CCS337 COGNITIVE SCIENCE

UNIT I PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 6

Philosophy: Mental-physical Relation – From Materialism to Mental Science – Logic and the
Sciences of the Mind – Psychology: Place of Psychology within Cognitive Science – Science of
Information Processing –Cognitive Neuroscience – Perception – Decision – Learning and
Memory – Language Understanding and Processing.

Philosophy:

Philosophy is systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like
existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language.

1.Three classical philosophical issues about the mind.

2. From Materialism to Mental Science.

3.the philosophy of science.

4.Logic and the Sciences of the Mind.

1.Three classical philosophical issues about the mind.

(i) Mental-physical Relation:

(ii)the structure of the mind and knowledge.

(iii)the first and the third person perspective.

(i) Mental-physical Relation:

The mental-physical relation is one of the most fundamental problems in philosophy, often referred
to as the mind-body problem. It concerns the nature of mental states (thoughts, emotions,
consciousness) and their connection to physical states (brain activity, bodily functions, external
behaviors). Philosophers and scientists have proposed various theories to explain how these two
domains interact or whether they are fundamentally distinct.
1. Dualism (Mind and Body as Separate Entities)

• Cartesian Dualism (Substance Dualism): René Descartes argued that the mind and
body are two fundamentally different substances: the mind is immaterial, while the
body is material.
• Property Dualism: While there is only one kind of substance (physical), it has both
mental and physical properties.
• Interactionism: A challenge for dualists is explaining how an immaterial mind can
causally influence the physical body.

2. Materialism (Physicalism – Mind as Physical)

• Identity Theory: Mental states are identical to brain states (e.g., "pain" is just neural
activity in the brain).
• Functionalism: The mind is defined by what it does rather than what it is made of—
like how software runs on different hardware.
• Eliminative Materialism: Radical materialists argue that concepts like "beliefs" and
"desires" are outdated and will be replaced by neuroscientific explanations.

3. Idealism (Mental Reality as Fundamental)

Idealism is a philosophical perspective that holds that reality is fundamentally mental, spiritual, or
immaterial. According to idealism, the physical world either does not exist independently of the mind
or is in some way dependent on consciousness for its existence. This view stands in contrast to
materialism, which asserts that everything, including mental phenomena, is ultimately physical in
nature.

2.From Materialism to Mental Science

From Materialism to Mental Science: The Evolution of Thought on Mind and Matter

The relationship between the physical (material) world and the mental (consciousness, thought,
perception) has been one of the core questions in philosophy. The transition from materialist
perspectives to a broader understanding in mental science reflects an evolving attempt to explain
consciousness, cognition, and human experience.
1. Materialism: Mind as Matter

Materialism (also called physicalism) holds that everything, including consciousness, is ultimately
physical. The mind is seen as a product of the brain, and mental states are reducible to physical states.

Key Materialist Theories:

• Classical Materialism (Ancient Greece – Democritus, Epicurus)

o The universe consists only of atoms and void; even thought is a material process.
• Mechanistic Materialism (17th–19th Century)
o The brain operates like a machine; thoughts and emotions are just biochemical
reactions.
• Identity Theory (Reductive Materialism) (20th Century)
o Mental states (like pain or love) are identical to brain states (neural activity).
• Eliminative Materialism (Paul & Patricia Churchland)
o Concepts like "beliefs" and "desires" are outdated folk psychology; neuroscience will
replace them.

Limits of Materialism

Despite its successes in neuroscience and artificial intelligence, materialism struggles to explain:

1. Qualia (Subjective Experience): Why does seeing red "feel" like something?
2. Intentionality: How do physical brain processes create meaning?
3. Consciousness: Why does self-awareness arise from neural activity?

These challenges led to the rise of alternative views in mental science.

2. Idealist and Dualist Challenges to Materialism

Since materialism struggles to fully explain subjective consciousness, some philosophers turned to
idealism or dualism:

• René Descartes (Dualism): The mind and body are separate; the mind is non-physical.
• George Berkeley (Idealism): Reality is fundamentally mental; objects exist only when
perceived.
• Panpsychism (Modern Alternative): Consciousness is a fundamental property of matter
(David Chalmers).

3. The Rise of Mental Science (Cognitive Science & Psychology)

By the 20th century, psychology and neuroscience moved beyond strict materialism to explore mental
processes scientifically.

Key Developments in Mental Science:

• Cognitive Science (1950s–present): The brain is like a computer, processing symbols and
information.
• Neuroscience (20th century–present): Brain imaging (fMRI, EEG) shows how thoughts
correlate with neural activity.
• Quantum Consciousness (Roger Penrose & Stuart Hameroff): Some argue that consciousness
emerges from quantum processes in the brain.

Consciousness as an Information Process

• Integrated Information Theory (IIT – Giulio Tononi): Consciousness arises from how
information is organized.
• Global Workspace Theory (Bernard Baars): The mind works like a broadcasting system,
integrating different brain functions.

3.Logic and the Sciences of the Mind

"Logic and the Sciences of the Mind" is a broad topic that explores the relationship between logic,
cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, and philosophy of mind. Here are some key themes
within this area:

1. Logic and Human Reasoning

Classical logic (deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning)

Informal logic and fallacies in reasoning

Cognitive biases and how they affect logical thinking

Computational logic and its applications in artificial intelligence

2. Philosophy of Mind and Logic

The role of logic in understanding mental states and consciousness

Logical theories of belief, knowledge, and meaning (epistemic logic)

Modal logic and possible worlds in relation to mental representation

The logic of emotions and decision-making

3. Cognitive Science and Mental Representation

How the mind processes logical structures (e.g., mental models theory)

Neuroscience of reasoning and problem-solving

Symbolic vs. connectionist approaches to cognition (AI and neural networks)

The relationship between language, thought, and logic

4. Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Computing

Logic-based AI (e.g., expert systems, formal knowledge representation)

Neural networks and their ability to approximate logical inference

Machine learning and probabilistic reasoning (Bayesian networks)

The role of logic in natural language processing (semantic logic, formal grammar)

5. Mathematical and Computational Logic in Psychology

Theories of bounded rationality (Herbert Simon)

Fuzzy logic and decision-making in human cognition

Game theory and logic in strategic thinking

The interplay between logic, probability, and uncertainty in the mind

Psychology:
What is Cognitive Science?
Cognitive Science is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand the human mind and
intelligence. It brings together research from psychology, computer science, philosophy, linguistics,
neuroscience, and anthropology.
Being interdisciplinary means that cognitive science draws methods, theories, and insights from
multiple disciplines. This approach provides a holistic view of cognition, emphasizing that
understanding the mind requires diverse perspectives.
Cognition refers to all processes related to acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. It
includes perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.
The Mind-Body Problem
The Mind-Body Problem is a fundamental question in cognitive science: how do mental processes
(like thoughts) relate to physical processes (like brain activities)? This question leads to various
perspectives, including dualism and physicalism.
Psychology in Cognitive Science
Psychology provides cognitive science with key methods, theories, and findings about human
thought and behavior.
Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology offers insights into how cognitive abilities grow and change throughout a
person’s life, informing cognitive science about the nature of cognitive development.
Social Psychology
Social Psychology adds to cognitive science by studying how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
influenced by others.
It contributes ideas about social cognition, like how we understand and interact with other people.

Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology focuses on how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems.
It supplies cognitive science with theories about memory storage, attention, and decision-making.
Computer Science in Cognitive Science
Computer Science’s role in cognitive science is tied to the development of artificial intelligence
(AI), machine learning, and information processing models.
Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence aims to create algorithms and systems that can solve
complex tasks, just like human intelligence.
AI's exploration of cognitive tasks like perception, reasoning, and learning overlaps with cognitive
science.
Machine Learning: Machine Learning, a subfield of AI, involves the development of systems that can
learn from data. ML’s focus on learning algorithms is shared by cognitive science's interest in
understanding how humans learn.
Information Processing: Information processing models represent how individuals receive, process,
store, and recall information.
These models, often designed to mimic the human mind, contribute significantly to cognitive
science.
Philosophy in Cognitive Science
Cognitive Science also comprises ideas from philosophy, particularly philosophy of mind and
philosophy of science.
Philosophy of Mind: Philosophy of Mind explores theoretical perspectives on mind-related
phenomena like consciousness, perception, and intentionality.
These philosophical views fuel theories and debates in cognitive science.
Philosophy of Science: Philosophy of Science contributes by analyzing the methodologies, concepts,
and validity of cognitive science.
It instigates essential discussions about unity and disunity across cognitive science’s diverse
disciplines.

Linguistics in Cognitive Science

The study of language is critical in cognitive science, playing a significant role in understanding how
humans communicate and share knowledge.
Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics explores how humans produce, comprehend, and acquire
language, connecting linguistic phenomena to cognitive processes.
Computational Linguistics: Computational Linguistics uses computer models to understand
language. It builds computational representations of linguistic phenomena, linking language with
artificial intelligence research.
Neuroscience in Cognitive Science
Neuroscience research is vital for understanding the relationship between the brain and cognitive
functions.
Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognitive Neuroscience investigates the neural mechanisms behind cognitive processes. It uses
techniques like neuroimaging to map mental activities onto brain structures.
Neurobiology
Neurobiology provides detailed knowledge about the brain’s structure and function at the cellular
and molecular level, informing cognitive science about the biological basis of cognition.
Anthropology in Cognitive Science
Anthropology offers cognitive science critical perspectives from cultural and social contexts.
Cognitive Anthropology: Cognitive Anthropology focuses on how people from different cultures
think and perceive the world. It plays a crucial part in understanding cultural influences on cognition.
Evolutionary Anthropology: Evolutionary Anthropology examines human cognition in light of our
evolutionary history. It helps cognitive science investigate how evolution affects cognitive traits.
Place of Psychology within Cognitive Science

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Types of psychology

Clinical psychology-Focuses on understanding, predicting, and treating mental and

behavioral health issues

Cognitive psychology-tudies mental processes like memory, attention, and problem

solving

Social psychology-Studies how people interact with each other, including how they form
attitudes and how these interactions can be improved

Rehabilitation psychology-Studies the behavior of people with chronic illnesses and

helps them rehabilitate

Forensic psychology-Applies psychological principles to legal issues, such as criminal

behavior and court proceedings

Personality psychology- study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors vary
across individuals.

Development psychology-the scientific study of how people change and grow

throughout their lives.

Comparative psychology-the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of

animals, especially in relation to their evolutionary history
Place of Psychology with Cognitive Science

• Perception: How people interpret sensory information

• Memory: How people encode, store, and retrieve information

• Learning: How people acquire new knowledge, skills, and behaviors

• Language processing: How people acquire and use language

• Problem solving: How people solve problems

• Decision-making: How people make decisions

Cognitive psychology studies our brain functions and mental processes specifically
focusing on how people think and learn. It is a psychological science that aims to better
understand how individuals acquire, perceive, process, and store information.

Science of Information Processing

• Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies

that aims to explain how information is encoded into memory.

• This field often describes information processing as a series of stages, including

sensory input (receiving information through senses),

attention (selecting relevant information),

encoding (converting information into a usable format for memory),

storage (holding information in memory),

retrieval (accessing stored information when needed).

Key Components of the Information Processing Model

1. Sensory Memory (Encoding Stage)

o Information from the environment is first received through sensory organs (e.g.,
sight, sound, touch).
o Sensory memory briefly holds this information for a very short time (about 1-3
seconds).
 o If attention is given to the information, it moves to short-term memory; otherwise, it
fades.

Example: You hear someone’s name in a crowded room but forget it almost
immediately unless you focus on it.

2. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)

o Information that is attended to enters short-term memory (STM), where it is actively
processed.
o STM has a limited capacity (around 7 ± 2 items, according to George Miller’s
research).
o Information remains in STM for about 15-30 seconds unless rehearsed.

Example: Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it but forgetting it

shortly afterward.

3. Long-Term Memory (Storage & Retrieval)

o If information is rehearsed or processed deeply, it moves into long-term memory
(LTM).
o LTM has a large, possibly unlimited capacity and stores information indefinitely.
o Information in LTM can be explicit (conscious recall) or implicit (unconscious skills
and habits).

Example: Remembering your childhood home address (explicit) or knowing how to

ride a bike (implicit).

4. Retrieval (Bringing Information Back)

o The process of recalling stored information from long-term memory.
o Can be influenced by context, cues, and emotional state.
o Errors in retrieval can lead to forgetting or distortions (e.g., false memories).

Example: Taking an exam and struggling to remember a fact you studied the night
before.

Enhancing Information Processing

• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units (e.g., remembering phone numbers
in segments).
• Rehearsal: Repeating information to strengthen memory (e.g., studying flashcards).
• Elaborative Encoding: Linking new information to existing knowledge (e.g., using
mnemonics).
• Retrieval Practice: Actively recalling information instead of passively reviewing it.

Types of Memory Used for Information Retrieval

1. Working Memory (Active Retrieval)

• A temporary storage system that helps retrieve and manipulate information in real time.
• Located in the prefrontal cortex.
• Helps with problem-solving, reasoning, and comprehension.

Example: Solving a math problem by keeping numbers in mind while performing

calculations.

2. Long-Term Memory (Main Storage for Retrieval)

 • Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Conscious recall of facts and experiences.
o Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., recalling your last birthday).
o Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., knowing that Paris is the
capital of France).
• Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory): Unconscious recall of learned skills.
o Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).
o Priming: Previous exposure to information influencing recall (e.g., seeing a word and
recognizing it faster later).

How Information is Retrieved

Retrieval happens through different processes:

1. Recall – Retrieving information without cues (e.g., answering an open-ended exam

question).
2. Recognition – Identifying information when given cues (e.g., multiple-choice tests).
3. Relearning – Relearning forgotten information more quickly than the first time.
4. Context-Dependent Retrieval – Better recall when in the same physical or emotional state
as when learning occurred.

Cognitive Neuroscience:

Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of how brain structures and neural activity
support cognitive functions like memory, perception, decision-making, and language. It combines
psychology, neuroscience, and computational models to understand how the brain enables thought
and behaviour.
Perception-

the ability to notice or understand something.

"perception" refers to the complex cognitive process where the brain receives, organizes,
interprets, and makes sense of sensory information from the environment.

Experimental approach to perception

• Perceptional psychology-perceive or experience real world.

• Neuronal discriminability predicts perceptual discriminability

• Decoupling sensation and perception

• Contextual influences on perception

• Stages of perception

• Mid-level vision

• High level vision

Stages of perception:
How does perception work?

• Stimuli: The sensory organs detect external stimuli, such as sounds, smells,
sights, tastes, and touches

• Processing: The brain processes the stimuli into neurological signals

• Interpretation: The brain interprets the signals to understand the environment

• Response: The brain initiates a response based on the interpretation

Decision

the study of how the brain processes information and makes choices

Decision-making is a high-level cognitive process based on cognitive processes like

perception, attention, and memory.

Decision-making is a high-level cognitive process based on cognitive processes like

perception, attention, and memory.

Learning and Memory

(i)Memory Encoding

types of encoding:

1.Semantic encoding

2.Visual encoding

3. Acoustic encoding
(ii)Memory Storage

1. Sensory Memory

• Echoic memory retains the information we gather through auditory stimuli.

• Iconic memory retains the information we gather through sight.

• Haptic memory retains data we acquire through touch.

(iii)Short-Term Memory:

Short-term memory, also known as primary or active memory, is the capacity to hold a small amount
of information in the mind for a brief period, typically a few seconds to a minute, before it's either
forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

(iv) Long-Term Memory-store and retrieve information over long periods of time.

two types: explicit memory and implicit memory.

explicit memory is further divided into episodic memory (memory of events and experiences) and
semantic memory (memory of facts and concepts).

Implicit memory includes skills and habits that we acquire through repetition and practice.

(v) Memory Retrieval

• there are different types of memory retrieval:

• Recognition: We recognise information or stimuli we have encountered previously. For

example, recognising a familiar face or fact we have learnt before.
 • Recall: Our ability to retrieve information from memory without any external cues. For
example, when you recall a phone number or address from memory.

• Relearning: This process involves learning information that we learnt previously but forgot.
Relearning is often much quicker than initial learning because some memory traces still
exist.

Language Understanding and Processing

Language is a complex cognitive ability that involves several areas of the brain. The blue area in this
image is Broca's area, which is vital for speech production. The green area is Wernicke's area, which
is responsible for understanding others' speech.

One of the first cognitive functions to be characterized from a biological perspective was language. Such
studies have also identified “modality neutral” areas that are active when language is processed through
any modality: auditory, written, and even sign language. However, the nature of the language learned
and the age of acquisition have effects on the configuration of the language systems of the brain (see
BILINGUALISM AND THE BRAIN).

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is the capability of computer systems to

process text written or recorded in a language used for human communication
(such as English or French). Human "natural language" is filled with ambiguities.
For example, one word can have multiple meanings depending on how it is used in
a sentence. In addition, the meaning of a sentence can change dramatically just
by adding or removing a single word. NLP enables computer systems to interpret
the meaning of language and to generate natural language responses. Cognitive
systems typically include a knowledge base (corpus) that has been created by
ingesting various structured and unstructured data sources. Many of these data
sources are text‐based documents. NLP is used to identify the semantics of
words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and other linguistic units in the documents
and other unstructured data found in the corpus. One important use of NLP in
cognitive systems is to identify the statistical patterns and provide the linkages in
data elements so that the meaning of unstructured data can be interpreted in the

right context.