
7.8 One slip system for the HCP crystal structure is (b) If plastic deformation begins at a tensile
500016811209. In a manner similar to Figure 7.6b, stress of 2.5 MPa (355 psi), determine the critical
sketch a 501116-type plane for the HCP structure resolved shear stress for zinc.
and, using arrows, indicate three different 811209 7.14 Consider a single crystal of nickel oriented such
slip directions within this plane. You may find that a tensile stress is applied along a [001] direc-
Figure 3.9 helpful. tion. If slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [101]
7.9 Equations 7.1a and 7.1b, expressions for Burgers direction and is initiated at an applied tensile
vectors for FCC and BCC crystal structures, are stress of 13.9 MPa (2020 psi), compute the critical
of the form resolved shear stress.

8uyw9
a 7.15 A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC
b = crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile
2
stress is applied parallel to the [100] direction. If
where a is the unit cell edge length. The mag- the critical resolved shear stress for this material
nitudes of these Burgers vectors may be deter- is 0.5 MPa, calculate the magnitude(s) of applied
mined from the following equation: stress(es) necessary to cause slip to occur on the
a 2 (111) plane in each of the [101], [101], and [011]
兩b兩 = (u + y2 + w2)1>2 (7.11) directions.
2
7.16 (a) A single crystal of a metal that has the BCC
determine the values of 兩 b 兩 for copper and iron. crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile
You may want to consult Table 3.1. stress is applied in the [100] direction. If the mag-
7.10 (a) In the manner of Equations 7.1a to 7.1c, nitude of this stress is 4.0 MPa, compute the re-
specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic solved shear stress in the [111] direction on each
crystal structure whose unit cell is shown in of the (110), (011), and (101) planes.
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248 • Chapter 7 / Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

(b) On the basis of these resolved shear stress 7.26 If it is assumed that the plot in Figure 7.15 is for
values, which slip system(s) is (are) most favora- non-cold-worked brass, determine the grain size
bly oriented? of the alloy in Figure 7.19; assume its composition
7.17 Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical is the same as the alloy in Figure 7.15.
metal that has the BCC crystal structure and
is oriented such that a tensile stress is applied Solid-Solution Strengthening
along a [121] direction. If slip occurs on a (101) 7.27 In the manner of Figures 7.17b and 7.18b,
plane and in a [111] direction, compute the stress indicate the location in the vicinity of an edge
at which the crystal yields if its critical resolved dislocation at which an interstitial impurity atom
shear stress is 2.4 MPa. would be expected to be situated. Now, briefly
explain in terms of lattice strains why it would be
7.18 Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical
situated at this position.
metal that has the FCC crystal structure and is
oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along
Strain Hardening
a [112] direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane
and in a [011] direction, and the crystal yields at a 7.28 (a) Show, for a tensile test, that
stress of 5.12 MPa, compute the critical resolved
P
shear stress. %CW = a b * 100
P + 1
7.19 The critical resolved shear stress for copper
(Cu) is 0.48 MPa (70 psi). Determine the maxi- if there is no change in specimen volume during
mum possible yield strength for a single crystal the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 ⫽ Ad ld).
of Cu pulled in tension. (b) Using the result of part (a), compute
the percent cold work experienced by naval
Deformation by Twinning brass (for which the stress–strain behavior is
7.20 List four major differences between deforma- shown in Figure 6.12) when a stress of 415 MPa
tion by twinning and deformation by slip relative (60,000 psi) is applied.
to mechanism, conditions of occurrence, and
7.29 Two previously undeformed cylindrical speci-
final result.
mens of an alloy are to be strain hardened
by reducing their cross-sectional areas (while
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
maintaining their circular cross sections). For
7.21 Briefly explain why small-angle grain bounda- one specimen, the initial and deformed radii are
ries are not as effective in interfering with the slip 15 and 12 mm, respectively. The second speci-
process as are high-angle grain boundaries. men, with an initial radius of 11 mm, must have
7.22 Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically the same deformed hardness as the first speci-
more brittle than FCC and BCC metals. men; compute the second specimen’s radius after
deformation.
7.23 Describe in your own words the three strengthen-
ing mechanisms discussed in this chapter (i.e., grain 7.30 Two previously undeformed specimens of the
size reduction, solid-solution strengthening, and same metal are to be plastically deformed by
strain hardening). Explain how dislocations are reducing their cross-sectional areas. One has a
involved in each of the strengthening techniques. circular cross section, and the other is rectangu-
lar; during deformation, the circular cross section
7.24 (a) From the plot of yield strength versus (grain
is to remain circular, and the rectangular is to
diameter)⫺1/2 for a 70 Cu–30 Zn cartridge brass in
remain rectangular. Their original and deformed
Figure 7.15, determine values for the constants s0
dimensions are as follows:
and ky in Equation 7.7.
(b) Now predict the yield strength of this Circular Rectangular
alloy when the average grain diameter is (diameter, mm) (mm)
2.0 ⫻ 10⫺3 mm. Original
7.25 The lower yield point for an iron that has an dimensions 18.0 20 ⫻ 50
average grain diameter of 1 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm is 230 Deformed
MPa (33,000 psi). At a grain diameter of 6 ⫻ 10⫺3 dimensions 15.9 13.7 ⫻ 55.1
mm, the yield point increases to 275 MPa (40,000
psi). At what grain diameter will the lower yield Which of these specimens will be the hardest
point be 310 MPa (45,000 psi)? after plastic deformation, and why?
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 Questions and Problems • 249

7.31 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper required for a specimen of this same material
has a ductility (%EL) of 15%. If its cold-worked (i.e., d0 ⫽ 1.7 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm) to achieve a grain
radius is 6.4 mm (0.25 in.), what was its radius diameter of 8.7 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm while being heated
before deformation? at 450⬚C. Assume the n grain diameter exponent
7.32 (a) What is the approximate ductility (%EL) has a value of 2.1.
of a brass that has a yield strength of 345 MPa 7.41 The average grain diameter for a brass mate-
(50,000 psi)? rial was measured as a function of time at 650⬚C,
(b) What is the approximate Brinell hardness of which is shown in the following table at two dif-
a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 620 MPa ferent times:
(90,000 psi)?
Time (min) Grain Diameter (mm)
7.33 Experimentally, it has been observed for single
crystals of a number of metals that the critical 40 5.6 ⫻ 10⫺2
resolved shear stress tcrss is a function of the dis- 100 8.0 ⫻ 10⫺2
location density rD as
tcrss = t0 + A1rD (7.12) (a) What was the original grain diameter?
where t0 and A are constants. For copper, the criti- (b) What grain diameter would you predict after
cal resolved shear stress is 0.69 MPa (100 psi) at a 200 min at 650⬚C?
dislocation density of 104 mm⫺2. If it is known that 7.42 An undeformed specimen of some alloy has an
the value of t0 for copper is 0.069 MPa (10 psi), average grain diameter of 0.050 mm. You are
compute tcrss at a dislocation density of 106 mm⫺2. asked to reduce its average grain diameter to
0.020 mm. Is this possible? If so, explain the pro-
Recovery cedures you would use and name the processes
Recrystallization involved. If it is not possible, explain why.
Grain Growth 7.43 Grain growth is strongly dependent on tem-
7.34 Briefly cite the differences between the recov- perature (i.e., rate of grain growth increases with
ery and recrystallization processes. increasing temperature), yet temperature is not
7.35 Estimate the fraction of recrystallization from explicitly included in Equation 7.9.
the photomicrograph in Figure 7.21c. (a) Into which of the parameters in this expression
7.36 Explain the differences in grain structure for a would you expect temperature to be included?
metal that has been cold worked and one that has (b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an explicit
been cold worked and then recrystallized. expression for this temperature dependence.
7.37 (a) What is the driving force for recrystallization? 7.44 A non-cold-worked brass specimen of aver-
(b) What is the driving force for grain growth? age grain size 0.01 mm has a yield strength of
150 MPa (21,750 psi). Estimate the yield strength
7.38 (a) From Figure 7.25, compute the length of of this alloy after it has been heated to 500⬚C
time required for the average grain diameter to for 1000 s, if it is known that the value of s0 is
increase from 0.03 to 0.3 mm at 600⬚C for this 25 MPa (3625 psi).
brass material.
7.45 The following yield strength, grain diameter,
(b) Repeat the calculation, this time using 700⬚C. and heat treatment time (for grain growth) data
7.39 Consider a hypothetical material that has a were gathered for an iron specimen that was heat
grain diameter of 2.1 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm. After a heat treated at 800⬚C. Using these data, compute the
treatment at 600⬚C for 3 h, the grain diameter has yield strength of a specimen that was heated at
increased to 7.2 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm. Compute the grain 800⬚C for 3 h. Assume a value of 2 for n, the grain
diameter when a specimen of this same original diameter exponent.
material (i.e., d0 ⫽ 2.1 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm) is heated for
1.7 h at 600⬚C. Assume the n grain diameter ex- Grain Yield Heat
ponent has a value of 2. diameter Strength Treating
(mm) (MPa) Time (h)
7.40 A hypothetical metal alloy has a grain diam-
eter of 1.7 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm. After a heat treatment 0.028 300 10
at 450⬚C for 250 min, the grain diameter has 0.010 385 1
increased to 4.5 ⫻ 10⫺2 mm. Compute the time
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250 • Chapter 7 / Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Spreadsheet Problem 7.D7 A cylindrical brass rod having a minimum ten-

7.1SS For crystals having cubic symmetry, generate a sile strength of 450 MPa (65,000 psi), a ductility
spreadsheet that allows the user to determine the of at least 13%EL, and a final diameter of 12.7
angle between two crystallographic directions, mm (0.50 in.) is desired. Some brass stock of
given their directional indices. diameter 19.0 mm (0.75 in.) that has been cold
worked 35% is available. Describe the procedure
you would follow to obtain this material. Assume
DESIGN PROBLEMS that brass experiences cracking at 65%CW.
Strain Hardening 7.D8 Consider the brass alloy discussed in Problem 7.41.
Recrystallization Given the following yield strengths for the two spec-
7.D1 Determine whether it is possible to cold work imens, compute the heat treatment time required at
steel so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness 650⬚C to give a yield strength of 90 MPa. Assume a
of 240 and at the same time have a ductility of at value of 2 for n, the grain diameter exponent.
least 15%EL. Justify your answer.
Time (min) Yield Strength (MPa)
7.D2 Determine whether it is possible to cold work
40 80
brass so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness
of 150 and at the same time have a ductility of at 100 70
least 20%EL. Justify your answer.
7.D3 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked steel has FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
a Brinell hardness of 240. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
(a) Estimate its ductility in percent elongation. 7.1FE Plastically deforming a metal specimen near
(b) If the specimen remained cylindrical during room temperature generally leads to which of the
deformation and its original radius was 10 mm following property changes?
(0.40 in.), determine its radius after deformation. (A) An increased tensile strength and a
7.D4 It is necessary to select a metal alloy for an ap- decreased ductility
plication that requires a yield strength of at least (B) A decreased tensile strength and an increased
310 MPa (45,000 psi) while maintaining a mini- ductility
mum ductility (%EL) of 27%. If the metal may
(C) An increased tensile strength and an increased
be cold worked, decide which of the following are
ductility
candidates: copper, brass, or a 1040 steel. Why?
(D) A decreased tensile strength and a decreased
7.D5 A cylindrical rod of 1040 steel originally
ductility
11.4 mm (0.45 in.) in diameter is to be cold
worked by drawing; the circular cross section 7.2FE A dislocation formed by adding an extra half-
will be maintained during deformation. A cold- plane of atoms to a crystal is referred to as a (an)
worked tensile strength in excess of 825 MPa (A) screw dislocation
(120,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 12%EL
(B) vacancy dislocation
are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 8.9 mm (0.35 in.). Explain how this may (C) interstitial dislocation
be accomplished. (D) edge dislocation
7.D6 A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10.2 mm 7.3FE The atoms surrounding a screw dislocation
(0.40 in.) in diameter is to be cold worked experience which kinds of strains?
by drawing; the circular cross section will be
maintained during deformation. A cold-worked (A) Tensile strains
yield strength in excess of 380 MPa (55,000 psi) (B) Shear strains
and a ductility of at least 15%EL are desired. (C) Compressive strains
Furthermore, the final diameter must be 7.6 mm
(0.30 in.). Explain how this may be accomplished. (D) Both B and C

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