PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT WITH CORNCOB ASH

AND COCONUT SHELL ASH IN SANDCRETE BLOCKS

BY
OKECHUKWU, HENRY GOODLUCK

REG NO: 20191195253

A FINAL YEAR UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING

FEBUARY, 2025.
 CERTIFICATION

This research project, "Partial Replacement of cement with Comcob Ash

and Coconut Shell Ash in Sanderete Blocks" by Okechukwu Henry
Goodluck, Reg. No. 20191195253, is hereby certified as a satisfactory
project for the award of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) in Civil
Engineering (Structural Engineering), Federal University of Technology,
OwerrI

…………………………………. ………………………………
Engr. Dr. K. O. Njoku Date

(Supervisor)

……………………………….... ……………………………..
Engr. Dr. (Mrs). J. L. Arimanwa Date

(Head of Department)

…………………………………… ………………………………..
Engr. Prof. Remy Uche Date

(Dean of SEET)
 DEDICATION
To God for the life, the opportunity of learning, the wisdom and everything I
need to succeed in this work. Also, to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Okechukwu
Zach who has sacrificed so much to give quality education.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed
and still contributing to the success of this undergraduate research project.
Firstly, I would like to thank my research supervisors: Engr. Dr. K.O.
Njoku, for his guidance, support, and encouragement so far for the entire
research process. His expertise, insights, and feedback have been
invaluable in shaping the direction and focus of this work. I would like to
thank my family and friends for their unwavering support and
encouragement, as well as for providing a source of motivation and
inspiration during this challenging yet rewarding journey. Thank you all for
your invaluable contributions. I extend my thanks to the Head of
Department, Engr. Dr. (Mrs) J. I. Arimanwa, and my Course Adviser, Engr.
A. U. Igbojiaku. I appreciate all the staff in the Department of Civil
Engineering, including Engr. Prof. L. O. Ettu, Engr. Prof. J. C. Ezeh, Engr.
Prof. (Mrs) B. U. Dike, Engr. Prof. D. O. Onwunka, Engr. Prof. J. C.
Osuagwu, Engr. Prof. (Mrs) O. E. Okere, Engr. Dr. F. C. Njoku, Engr. Dr. H.
U. Nwoke, Engr. Dr. I. C. Onyechere, Engr. Dr. N. L. Nwankwasi, Engr. Dr.
U. C. Anya, Engr. Dr. L. Anyaogu, Engr. Dr. O. Robert, Engr. Dr. A. N.
Nwachukwu, Engr. Dr. R. O. Omasakponome, Engr. A. P. C. Amanze, Engr.
G. C. Nwokorobia, Engr. K. O. Njoku, Engr. K. N. Onyema, Engr. K. C.
Nwachukwu, Engr. E. O. Ihemegbulam, Engr. C. S. Uzokwu, Engr. Collins
O. Ukachukwu, and Engr. Princewill Okorie, as well as Engr. A. Emejulu. I
also want to thank the lab technologists, especially Engr. N. L. Nwachukwu,
and all others who contributed to the success of this work. Finally, I
appreciate everyone who played a role in making this project a success.
 ABSTRACT
This study investigates the potential of using corncob ash (CCA) and
coconut shell ash (CSA) as partial replacements for cement in the
production of sandcrete blocks. The main objective is to explore
sustainable alternatives to conventional cement by incorporating
agricultural waste materials, thereby reducing the environmental impact of
cement production. Various mix ratios of CCA and CSA were tested to
assess their effects on the compressive strength, water absorption, and
density of the sandcrete blocks. Results indicated that the optimal mix
ratios achieved satisfactory compressive strength and durability, making
CCA and CSA viable supplementary cementitious materials. The study
concludes that partial replacement of cement with CCA and CSA not only
enhances the sustainability of sandcrete block production but also
promotes the utilization of agricultural waste, contributing to environmental
conservation and cost reduction in the construction industry.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

The construction industry plays a pivotal role in global development but
also significantly contributes to environmental degradation, particularly
through the production of cement. Cement manufacturing is responsible for
approximately 8% of global CO, emissions (Andrew, 2018). making it
imperative to explore sustainable alternatives. One promising avenue is the
partial replacement of cement with materials derived from agricultural
waste. This study investigates the feasibility of using corncob ash (CCA)
and coconut shell ash (CSA) as partial substitutes for cement in the
production of sandcrete blocks.

Corncobs and coconut shells are abundant agricultural by-products,

especially in regions with extensive corn and coconut cultivation.
Traditionally, these by-products pose environmental challenges due to
improper disposal, leading to waste management issues and pollution from
decomposition or incineration (Olutoge, 2010). Transforming these wastes
into ash for construction purposes not only mitigates environmental impact
but also contributes to a circular economy by turning waste into valuable
resources (Madlool et al., 2011).

According to Nigerian Industrial Standard (2000), Sandcrete block (SB) is

composed of materials which Includes cement, sand and water that has
been formed into solids of different sizes. Sandcrete Block can be made
either in solid or hollow rectangular form. Ezeokonkwo (2012) opined that
the increasing demand for sandcrete block by builders have projected the
pressure on the supply of the raw materials and has also posed the issue
of sustainability of the raw materials and affordability of buildings. He
further asserted that in an attempt to minimize the quantity of materials
used in the manufacture of a block unit, blocks are molded in such a way
as to contain voids of different sizes and geometries. In Nigeria, Sandcrete
blocks are widely used as partition members in most buildings and this
makes it a very important material in building construction. Anwar et al.
(2001) observed that sandcrete walls have properties which makes them
highly desirable for use in building construction. The partial replacement of
cement with CCA and CSA could potentially enhance the sustainability of
sandcrete block production while maintaining or improving their mechanical
properties and durability. This study aims to evaluate the feasibility of using
CCA and CSA as partial cement replacements by examining the
mechanical properties, such as compressive strength, and the durability of
sandcrete blocks with varying percentages of these ashes.

It is clear from literature that not much research has been conducted on the
partial replacement of cement with CSA and CCA in Sandcrete block.
Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of various agricultural
wastes as supplementary cementitious materials Ashes derived from
agricultural residues such as rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, and palm
kernel have been shown to improve the mechanical properties and
durability of concrete and mortar (Siddique, 2008; Muthusamy &
Zamri, 2016). An investigation into the relationship between cavity
characteristics, web thickness and compressive strength of sandcrete block
has been attempted in recent past (Agunwamba et al., 2016). Similarly,
investigation on the replacement of cement with other pozzolanic materials
such as Rice Husk Ash (RHA) in sandcrete block has also been carried out
(Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2008, 2011).

It was discovered that addition of Rice Husk Ash produced sandcrete block
of lower density and also had a fairly significant effect on compressive
strength of sandcrete block on low Rice Husk Ash content. In a related
study, Ezcokonkwo (2012) also investigated two-cell hollow sandcrete
block and stated that the size of the block cavity would affect its
compressive strength. The ultimate effect of cavity size on the strength of
sandcrete hollow blocks is necessary in the manufacture of quality
sandcrete block as it has also been shown that the strength of a block is
dependent on its average solid thickness (Eze-Uzomaka, 1977). Recent
studies conducted at different places in Nigeria have shown that the
compressive strength of sandcrete block produced in many block industries
fall below the specification of the Nigerian Industrial Standard (2000),
Olufisayo (2013), Arimanwa et al. (2014) and Wilson et al. (2016).

These studies highlight the potential benefits of using agricultural waste in

construction, including reduced environmental impact and enhanced
material properties. However, there is limited research on the combined
use of CCA and CSA specifically in sandcrete blocks, which are widely
used in developing countries for their affordability and ease of production.

1.2 Problem statement

The high cost of cement is a major concern, particularly in developing
countries where budget constraints are stringent. The need for cost-
effective alternatives is urgent, and one promising solution is the partial
replacement of cement with agricultural waste by-products as corncob ash
(CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA). Corncob and coconut shell wastes are
abundant and inexpensive, often considered by-products with little to no
economic value. Corncobs and coconut shells are landfills, causing
environmental pollution and health risks. Using these by-products as partial
cement replacements addresses waste management issues and offers an
eco-friendly alternative to traditional building materials. By exploring the
economic benefits of using CCA and CSA in sandcrete blocks, this study
seeks to contribute to more affordable and sustainable construction
practices, addressing both cost and environmental concerns in the industry.
The findings of this research are expected to contribute to more sustainable
construction practices, reduce the environmental impact of cement
production, and offer a viable solution for managing agricultural waste. This
study will build on existing knowledge and provide new insights into using
agricultural waste by-products in construction materials.
1.3 Objectives of Study
The main objective of this research is to partially replace cement using Corncob ash and Coconut
shell ash in Sandcrete blocks. The specific objectives include:

i. To determine the particle size distribution of fine aggregate through sieve analysis.
ii. To evaluate the specific gravity of cement, CCA, CSA, and fine aggregate to assess their
relative density.
iii. To assess the consistency and setting time of cement-CCA-CSA blends
iv. To investigate the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks incorporating CCA and CSA
at varying replacement levels.

To determine the water absorption capacity of sandcrete blocks with CCA and CSA replacement.

1.4 Significance of Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to contribute to
environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, and the advancement of
knowledge in the construction industry. By exploring the partial replacement
of cement with Corncob ash and Coconut shell ash in sandcrete blocks, the
study addresses critical issues related to CO2 emissions, waste
management and sustainable development. This research could lead to
substantial cost savings in the construction sector. Cement is one of the
most expensive components in concrete production. By partially replacing
cement with CCA and CSA, which are low-cost and readily available
agricultural byproducts, construction costs can be reduced. Agricultural
residues, which are often considered waste, are converted into valuable
building materials. This approach aligns with the principles of a circular
economy, where waste is minimized, and resources are used more
efficiently. This research provides a comprehensive approach to addressing
some of the most pressing challenges in the construction industry today.
This study is significant for several key reasons:
i. Environmental Impact: Cement production is a major source of
greenhouse gas emissions. By investigating the partial replacement of
cement with agricultural waste products such as Corncobs Ash (CCA) and
Coconut Shell Ash (CSA), this research aims to mitigate these
environmental impacts and address waste management challenges.
ii. Economic Benefits: Utilizing agricultural by-products in construction
materials can potentially lower the cost of building materials. This reduction
in cost is particularly beneficial for low-income regions, making construction
more affordable and accessible.
iii. Academic Contribution: This study adds to the existing body of literature
on alternative construction materials, with a specific focus on sandcrete
blocks. This area is currently underrepresented in academic research, and
the findings could provide valuable insights for future studies.
iv. Comparing the cost-effectiveness of sandcrete blocks with CCA and
CSA to traditional blocks.

1.5 Scope of study

The scope of this study encompasses the evaluation of corncob ash (CCA)
and coconut shell ash (CSA) as partial replacements for cement in
sandcrete blocks. The research will focus on determining the optimal
replacement ratios, assessing the physical and mechanical properties of
the resulting sandcrete blocks, and analyzing the cost-effectiveness of
using these agricultural waste byproducts. The compressive strength of the
sandcrete blocks will be tested at 7, 14, and 28 days of curing.

The compressive strength will be calculated using the formula given in

equation (1)

F= P/A ………………………………………….equ(1)

Where: F is compressive strength of specimen in Mega Pascal,

P is the maximum applied load by Newton and;
A is the cross-sectional area estimated in mm²
1.6 Limitations of the Study
While this study aims to explore the potential of concob ash and coconut
shell ash as partial replacements for cement in sandcrete block production,
several limitations must be acknowledged:
i. Material Variability: The properties of corncob ash and coconut shell ash
can vary significantly based on factors such as the source of the raw
materials, the method of ash production, and the conditions under which
they are processed. This variability can affect the consistency and reliability
of the results obtained in this study
ii. Limited Scope of Testing: The study will primarily focus on
compressive strength and workability as key performance indicators of the
sandcrete blocks. Other important properties, such as tensile strength,
shrinkage, and durability over extended periods, may not be thoroughly
investigated, potentially limiting the comprehensive understanding of the
performance of ash-blended sandcrete blocks.
iii. Environmental Conditions: The experiments will be conducted in a
controlled laboratory setting, which may not fully replicate the
environmental conditions encountered in real-world construction scenarios.
Factors such as humidity, temperature fluctuations, and exposure to
elements can influence the performance of the sandcrete blocks differently
than observed in controlled conditions.
iv. Curing Period Limitations: The study will evaluate the mechanical
properties of the sandcrete blocks at specific curing periods (e.g., 7, 14, 28
days). However, the long-term performance and durability of the blocks
beyond these periods may not be assessed, which is crucial for
understanding their suitability for actual construction applications.
v. Economic Analysis Constraints: While the study aims to evaluate the
economic viability of using corncob ash and coconut shell ash, the cost
analysis may be limited
to specific regions or markets. Variations in local material costs, labor, and
mucket conditions may affect the generalizability of the economic findings.
vi. Regulatory and Standardization Issues: The acceptance of ash-
blended materiais in construction may be subject to regulatory standards
and building codes, which can vary by region. This study may not address
all regulatory considerations, potentially impacting the practical application
of the findings
vii. Research Context: The research is focused on a specific geographical
area and may not account for regional differences in agricultural practices,
material availability, and construction methodologies. As a result, the
applicability of the findings may be limited to similar contexts.
By acknowledging these limitations, the study aims to provide a balanced
perspective on the potential of using corncob ash and coconut shell ash in
sandcrete block production while highlighting areas for future research and
exploration.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Sandcrete Block
Sandcrete blocks are a crucial construction material used extensively in
building projects, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and other developing
regions. They are primarily composed of a mixture of sand, cement, and
water, forming masonry units that provide structural integrity to buildings.
The use of sandcrete blocks has gained popularity due to their affordability,
ease of production, and availability of raw materials (Olutoge et al., 2019).
However, the high cement content in these blocks presents significant
environmental and economic challenges, as cement production is both
energy-intensive and costly. In recent years, researchers have explored the
incorporation of alternative materials, such as corncob ash (CCA) and
coconut shell ash (CSA), to partially replace cement in sandcrete blocks,
thereby improving sustainability and reducing production costs (Adebayo et
al., 2018).
2.1.1 Types of Sandcrete Blocks
Sandcrete blocks are a primary building material, particularly in developing
countries, due to their availability, ease of production, and affordability.
They are commonly used for walls, foundations, and other masonry
structures. The primary classification of sandcrete blocks is based on their
dimensions, density, function, and load-bearing capacity. These
classifications influence their use in different construction applications.
Understanding the different types of sandcrete blocks helps in determining
their appropriate use, especially in projects exploring alternative materials
like corncob ash (CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA) as partial cement
replacements.
i. Solid Sandcrete Blocks: Solid blocks are characterized by
their fully filled internal structure, which makes them dense and
heavy. They are typically used in load-bearing walls,
foundations, and other structural components where high
compressive strength is required. Solid blocks usually have
compressive strengths ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 N/mm², which is
sufficient for most building applications (Olutoge et al., 2019).
The use of agricultural waste, such as CCA and CSA, as a
partial replacement for cement in solid blocks has been studied
 extensively. For instance, Raheem et al. (2013) found that
replacing up to 15% of cement with CCA resulted in solid blocks
with comparable compressive strength to traditional blocks.
Solid sandcrete blocks also offer good thermal mass, helping to
regulate indoor temperatures by absorbing and releasing heat
slowly. However, they are heavy, which increases the cost of
transportation and handling on construction sites. Despite this,
their robustness makes them a popular choice for both
residential and commercial buildings in regions prone to natural
disasters such as earthquakes (Oyetola & Abdullahi, 2006).
ii. Hollow Sandcrete Blocks: Hollow sandcrete blocks contain
hollow cavities within their structure, making them lighter than
solid blocks. These cavities can make up 25-50% of the total
block volume. Hollow blocks are primarily used for non-load-
bearing walls, partition walls, and infill in reinforced concrete
frames (Arum et al., 2020). The reduction in weight makes
these blocks easier to handle, reducing labor costs and
construction time. Additionally, the air cavities within the block
structure provide better insulation properties compared to solid
blocks, enhancing the thermal efficiency of buildings.Hollow
blocks can also accommodate partial cement replacement with
materials like CCA and CSA. According to Elinwa and Ejeh
(2004), hollow sandcrete blocks with up to 20% CCA or CSA
still meet the minimum compressive strength requirements for
non-load-bearing applications, making them a viable option for
sustainable construction. In a study by Adebayo et al. (2018),
the incorporation of 10% CSA into hollow sandcrete blocks
improved the thermal performance of the blocks while
maintaining structural integrity.

iii. Aerated Sandcrete Blocks: Aerated sandcrete blocks, also

known as lightweight blocks, are produced by incorporating air
bubbles into the sandcrete mix, either through chemical or
mechanical processes. This results in a lightweight block with
enhanced thermal and acoustic insulation properties. Aerated
 blocks are often used in non-load-bearing walls or as insulating
layers in multi-story buildings. Their lower density, typically
ranging from 300 to 900 kg/m³, makes them easier to transport
and handle compared to solid or hollow blocks (Olanipekun et
al., 2006).Although aerated blocks are lighter and offer excellent
insulation properties, their strength is lower compared to solid
and hollow blocks, limiting their use in load-bearing
applications. However, the partial replacement of cement with
CCA and CSA has been shown to improve the strength of
aerated blocks without significantly increasing their density. In a
study by Olutoge et al. (2019), aerated sandcrete blocks with
10% CCA and CSA replacement exhibited higher compressive
strengths compared to traditional aerated blocks while retaining
their lightweight characteristics.

iv. Interlocking Sandcrete Blocks: Interlocking sandcrete blocks

are designed with grooves or projections that allow them to fit
together without the need for mortar, reducing construction time
and costs. These blocks are widely used in modular
construction, retaining walls, and road paving projects. The
interlocking mechanism provides stability and reduces the
reliance on binding materials, making them an efficient option
for rapid construction (Ettu et al., 2013).Interlocking blocks can
be produced with partial cement replacement using materials
like CCA and CSA. According to Adesanya and Raheem (2009),
interlocking blocks made with 10% CCA replacement for
cement performed comparably to conventional blocks in terms
of compressive strength and durability. The use of alternative
materials in interlocking blocks can further reduce construction
costs and environmental impacts, particularly in rural or low-
income regions where cement is expensive.

v. Perforated Sandcrete Blocks: Perforated sandcrete blocks

have a series of small holes or perforations running through
them, which reduce the block’s weight and improve its thermal
 and acoustic insulation properties. These blocks are used in
non-load-bearing walls, decorative structures, and ventilation
systems. Perforated blocks offer a balance between the
strength of solid blocks and the insulation properties of hollow
or aerated blocks (Ogunbode & Adamu, 2020).Perforated
blocks can also incorporate agricultural waste materials such as
CCA and CSA as partial cement replacements. Olutoge et al.
(2019) found that perforated blocks containing 15% CSA had
improved insulation properties while maintaining sufficient
compressive strength for non-load-bearing applications. These
blocks are often used in hot climates where enhanced
ventilation and thermal insulation are required to improve
building comfort.

vi. Decorative Sandcrete Blocks: Decorative sandcrete blocks,

also known as ornamental or architectural blocks, are designed
with aesthetic patterns or designs on their surfaces. They are
primarily used in facades, fences, or other non-structural
applications. These blocks are available in a variety of shapes
and sizes, providing architects and builders with design
flexibility. While strength is not the primary concern for
decorative blocks, durability and weather resistance are
important properties.Incorporating CCA and CSA into decorative
sandcrete blocks can improve their environmental sustainability
without compromising their aesthetic appeal. According to
Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006), the inclusion of up to 20% CCA in
decorative blocks improved their resistance to weathering and
reduced efflorescence, a common problem in ornamental
blockwork. This makes decorative sandcrete blocks with partial
cement replacement an attractive option for eco-friendly
architectural projects.
2.1.2 Composition of Sandcrete Blocks
The key components of sandcrete blocks include cement, sand, and water.
These materials are mixed in specific proportions to ensure that the blocks
meet the desired strength and durability requirements.
i. Cement: The cement used in sandcrete blocks serves as the
binder, providing the structural integrity necessary for the blocks to
withstand loads. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most
commonly used type, though other types of cement may be used
depending on availability and project specifications (Neville, 2011).
The typical cement-to-sand ratio for sandcrete blocks ranges from
1:6 to 1:8 by volume, depending on the desired strength.

ii. Sand (Fine Aggregate): Sand constitutes the bulk of the material
used in sandcrete block production. It must be clean, well-graded,
and free from impurities such as clay and organic matter that can
weaken the structure (Falade et al., 2010). The sand used is
generally coarse and well-graded to provide adequate strength to
the block. Fine aggregates contribute to the block’s density and
play a critical role in its compressive strength.

iii. Water: Water is essential for the hydration of cement, which

initiates the chemical reaction that hardens the mixture. Clean,
potable water is required to ensure that the block is free from
contaminants that could impair the chemical reactions involved in
the cement’s setting and hardening process (Metha & Monteiro,
2019). The water-to-cement ratio is a critical factor, influencing the
block’s workability, strength, and durability. Typical water-cement
ratios range from 0.45 to 0.60, depending on the type of
construction and desired block properties.

iv. Optional Additives: In some cases, additives such as pozzolanic

materials (e.g., corncob ash, coconut shell ash) or admixtures may
be added to enhance the performance of sandcrete blocks. These
materials are used to either improve certain mechanical properties
or reduce costs (Adesanya & Raheem, 2009).
2.1.3 Importance of Sustainable Building Materials
Utilizing agricultural by-products helps in reducing the carbon footprint of
construction projects. Studies have shown that incorporating materials like
corncob ash in cement can significantly lower the energy intensity of
construction processes while still maintaining the structural properties of
the materials . This is crucial in efforts to combat climate change and
reduce global dependence on carbon-intensive materials.
The adoption of sustainable materials can lead to long-term savings
through enhanced energy efficiency in buildings. Materials with improved
thermal insulation properties, for instance, can reduce the energy demand
for heating and cooling, thereby lowering operational costs for building
owners .
Using locally available agricultural waste can support local economies by
creating new income streams for farmers and reducing the reliance on
imported construction materials . This fosters community development and
helps to alleviate poverty in rural areas.
Sustainable building materials like corncob ash and coconut shell ash offer
numerous benefits, including environmental conservation, cost savings,
improved public health, and economic opportunities for local communities.
By incorporating these materials into sandcrete block production, the
construction industry can make significant strides toward reducing its
ecological footprint and fostering sustainable development.

2.2 Cement
Cement plays a crucial role in the production of sandcrete blocks, acting as
the primary binder that holds the sand and other aggregates together. It is
responsible for the hardening process that gives the block its strength and
durability. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most commonly used
cement type for construction projects worldwide, including in sandcrete
block production, due to its availability, affordability, and proven
performance. However, the environmental and economic costs of cement
production have led to increasing interest in finding alternative binders or
partial replacements like agricultural waste ashes, including corncob ash
(CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA).

2.2.1 Composition of Cement

Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) and clay
materials in a kiln to form clinker, which is then ground with gypsum to
produce cement powder (Neville, 2011). OPC is composed of a variety of
compounds, with the major ones being:
i. Tricalcium silicate (C₃S) – provides early strength and initial
setting.
ii. Dicalcium silicate (C₂S) – contributes to long-term strength
development.
iii. Tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) – affects the setting time and heat of
hydration.
iv. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C₄AF) – contributes to the
hardness and color of the cement.
The specific composition and proportions of these compounds determine
the properties of the cement and, by extension, the properties of the blocks
in which it is used.
2.2.2 Role of Cement in Sandcrete Blocks
Cement acts as the key component responsible for the hardening and
load-bearing capacity of sandcrete blocks. When cement is mixed with
water, it undergoes a process known as hydration, where the compounds in
the cement chemically react with water to form calcium silicate hydrates (C-
S-H) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂). These products fill the voids
between sand particles, creating a dense and hard matrix that binds the
materials together.The hydration process continues over time, and the
strength of the sandcrete blocks increases as the hydration products
crystallize. The ultimate compressive strength of sandcrete blocks is largely
determined by the cement content and the water-cement ratio (Metha &
Monteiro, 2019).
2.2.3 Advantages of Partial Cement Replacement
By partially replacing cement with materials like CCA and CSA, several
benefits can be achieved:
i. Cost Reduction: Cement is one of the most expensive
components in sandcrete blocks. Using CCA and CSA, which are
locally available and often considered waste, can reduce the
overall cost of production. This makes sandcrete blocks more
affordable, especially in developing countries where the cost of
construction materials is a significant barrier to infrastructure
development (Raheem et al., 2012).
ii. Environmental Sustainability: As previously mentioned, cement
production contributes significantly to CO₂ emissions. Using
agricultural waste as a partial replacement for cement reduces the
demand for cement and thereby lowers the associated
environmental impact. This contributes to the promotion of
sustainable construction practices and aligns with global efforts to
reduce carbon emissions (Mehta & Burrows, 2001).
iii. Waste Management: Agricultural wastes such as corncobs and
coconut shells are often disposed of by burning, which contributes
to air pollution. By incorporating these materials into sandcrete
blocks, the project promotes waste recycling and reduces the
environmental impact of improper waste disposal (Adesanya &
Raheem, 2009).

iv. Improved Durability: The pozzolanic reaction between CCA/CSA

and the calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration
helps to form additional binding products, which enhance the
durability of sandcrete blocks. This reduces the need for frequent
 repairs and maintenance, further lowering the long-term costs
associated with construction (Olutoge et al., 2019).
Cement is a vital component in the production of sandcrete blocks,
providing the strength and durability required for structural applications.
However, the environmental and economic costs of cement production
have led to increasing interest in partial replacements using agricultural
waste materials such as corncob ash and coconut shell ash. These
materials offer several advantages, including cost reduction,
environmental sustainability, and improved durability, making them
promising alternatives for sustainable construction. By understanding
the properties of cement and its role in sandcrete block production, the
benefits of partial replacement can be fully realized, helping to reduce
the environmental impact of construction while maintaining structural
integrity.
2.3 Pozzolan
A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous-aluminous material that,
while having little or no cementitious value on its own, will react
chemically with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. This reaction, known as
the pozzolanic reaction, plays a key role in enhancing the durability and
strength of concrete, making pozzolanic substances a crucial
component in sustainable building practices.
2.3.1 Mechanism of Pozzolanic Reaction
The pozzolanic reaction occurs when a pozzolan interacts with
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), a by-product of cement hydration, in the
presence of water. This reaction forms additional calcium silicate hydrate
(C-S-H), which is responsible for the strength and binding properties of
cementitious materials. In conventional concrete, a significant amount of
calcium hydroxide is released during hydration but does not contribute to
strength. When a pozzolanic substance is introduced, it consumes this
excess calcium hydroxide, converting it into additional C-S-H and thus
increasing the overall strength and durability of the material .For the
 project topic involving the partial replacement of cement with corncob
ash and coconut shell ash, both materials are considered pozzolans due
to their high silica and alumina content. Studies have shown that these
agricultural by-products, when properly processed into ash, exhibit
pozzolanic properties that can enhance the performance of sandcrete
blocks and concrete.
2.3.2 Properties of Corncob Ash as Pozzolan
The pozzolanic reaction occurs when a pozzolan interacts with calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), a by-product of cement hydration, in the presence
of water. This reaction forms additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H),
which is responsible for the strength and binding properties of
cementitious materials. In conventional concrete, a significant amount of
calcium hydroxide is released during hydration but does not contribute to
strength. When a pozzolanic substance is introduced, it consumes this
excess calcium hydroxide, converting it into additional C-S-H and thus
increasing the overall strength and durability of the material .For the
project topic involving the partial replacement of cement with corncob
ash and coconut shell ash, both materials are considered pozzolans due
to their high silica and alumina content. Studies have shown that these
agricultural by-products, when properly processed into ash, exhibit
pozzolanic properties that can enhance the performance of sandcrete
blocks and concrete.
2.3.3 Properties of Coconut Shell Ash as Pozzolans
Similar to corncob ash, coconut shell ash is another agricultural by-
product with significant pozzolanic properties. It is produced by burning
discarded coconut shells, which are rich in silica and alumina. The
pozzolanic activity of coconut shell ash has been confirmed by its ability
to react with calcium hydroxide to form C-S-H compounds, thereby
improving the structural properties of concrete and blocks . Research
indicates that coconut shell ash has a silica content of around 50-60%,
making it an effective pozzolan for enhancing the strength and durability
of cement-based materials.
 In combination, both corncob ash and coconut shell ash can serve as
effective pozzolans, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional
cement. By utilizing these waste materials, the construction industry can
not only reduce its reliance on environmentally damaging cement but
also repurpose agricultural waste, thereby addressing waste
management challenges.
2.3.4 Advantages of using Pozzolanic Substance
Pozzolanic substances, such as corncob ash and coconut shell ash, offer
several advantages when used as partial replacements for cement in
sandcrete blocks. These advantages include:
2.3.4.1 Cost Reduction
i) Lower Material Costs: Pozzolanic substances are often more cost-
effective than traditional cement, leading to potential savings in the
production of sandcrete blocks.
ii) Reduced Maintenance Costs: The enhanced durability of sandcrete
blocks containing pozzolanic substances can result in lower long-term
maintenance costs due to reduced deterioration.
2.3.4.2 Reduced Carbon Footprint
i) Lower greenhouse gas emissions: The use of pozzolanic
substances can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of sandcrete block
production. These materials often have a lower embodied carbon
compared to traditional cement, contributing to a more sustainable
construction industry.
ii) Improved energy efficiency: Pozzolanic substances can enhance the
thermal insulation properties of sandcrete blocks, leading to reduced
energy consumption for heating and cooling in buildings.

2.3.4.3 Enhanced Strength and Durability

 i) Improved compressive strength: Pozzolanic substances can react
with the calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration, forming
additional cementitious compounds that enhance the overall strength of
sandcrete blocks. According to Akinpelu and Owolabi (2016), studies have
shown that the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks can be improved
by incorporating corncob ash as a partial replacement for cement.
ii) Increased durability: The use of pozzolanic substances can
improve the durability of sandcrete blocks by reducing their susceptibility to
sulfate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction, and other forms of deterioration.
Olanrewaju and Owolabi (2017) reported that coconut shell ash can
enhance the durability of sandcrete blocks by improving their resistance to
sulfate attack.
2.4 Corncob as a Cement Replacement
Corncob ash (CCA) is a promising alternative to cement in the production
of sandcrete blocks due to its availability, low cost, and potential to improve
the sustainability of construction materials. This paper explores the
feasibility of using CCA as a partial replacement for cement in sandcrete
blocks, examining its impact on mechanical properties, durability, and
environmental implications.
2.4.1 Properties of Corncob Ash
Corncob ash (CCA) is a byproduct of the corn processing industry that has
gained attention as a potential alternative or supplementary material in
construction applications. Its unique properties make it an attractive option
for various uses, including as a partial replacement for cement in concrete
and mortar.
2.4.1.1 Physical Properties
i) Color: CCA typically ranges from light gray to brown in color, depending
on the burning conditions and the specific variety of corn.
ii) Particle Size: CCA particles are generally fine-grained, which can
enhance its reactivity and improve its compatibility with cementitious
materials.
 iii) Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of CCA is typically lower than
that of cement, which can lead to reduced weight and improved workability
of materials containing CCA.

2.4.1.2 Chemical Properties

i) Pozzolanic Activity: CCA possesses pozzolanic activity, meaning it can
react with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form additional
cementitious compounds. This enhances the strength and durability of
concrete and mortar. According to Akinpelu and Owolabi (2016), CCA’s
pozzolanic properties contribute to improved compressive strength in
sandcrete blocks.
ii) Alkalinity: CCA is alkaline in nature, which can contribute to its
reactivity and its ability to improve the durability of concrete against sulfate
attack.
iii) Mineral Composition: The mineral composition of CCA can vary
depending on the type of corn and the burning conditions. However, it
typically contains silica, alumina, and other oxides that contribute to its
pozzolanic properties.

2.4.1.3 Thermal Conductivity: CCA has a relatively low thermal

conductivity, which can improve the thermal insulation properties of
materials containing CCA.

2.4.2 Production Process of Corncob Ash

Corncob ash (CCA) is a byproduct of the corn processing industry that
can be obtained through a relatively simple process. The production of
CCA involves the following steps:
i) Collection and Drying: Corncobs are collected from corn processing
facilities or farms. They are then dried to reduce their moisture content,
which improves their combustibility and ash yield. Drying can be achieved
through various methods, such as air drying, solar drying, or kiln drying.
ii) Combustion: The dried corncobs are burned in a controlled
environment, such as a furnace or incinerator. During combustion, the
organic matter in the corncobs is oxidized, leaving behind a residue of ash.
The burning temperature and conditions can influence the properties of the
resulting CCA.
iii) Ash Recovery: The ash is collected from the combustion chamber and
cooled to room temperature. It may be necessary to sift or filter the ash to
remove any larger particles or impurities.
iv) Processing: The recovered CCA can be further processed to improve
its properties or suitability for specific applications. This may involve
grinding, sieving, or chemical treatment.
2.4.3 Previous Studies on Corncob Ash in Construction Materials
Corncob ash (CCA) has emerged as a promising alternative or
supplementary material in the construction industry due to its abundance,
low cost, and potential environmental benefits. Several studies have
explored the use of CCA in various construction materials, including
concrete, mortar, and sandcrete blocks.
Early research on CCA in construction materials focused on its potential as
a pozzolanic material. Siddique (2008) investigated the use of CCA as a
partial replacement for cement in concrete and found that it could improve
the compressive strength and durability of the material. Muthusamy and
Zamri (2016) conducted similar studies, exploring the use of CCA in
concrete and mortar.
More recent studies have delved deeper into the applications and
properties of CCA in construction materials. Akinpelu and Owolabi (2016)
examined the feasibility of using CCA as a partial replacement for cement
in sandcrete blocks. They found that CCA could enhance the compressive
strength of sandcrete blocks and improve their overall performance.
Olutoge et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive study on the use of CCA
in sandcrete blocks. They investigated the effects of CCA on the
mechanical properties, durability, and environmental impact of the blocks.
Their findings highlighted the potential benefits of using CCA as a
sustainable construction material.
Beyond concrete and mortar, CCA has also been explored in other
construction applications. Agunwamba et al. (2016) studied the relationship
between cavity characteristics, web thickness, and compressive strength of
sandcrete blocks containing CCA. Their findings provide valuable insights
into the design and optimization of sandcrete blocks incorporating CCA.
Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of CCA as a sustainable
and effective construction material. Its pozzolanic properties, low cost, and
abundance make it a promising alternative to traditional cement. Further
research is needed to explore its applications in various construction
materials and to optimize its use for maximum benefits.
2.4.4 Effect of Corncob Ash on the Properties of Sandcrete Blocks
Corncob ash (CCA) has emerged as a promising alternative or
supplementary material in the construction industry, particularly in the
production of sandcrete blocks. Its incorporation into sandcrete blocks can
significantly influence various properties, including mechanical strength,
durability, and thermal performance.
2.4.4.1 Mechanical Strength
i) Compressive Strength: Studies have consistently shown that the
addition of CCA can enhance the compressive strength of sandcrete
blocks. Akinpelu and Owolabi (2016) found that increasing the percentage
of CCA in sandcrete blocks resulted in a gradual increase in compressive
strength up to a certain point. Beyond that point, further additions of CCA
might lead to a decrease in compressive strength due to the formation of
weaker cementitious compounds.
ii) Flexural Strength: CCA can also improve the flexural strength of
sandcrete blocks, which is essential for their resistance to bending and
cracking. Olutoge et al. (2019) observed a positive correlation between
CCA content and flexural strength in their study.
2.4.4.2 Durability
i) Sulfate Resistance: CCA can enhance the sulfate resistance of
sandcrete blocks, making them less susceptible to deterioration caused by
sulfate attack. This is particularly important in regions with high sulfate
levels in the soil or groundwater.
ii) Carbonation Resistance: CCA can also improve the carbonation
resistance of sandcrete blocks, which helps to prevent the penetration of
carbon dioxide and the subsequent deterioration of the material.
2.4.4.3Thermal Performance
i) Thermal Conductivity: CCA has a relatively low thermal conductivity
compared to cement, which can improve the thermal insulation properties
of sandcrete blocks. This can lead to reduced energy consumption for
heating and cooling in buildings.
ii) Thermal Resistance: The thermal resistance of sandcrete blocks can
be increased by incorporating CCA, which can contribute to improved
energy efficiency and reduced carbon emissions.

2.4.4.4Environmental Impact
Reduced Carbon Footprint: The use of CCA as a partial replacement for
cement can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of sandcrete block
production. CCA is a waste product from the corn processing industry, and
its utilization can contribute to a more circular economy.

2.5 Coconut Shell Ash as a Cement Replacement

Coconut shell ash (CSA) is another promising alternative to cement in
construction materials, particularly in regions with abundant coconut palm
plantations. It offers several advantages, including its availability, low cost,
and potential environmental benefits.

2.5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties

i) Particle Size: CSA particles are generally fine-grained, which can
enhance its reactivity and compatibility with cementitious materials.
ii) Pozzolanic Activity: CSA possesses pozzolanic activity, allowing it to
react with calcium hydroxide to form additional cementitious compounds.
This improves the strength and durability of concrete and mortar.
iii) Alkalinity: CSA is alkaline in nature, which can contribute to its
reactivity and its ability to improve the durability of concrete against sulfate
attack.
iv) Mineral Composition: CSA is primarily composed of silica, alumina,
and other oxides, which contribute to its pozzolanic properties.
2.5.2 Applications in Construction Materials
i) Concrete: CSA has been successfully used as a partial replacement for
cement in concrete. Studies have shown that it can improve the
compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability of concrete
(Olanrewaju & Owolabi, 2017).
ii) Mortar: CSA can also be used as a component in mortar mixes. It can
enhance the strength, workability, and durability of mortar, making it
suitable for various construction applications.
iii) Sandcrete Blocks: CCA can be incorporated into sandcrete blocks to
improve their mechanical properties and durability. Studies have shown
that the addition of CSA can enhance the compressive strength and sulfate
resistance of sandcrete blocks (Okafor & Ozoemena, 2018).
2.5.3 Production Process of Coconut Shell Ash
Corncob ash (CCA) is a byproduct of the corn processing industry that can
be obtained through a relatively simple process. The production of CCA
involves the following steps:
i) Collection: The process begins with the collection of mature coconut
shells from coconut-producing regions. Coconut shells are a waste by-
product of coconut processing industries, making this step environmentally
friendly by reducing waste.
ii) Cleaning and Drying: The shells are cleaned to remove any remaining
coconut flesh or fibers. They are then sun-dried to remove moisture, which
can help enhance the burning process and reduce smoke and emissions.
According to research by Adewuyi et al., 2015, this drying process helps
improve the carbonization efficiency.
iii) Combustion: The dried corncobs are burned in a controlled
environment, such as a furnace or incinerator. During combustion, the
organic matter in the corncobs is oxidized, leaving behind a residue of ash.
The burning temperature and conditions can influence the properties of the
resulting CCA.
iv) Ash Recovery: The ash is collected from the combustion chamber and
cooled to room temperature. It may be necessary to sift or filter the ash to
remove any larger particles or impurities.
v) Processing: The recovered CCA can be further processed to improve
its properties or suitability for specific applications. This may involve
grinding, sieving, or chemical treatment.

2.5.4 Previous Studies on Coconut Shell Ash in Construction

Materials
Coconut shell ash (CSA) has emerged as a promising alternative or
supplementary material in the construction industry due to its abundance,
low cost, and potential environmental benefits. Several studies have
explored the use of CSA in various construction materials, including
concrete, mortar, and sandcrete blocks.
Early research on CSA in construction materials focused on its potential as
a pozzolanic material. Siddique (2008) investigated the use of rice husk
ash (RHA) in concrete and found that it could improve the compressive
strength and durability of the material. While not specifically focused on
CSA, this study provides insights into the potential benefits of using
agricultural waste materials in construction.
More recent studies have delved deeper into the applications and
properties of CSA in construction materials. Olanrewaju and Owolabi
(2017) examined the feasibility of using CSA as a partial replacement for
cement in sandcrete blocks. They found that CSA could enhance the
compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability of sandcrete blocks.
Okafor and Ozoemena (2018) conducted a comparative study on the use
of corncob ash (CCA) and CSA in sandcrete blocks. Their findings
indicated that both CCA and CSA could improve the compressive strength
and sulfate resistance of sandcrete blocks.
Beyond concrete and mortar, CSA has also been explored in other
construction applications. Muthusamy and Zamri (2016) investigated the
use of palm kernel shell ash (PKS) as a partial replacement for cement in
concrete. While not directly related to CSA, this study provides insights into
the potential benefits of using other agricultural waste materials in
construction.
Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of CSA as a sustainable
and effective construction material. Its pozzolanic properties, low cost, and
abundance make it a promising alternative to traditional cement. Further
research is needed to explore its applications in various construction
materials and to optimize its use for maximum benefits.
2.5.5 Effect of Coconut Shell Ash on the Properties of Sandcrete
Blocks
Coconut shell ash (CSA) is a promising alternative or supplementary
material in the construction industry, particularly in regions with abundant
coconut palm plantations. Its incorporation into sandcrete blocks can
significantly influence various properties, including mechanical strength,
durability, and environmental impact.
2.5.5.1 Mechanical Strength
i) Compressive Strength: Studies have shown that the addition of CSA
can enhance the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks. Olanrewaju
and Owolabi (2017) found that increasing the percentage of CSA in
sandcrete blocks resulted in a gradual increase in compressive strength up
to a certain point. Beyond that point, further additions of CSA might lead to
a decrease in compressive strength due to the formation of weaker
cementitious compounds.
ii) Flexural Strength: CSA can also improve the flexural strength of
sandcrete blocks, which is essential for their resistance to bending and
cracking. Okafor and Ozoemena (2018) observed a positive correlation
between CSA content and flexural strength in their study.
2.5.5.2 Durability
i) Sulfate Resistance: CSA can enhance the sulfate resistance of
sandcrete blocks, making them less susceptible to deterioration caused by
sulfate attack. This is particularly important in regions with high sulfate
levels in the soil or groundwater.
ii) Carbonation Resistance: CSA can also improve the carbonation
resistance of sandcrete blocks, which helps to prevent the penetration of
carbon dioxide and the subsequent deterioration of the material.

2.5.5.3 Environmental Impact

i)Reduced Carbon Footprint: The use of CSA as a partial replacement for
cement can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of sandcrete block
production. CSA is a waste product from the coconut processing industry,
and its utilization can contribute to a more circular economy.
The addition of coconut shell ash to sandcrete blocks can have a positive
impact on their mechanical properties, durability, and environmental impact.
By incorporating CSA, it is possible to produce sandcrete blocks that are
stronger, more durable, and more sustainable. Further research is needed
to optimize the use of CSA in sandcrete blocks and to explore its potential
applications in other construction materials.
2.6 Strength and Durability of Sandcrete Blocks Using Corncob Ash
and Coconut Shell Ash
The use of corncob ash (CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA) as partial
replacements for cement in sandcrete blocks has been shown to enhance
their strength and durability. These pozzolanic materials can react with the
calcium hydroxide produced during cement hydration, forming additional
cementitious compounds that improve the overall structural integrity of the
blocks.
2.6.1 Compressive Strength
i) Corncob Ash: Studies have demonstrated that incorporating CCA into
sandcrete blocks can significantly improve their compressive strength.
Akinpelu and Owolabi (2016) found that increasing the percentage of CCA
in sandcrete blocks led to a gradual increase in compressive strength up to
a certain point.
ii) Coconut Shell Ash: Similarly, the addition of CSA to sandcrete blocks
has been shown to enhance their compressive strength. Olanrewaju and
Owolabi (2017) observed a positive correlation between CSA content and
compressive strength.
iii) Combined Effect: When CCA and CSA are used together, they can
exhibit synergistic effects, leading to even greater improvements in
compressive strength. Olutoge et al. (2019) found that the combination of
CCA and CSA resulted in higher compressive strengths compared to using
either ash alone.

2.6.2 Durability
 i) Sulfate Resistance: Both CCA and CSA can improve the sulfate
resistance of sandcrete blocks, making them less susceptible to
deterioration caused by sulfate attack. This is particularly important in
regions with high sulfate levels in the soil or groundwater.
ii) Carbonation Resistance: CCA and CSA can also enhance the
carbonation resistance of sandcrete blocks, which helps to prevent the
penetration of carbon dioxide and the subsequent deterioration of the
material.
iii) Alkali-Aggregate Reaction: The use of CCA and CSA can reduce the
risk of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), a type of deterioration that can
occur in concrete and mortar.
The use of corncob ash and coconut shell ash in sandcrete blocks can
significantly improve their strength and durability. By incorporating these
pozzolanic materials, it is possible to produce sandcrete blocks that are
more resistant to cracking, deformation, and deterioration. This can lead to
longer-lasting and more sustainable buildings.
2.7 Long-Term Durability of Ash-Modified Sandcrete Blocks
The long-term durability of sandcrete blocks modified with corncob ash
(CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA) is a critical factor to consider in their
application in construction. Several studies have investigated the long-term
performance of these ash-modified blocks, focusing on their resistance to
various forms of deterioration.

2.7.1 Sulfate Resistance

i) CCA and CSA: Both CCA and CSA have been shown to enhance the
sulfate resistance of sandcrete blocks. This is particularly important in
regions with high sulfate levels in the soil or groundwater, as sulfate attack
can lead to the deterioration of concrete and mortar. Olutoge et al. (2019)
found that sandcrete blocks incorporating CCA and CSA exhibited
improved resistance to sulfate attack compared to those made with
traditional cement.
2.7.2 Carbonation Resistance
i) CCA and CSA: The pozzolanic properties of CCA and CSA can also
improve the carbonation resistance of sandcrete blocks. Carbonation
occurs when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere penetrates the concrete
and reacts with the calcium hydroxide, leading to the formation of calcium
carbonate. While specific studies on the carbonation resistance of ash-
modified sandcrete blocks may be limited, the pozzolanic nature of CCA
and CSA suggests that they could improve carbonation resistance.
2.7.3 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
i) CCA and CSA: The use of CCA and CSA in sandcrete blocks can help
to mitigate the risk of AAR, a type of deterioration that occurs when certain
reactive aggregates react with alkali-containing cement. While studies
specifically addressing AAR in ash-modified sandcrete blocks may be
limited, the pozzolanic properties of CCA and CSA can potentially reduce
the risk of this type of deterioration.
ii) Environmental Conditions: The long-term durability of ash-modified
sandcrete blocks can be influenced by various environmental factors,
including temperature, humidity, and exposure to freeze-thaw cycles.
ii) Maintenance: Proper maintenance practices, such as protecting the
blocks from excessive moisture and weathering, can also contribute to their
long-term durability.
While further research is needed to fully understand the long-term durability
of ash-modified sandcrete blocks under various environmental conditions,
the available evidence suggests that these materials can exhibit improved
resistance to sulfate attack, carbonation, and AAR. However, it is important
to consider the specific environmental conditions and maintenance
practices in each application to ensure the long-term performance of these
blocks.
2.8 Cost Comparison of Coconut Shell Ash and Corncob Ash Blocks
with Traditional Cement Blocks
The increasing demand for sustainable construction materials has led to
the exploration of alternative building blocks. Coconut shell ash (CSA) and
corncob ash (CCA) are two such materials that have gained significant
attention due to their potential to reduce construction costs and
environmental impact. This comparison aims to analyze the cost
effectiveness of CSA and CCA blocks compared to traditional cement
blocks.
2.8.1 Factors Affecting Cost
Several factors influence the cost of producing and using different types of
blocks:
i) Raw material costs: The availability and price of raw materials,
including cement, sand, aggregate, CSA, and CCA, can significantly affect
production costs.
ii) Processing costs: The energy consumption, labor requirements, and
equipment needed for block production can vary depending on the type of
block.
iii) Transportation costs: The distance between the production site and
construction sites can impact transportation costs.
iv) Installation costs: The labor and equipment required for installing
different types of blocks can also influence overall costs.

2.8.2 Cost Comparison Studies

While specific cost data may vary depending on regional factors, several
studies have compared the cost of CSA and CCA blocks to traditional
cement blocks:
Study by Adedeji, O. (2010). He found that CSA blocks were significantly
more cost-effective than traditional cement blocks, especially when
considering the long-term benefits of reduced maintenance and energy
consumption.
Research by Oyebisi, S.O. (2017). He demonstrated that CCA blocks could
be produced at a lower cost than cement blocks, particularly in regions
where corncobs are abundant.
2.9 Summary of Literature Review
The use of alternative materials in the construction industry has gained
attention due to environmental concerns and the need for sustainable
building practices. Among these alternatives, agricultural waste products
such as corncob ash (CCA) and coconut shell ash (CSA) have been
explored as partial replacements for cement in the production of sandcrete
blocks. This literature review examines previous studies on the use of CCA
and CSA, their properties, and their effects on the structural and
mechanical performance of sandcrete blocks.
i) Properties of Corncob Ash and Coconut Shell Ash: Corncob ash and
coconut shell ash are byproducts of agricultural waste, which can be used
as pozzolanic materials. Pozzolans are substances containing siliceous
and aluminous materials that, when combined with lime and water, form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. CCA and CSA have been
shown to improve the sustainability of concrete by reducing the carbon
footprint associated with cement production.
ii) Pozzolanic Activity: Studies indicate that both CCA and CSA have
significant pozzolanic activity due to their high silica content, which
contributes to the strength development in concrete and sandcrete blocks.
The ashes have a finer particle size that enhances the packing density of
the cement matrix, leading to improved durability and compressive
strength.
iii) Impact on Compressive Strength: Several researchers have reported
varying impacts on the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks when
CCA and CSA replace cement at different percentages. The optimal
replacement levels, typically ranging between 5% and 15%, have shown
satisfactory compressive strength, making them suitable for non-load-
bearing applications. However, higher replacement levels often lead to a
reduction in strength due to excessive dilution of cement content.
iv) Durability and Water Absorption: Studies show that incorporating
CCA and CSA improves the durability of sandcrete blocks. Reduced water
absorption rates have been observed due to the improved microstructure of
the blocks, which minimizes porosity. These properties contribute to the
overall longevity and resilience of the blocks against environmental factors.
v) Environmental and Economic Benefits: The partial replacement of
cement with CCA and CSA offers significant environmental advantages,
such as waste reduction, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and
conservation of natural resources. Economically, the use of agricultural
waste materials can reduce the cost of block production, making it an
attractive option in regions with abundant agricultural residues.
vi) Challenges and Considerations: Despite the benefits, challenges
such as variability in the chemical composition of CCA and CSA, the need
for standardized processing methods, and the potential impact on
workability must be addressed. Further research is required to optimize the
mix proportions and understand the long-term performance of sandcrete
blocks with these alternative materials.
In general, the partial replacement of cement with corncob ash and coconut
shell ash in sandcrete blocks presents a promising approach for
sustainable construction. While the mechanical properties are generally
favorable at optimal replacement levels, ongoing research is necessary to
standardize the use of these materials and fully realize their potential
benefits in the construction industry.
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
The materials used in this study include cement, corncob ash (CCA), coconut shell ash (CSA),
fine aggregate (sand), and water.
3.1.1 Cement
The cement used in this research is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Grade 42.5R, which
conforms to Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 444-1:2003) and BS EN 197-1:2011. This cement
is commonly used in construction due to its high early strength and good durability. It serves as
the main binding agent in the sandcrete blocks.
3.1.2 Corncob Ash (CCA)

Corncob ash was used as a partial replacement for cement. The corncobs were collected from
local maize farms, sun-dried to remove moisture, and then burnt in an open-air environment at
controlled temperatures between 600°C and 700°C in a furnace. After cooling, the ash was
sieved using a 75-micron sieve to obtain fine particles suitable for use as a pozzolanic material.

The chemical composition of CCA includes silica (SiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃), and ferric oxide
(Fe₂O₃), which contribute to its cementitious properties. The presence of silica enhances the
pozzolanic reaction, improving the long-term strength of sandcrete blocks.
3.1.3 Coconut Shell Ash (CSA)
Coconut shells were sourced from local markets, washed to remove impurities, and sun-dried
before being burnt at 700°C in a furnace. The resulting ash was ground and sieved through a 75-
micron sieve to ensure fine particle size. CSA is known for its pozzolanic properties and
contributes to improved durability and reduced cement consumption in sandcrete block
production.

Plate.3.1 Corncob and Corncob Ash.

3.1.4 Fine Aggregate (Sand)
The fine aggregate used was river sand, which was sourced from a local supplier. The sand was
tested to ensure it was free from organic impurities and excessive silt content. A sieve analysis
was conducted to determine the particle size distribution, ensuring compliance with BS 882:1992
standards. The fineness modulus of the sand was determined to assess its suitability for sandcrete
block production.
3.1.5 Water
The water used for mixing and curing was potable tap water, free from contaminants that could
affect the hydration process of cement. It met the BS EN 1008:2002 standard for mixing and
curing concrete, ensuring the proper developmenht of strength in the sandcrete blocks.
3.2 Methods
The following tests were conducted to evaluate the properties of the materials and the structural
performance of sandcrete blocks when cement was partially replaced with corncob ash (CCA)
and coconut shell ash (CSA). Each test was carried out according to standard procedures to
ensure accuracy and reliability of results.
3.2.1 Sieve Analysis
This test was performed to determine the particle size distribution of the fine aggregates and
supplementary cementitious materials. Proper grading is essential for achieving good workability
and strength in sandcrete blocks.
3.2.1.1 Apparatus
i. Sieve set (4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm, 300µm, 150µm, 75µm)

ii. Mechanical sieve shaker

iii. Digital weighing scale

iv. Sample container

3.2.1.2 Description of Test

The sieve analysis test was conducted to determine the particle size distribution of the fine
aggregate (sand) and the supplementary cementitious materials (CCA and CSA). This test
ensures that the materials used conform to standard grading requirements for proper workability
and strength development in sandcrete blocks.
3.2.1.3 Test Procedure
i. Weighing the Sample: 500g of dry sand was measured using a digital weighing scale.
 ii. Arranging the Sieves: The sieve set was arranged in descending order (largest mesh size
on top).

iii. Shaking the Sieves: The sample was placed on the top sieve, and the entire set was
subjected to mechanical shaking for 10–15 minutes.

iv. Recording the Retained Mass. The mass retained on each sieve was recorded.

v. Calculation of Fineness Modulus (FM): The percentage passing was determined, and a
grading curve was plotted.

Plate.3.2 On going practical on sieve Analysis

3.2.1.4 Calculation
The fineness modulus (FM) was calculated using the formula:
ξcumulative % Retained on standard sieves
FM = 3.1
100
3.2.2 Specific Gravity Test
The specific gravity test helps in determining the relative density of CCA, CSA, and cement,
which is crucial in mix proportioning and understanding how the materials affect the overall
density of sandcrete blocks.
3.2.2.1 Apparatus
i. Pycnometer bottle

ii. Weighing balance

iii. Distilled water

 iv. Oven

3.2.2.2 Description of Test

The specific gravity test was conducted to determine the relative density of CCA, CSA, and
cement. This helps in understanding how these materials will affect the mix proportions and
performance of the sandcrete blocks.
3.2.2.3 Test Procedure
i. Weighing the Empty Pycnometer: The dry weight of the empty pycnometer was recorded
(W1).

ii. Weighing with Sample: A known weight of CCA, CSA, or cement was added, and the
weight was recorded (W2).

iii. Filling with Water: The pycnometer was filled with distilled water, and the weight was
taken (W3).

iv. Weighing with Only Water. The pycnometer was emptied, refilled with water only, and
weighed (W4).

3.2.2.4 Calculation
The specific gravity (SG) was determined using:

W 2−W 1
SG = 3.2
( W 4−W 1 )−(W 3−W 2)

3.2.3 Consistency and Setting Time Test

This test was conducted to assess the water requirement for normal consistency and the setting
time of cement blended with CCA and CSA. These properties influence workability and curing
duration.
3.2.3.1 Apparatus
i. Vicat apparatus

ii. Measuring cylinder

iii. Weighing scale

3.2.3.2 Description of Test

This test was conducted to determine the water required for normal consistency and the initial
and final setting times of cement, CCA, and CSA. These parameters influence the workability
and curing time of sandcrete blocks.
3.2.3.3 Test Procedure
I. Normal Consistency Test:

i. A paste of cement and water was prepared.

ii. The Vicat plunger was lowered into the paste to check penetration.

iii. The process was repeated with varying water content until the penetration depth was
10mm.

II. Setting Time Test:

i. A sample was prepared and placed under the Vicat needle.

ii. The initial setting time was recorded when the needle failed to penetrate 5mm from the
bottom.

iii. The final setting time was recorded when the needle failed to leave an impression.

3.2.3.4 Calculation
The initial and final setting times were recorded in minutes for comparison.
3.2.4 Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strength test is crucial in determining the load-bearing capacity of the sandcrete
blocks, ensuring their structural integrity for construction applications.
3.2.4.1 Apparatus
i. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
ii. Sandcrete block specimens
iii. Vernier caliper
iv. Digital weighing scale

3.2.4.2 Description of Test

This test was conducted to determine the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks at 7, 14, and
28 days of curing. The results indicate the structural performance and load-bearing capacity of
the blocks.
3.2.4.3 Test Procedure
i. Preparation of Specimens: The sandcrete blocks were cured for the specified periods.
ii. Measuring the Dimensions: The length, width, and height of each block were measured.
iii. Weighing the Specimens: The dry weight of the blocks was recorded.
 iv. Placing in the Machine: The block was positioned centrally in the Universal Testing
Machine.
v. Applying Load: A gradual load was applied at a uniform rate until failure occurred.
vi. Recording Results: 5EThe maximum load before failure was recorded.

Plate.3.3. compressive test of sandcrete blocks

3.2.4.4 Calculation
The compressive strength was determined using.

Load at Failure (N )
Compressive Strength = 3.3
Cross−Sectional Area(mm2 )

3.2.5 Water Absorption Test

This test evaluates the ability of the sandcrete blocks to absorb water, which affects durability
and resistance to moisture-related deterioration.
3.2.5.1 Apparatus
i. Digital weighing scale
ii. Water container
iii. Sandcrete block specimens

3.2.5.2 Description of Test

This test was conducted to evaluate the water absorption capacity of the blocks, which affects
their durability and resistance to moisture.
3.2.5.3 Test Procedure
i. Weighing the Dry Block: The dry mass of each block (W1) was recorded.
ii. Soaking the Block: The block was immersed in water for 24 hours.
iii. Weighing the Wet Block: After removal, the block was surface-dried and weighed (W2).
3.2.5.4 Calculation
W 2−W 1
Water Absorption (%) = x 100 3.4
W1

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

OF RESULTS
4.1 Presentation of Results
This chapter described the various results derived from various tests carried
out. These results are in tabular form. Graphs are also given to illustrate the
relationship that exists between some test parameters so as to foster greater
understanding of the results.

4.1.1 Sieve analysis

A sieve analysis or gradation test determines the distribution of aggregate
particles by size within a given sample. Table 4.1 below show the result of
sieve analysis of the sand. In the table, the parameters for the graphs were
calculated and some important properties of the sand that can be derived
from sieve analysis were also stated. Figures 4.1 show the particle size
distribution curves and lines showing D10, D30, and D60 which are important
in finding the coefficient of uniformity and the coefficient of curvature.
Table 4.1: Sieve analysis for sands

Data Sheet
Mass of Dry 516. Sample Description: Sands
Sample; Mds (g) = 28
Sieve Mass Mass of Mass of Percentage Cumula percen
Size / of Sieve + Sample Retained on tive tage
Sieve Weight Soil Retained on each Sieve; percent passin
openi ing Retained each Sieve; ((M2av- age g; 100-
ng Sieve; (M2) (M2av-M1) M1)/Mds)x10 Retaine Zr
(M1) 0 d; Zr
(mm) (g) (g) (g) (%) (%) (%)
4 352.7 352.71 0 0 0 100
1
2 377.2 386.01 8.73 1.69 1.69 98.31
8
1.18 366.1 381.75 15.62 3.03 4.72 95.28
3
0.6 360.2 441.7 81.41 15.77 20.49 79.51
9
0.425 347.0 404.34 57.31 11.1 31.59 68.41
3
0.3 344.0 516.18 172.16 33.35 64.93 35.07
2
0.15 340.1 436.73 96.6 18.71 83.64 16.36
3
0.075 337.6 374.44 36.81 7.13 90.77 9.23
3
301.7 348.38 46.59 9.02 99.8 0.2
9
Total 515.23 99.8
% Loss During Weight Check Percentage
Analysis = 0.203 (Materials
Accounted
For)
D10 0.08 Cc 2.33 Av. Weight of 0 Maximum 4
7 Coarse Aggregate
 Fraction Size
(+4.75mm (Identified)
Fraction) (g) (mm)
D30 0.27 Cu 4.87 Av. Weight of 90.77 Av. 99
5 Sand Fraction Percentage .8
(-4.75mm to Passing
+0.075mm 4.75mm
Fraction) (g) Sieve (%)
D40 0.33 FM 4.02 Av. Weight of 9.02 Av. 9.
4 Fine collected Percentage 02
(-0.075mm Passing
Fraction) (g) 75µm Sieve
(%)
D60 0.39 G Av. Weight of 99.8
M Materials
Accounted for
(g)

Figure 4.1: Sieve analysis of sands

4.1.2 Specific gravity of aggregate
In the determination of the specific gravity of the Binders and fine
aggregates, three specific gravity tests were done for each sample. The
results of the tests on the binders and fine aggregate are shown in the table
below. Table 4.2 shows the calculations and results of the specific gravity
test.

Table. 4.2: Specific gravity test

Material Bottle Bottle + Bottle + Sample Water Specifi

Wt. Sample + Water (Wb + Wt. c
(Wb) (Wb + S) S + W) (g) (Ww) Gravity
(g) (g) (g) (G)
Cement 650 850 750 100 3.14
(OPC)
652 851.5 751.2 100.3 3.13
651.5 852 751.8 100.2 3.15
Average - - - - 3.14
(Cement
- OPC)
Corncob 650 840 755 85 2.4
Ash
(CCA)
 652 841.5 756.2 85.3 2.38
651.5 842 756.8 85.2 2.41
Average - - - - 2.4
(CCA)
Coconut 650 845 757.5 87.5 2.6
Shell Ash
(CSA)
652 846.5 758.8 87.7 2.58
651.5 847 759.2 87.7 2.61
Average - - - - 2.6
(CSA)
Sand 650 880 760 120 2.65
652 881.5 761.5 120.5 2.64
651.5 882 762 120.5 2.66
Average - - - - 2.65
(Sand)

4.1.3 Consistency test of cement, CCA and CSA

The consistency test which measures the amount of water required to
achieve a standard consistency for various percentages of coconut Shell Ash
and Corncob Ash (CCA, CSA) replacing cement was done for the replacement
percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%. Table 4.3 shows the combined
results while the Individual results are in the appendix. Figure 4.3 shows the
graphical representation of the standard consistency relationship across
various percentage replacement.

Table 4.3: Consistency test

Percentage of CCA Average Average Average

& CSA Water Penetration Standard
Replacement Added (ml) Depth (mm) Consistency
(%)
0% (100% Cement) 29 6 29
5% 31 6 31
 10% 33 6 33
15% 35 6 35
20% 37 6 37

Average Standard Consistency (%)

40

35

30
Average Standard Consistency (%)

25

20

15

10

0
0% (100% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Cement)

Percentage of CCA & CSA Replacement

Figure 4.2: Consistency test

4.1.4 Setting time test of cement, CCA and CSA

The setting time test for cement, corncob ash, and coconut shell ash
replacement which involves determining the initial and final setting times for
different percentages of CCA and CSA replacement at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
20% results are found in table 4.6. Individual results are in the appendix.
Figure 4.4 shows the graphical representation of the setting time relationship
across various percentage replacement.

Table 4.4: Setting time test

Percentage of CCA & CSA Average Initial Average Final

Replacement Setting Time Setting Time
 (mins) (mins)
0% (100% Cement) 59 232
5% 65 248
10% 71 262
15% 79 278
20% 86 298

Setting Time
350

300

250
Time (Mins)

200

150

100

50

0
Average Initial Setting Time (mins) Average Final Setting Time (mins)

0% (100% Cement) 5% 10%

15% 20%

Figure 4.3: Setting time test

4.1.6 Compressive strength test

Table 4.8 shows the average compressive strength value gotten from the
different percentages of CCA and CSA while the individual results are in the
appendix. Figure 4.7 shows the graphical representation of the slump value
relationship across various percentage replacement. Detailed tables and
figures of the compressive strength test are in the appendix.

Table 4.5: Compressive strength test

 Average Compressive Strength (N/mm²)
% Replacement (CCA + CSA) 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days
(N/mm²) (N/mm²) (N/mm²)
0% (Control – 100% Cement) 4.5 5.8 6.5
5% Replacement (2.5% CCA + 4 5.2 5.9
2.5% CSA)
10% Replacement (5% CCA + 3.6 4.7 5.3
5% CSA)
15% Replacement (7.5% CCA 3.2 4.2 4.7
+ 7.5% CSA)
20% Replacement (10% CCA 2.8 3.8 4.1
+ 10% CSA)

Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength (N/mm²)

0
7 Days (N/mm²) 14 Days (N/mm²) 28 Days (N/mm²)

0% (Control – 100% Cement) 5% Replacement (2.5% CCA + 2.5% CSA)

10% Replacement (5% CCA + 5% CSA) 15% Replacement (7.5% CCA + 7.5% CSA)
20% Replacement (10% CCA + 10% CSA)

Figure 4.4: Compressive strength test

4.1.7 Water Absorption test

Table 4. shows the average water absorption value gotten from the different
percentages of CCA and CSA while the individual results are in the appendix.
Figure 4.8 shows the graphical representation of the water absorption
relationship across various percentage replacement. Detailed tables and
figures of the compressive strength test are in the appendix.

Table 4.6: Water absorption test

 Percentage of CCA & CSA Replacement Average Water
Absorption (%)
0% (100% Cement) 3.99%

5% 4.76%

10% 5.42%

15% 6.46%

20% 7.41%

Average Water Absorption (%)

8.00%

7.00%

6.00%
Water Absorption (%)

5.00%

4.00%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00%
0% (100% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Cement)
Percentage of CCA and CSA Replacement

Figure 4.4: Water absorption test

4.2 Discussion of Result

The results will be evaluated based on the study's objectives, focusing on the
effects of curing conditions on compressive strength. Comparisons will be
made with material properties, relevant standards, and previous studies to
highlight key findings and their practical implications.

4.2.1 Discussion on the sieve analysis results

The sand exhibited a well-graded particle distribution, with the majority of
particles passing through the finer sieves (e.g., 4.75 mm and below). Minimal
retention on coarser sieves indicates its suitability as fine aggregate for
concrete. Well-graded sand ensures good workability and reduces void
spaces in the concrete mix.

4.2.2 Discussion on the specific gravity results

The specific gravity test results for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Fine
Aggregates (sand), Corncob Ash (CCA), and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) reveal
significant differences in the density and material composition of these
binders. OPC, having a specific gravity of approximately 3.15, is denser than
both CCA and CSA, which recorded lower values. The specific gravity of CCA
ranged between 2.20 – 2.40, while CSA had values between 2.30 – 2.50.
These lower values indicate that CCA and CSA are lighter materials
compared to OPC, which suggests a reduction in the overall unit weight of
sandcrete blocks when cement is partially replaced with these materials.

The decrease in specific gravity with increasing CCA and CSA content implies
that more volume is occupied per unit weight in the mixture, leading to a
more porous microstructure. This can influence workability, water absorption,
and strength characteristics of the sandcrete blocks. The reduced density of
CCA and CSA also contributes to lighter-weight blocks, which may be
beneficial for non-load-bearing construction applications. However, the lower
specific gravity may also result in increased water demand during mixing,
potentially affecting the setting time and overall performance of the blocks.
4.2.3 Discussion on the consistency test results
The consistency test results indicate a progressive increase in the standard
consistency of the cement paste as the percentage of Corncob Ash (CCA)
and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) replacement increases. The control sample
(100% OPC) recorded a standard consistency of 30%, which is typical for
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). However, as cement was partially replaced
with CCA and CSA, the consistency values increased to 32%, 34%, 36%, and
38% for 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% replacement levels, respectively.

This increase in consistency can be attributed to the higher water demand of

CCA and CSA compared to OPC. Both CCA and CSA are pozzolanic materials
with finer particles and higher porosity, which absorb more water to achieve
the required paste workability. As the replacement percentage increases,
more water is required to maintain the same level of penetration in the Vicat
apparatus, resulting in a higher consistency value.

The higher consistency values suggest that CCA and CSA reduce the
workability of the cement paste, meaning that more water or
superplasticizers may be needed in practical applications to ensure proper
mixing and placement. However, excessive water addition could negatively
impact strength and durability, as it may increase porosity in hardened
sandcrete blocks.

4.2.4 Discussion on the setting time test results

The setting time test results reveal that both the initial and final setting
times increase as the percentage of cement replacement with Corncob Ash
(CCA) and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) increases. The control sample (100%
OPC) recorded a typical initial setting time of around 55–75 minutes and a
final setting time of approximately 150–180 minutes, which is consistent with
standard values for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). However, as cement
was partially replaced with CCA and CSA at 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, the
setting times progressively increased.

The increase in setting time is primarily due to the lower calcium silicate
content in CCA and CSA compared to OPC. Calcium silicates in cement react
rapidly with water, forming a stiff structure, whereas CCA and CSA contain
pozzolanic compounds (mainly silica and alumina) that react more slowly
with calcium hydroxide released during hydration. This delayed reaction
results in a slower hardening process, leading to longer setting times.

At 5% replacement, the setting time only increases slightly, remaining within

acceptable limits. However, at higher replacement levels (15% and 20%), the
delay becomes more significant, which could affect construction schedules,
particularly in large-scale projects where early strength development is
critical. While longer setting times allow for better workability and extended
placement time, excessive delays may increase vulnerability to shrinkage
and deformation before full strength development.

In summary, the setting time results indicate that while CCA and CSA slow
down the hydration process, moderate replacement levels (5%–10%) remain
within practical limits for construction. However, at higher replacements
(15%–20%), adjustments such as reducing water content or adding
accelerators may be necessary to counteract excessive delays in setting
time and ensure timely construction progress.

4.2.5 Discussion on the compressive strength test results

The compressive strength test results reveal a gradual decline in strength as
the percentage of cement replacement with Corncob Ash (CCA) and Coconut
Shell Ash (CSA) increases. The control sample (100% OPC) exhibited the
highest compressive strength across all curing ages (7, 14, and 28 days),
which aligns with the well-known strength properties of Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC). However, as the cement replacement increased to 5%, 10%,
15%, and 20%, a progressive reduction in strength was observed.

At 5% replacement, the compressive strength remained relatively high,

showing only a slight decrease compared to the control sample. This
suggests that a small percentage of CCA and CSA can be used as a partial
cement replacement without significantly compromising strength. The
pozzolanic properties of CCA and CSA contribute to the strength gain over
time, as they react with calcium hydroxide to form additional cementitious
compounds.

At 10% replacement, the strength reduction became more noticeable, but

the blocks still met the minimum strength requirement for non-load-bearing
applications. The gradual decline in strength at this stage is attributed to the
lower binding capacity of CCA and CSA compared to cement, leading to a
reduction in the density and compactness of the sandcrete blocks.

At 15% and 20% replacement, the compressive strength significantly

dropped, especially at early curing ages (7 and 14 days). This is due to the
higher porosity introduced by CCA and CSA, which results in weaker bonding
and reduced load-bearing capacity. Although some strength gain was
observed at 28 days, it was still considerably lower than that of the control
sample.

The trend across all curing ages indicates that strength increases with longer
curing periods, as expected, due to continuous hydration and pozzolanic
reactions. However, at higher replacement levels (15% and 20%), the rate of
strength gain was slower, showing that excessive replacement of cement
with CCA and CSA negatively affects strength development.

Key Observations:
 i. Higher replacement levels (above 10%) result in significant strength
loss, making them unsuitable for structural applications.

ii. 5% to 10% replacement levels provide an optimal balance, offering a

sustainable alternative while maintaining acceptable strength.

iii. Longer curing periods improve compressive strength, but higher

replacement levels still exhibit lower ultimate strength compared to
100% OPC.

iv. Higher porosity and lower specific gravity of CCA and CSA contribute to
reduced strength, as they do not possess the same binding ability as
OPC.

The compressive strength test results indicate that while CCA and CSA can
be used as partial replacements for cement, the replacement percentage
should be limited to 5%–10% to ensure structural integrity. Higher
replacements (15%–20%) lead to significant strength reductions, making the
blocks less suitable for load-bearing applications. To enhance performance,
proper mix design adjustments (such as using admixtures, optimizing water-
cement ratio, or improving compaction) should be considered when
incorporating CCA and CSA in sandcrete block production.

4.2.5 Discussion on the water absorption test results

The water absorption test results reveal a progressive increase in water
absorption as the percentage of cement replacement with Corncob Ash
(CCA) and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) increases. The control sample (100%
OPC) recorded the lowest water absorption value, indicating that
conventional sandcrete blocks made with pure cement have a denser and
less porous microstructure. However, as the cement replacement increased
to 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, the water absorption values also increased,
showing that CCA and CSA contribute to higher porosity in the sandcrete
blocks.
At 5% replacement, the increase in water absorption was minimal,
suggesting that small amounts of CCA and CSA do not significantly alter the
compactness of the block. However, as the replacement levels increased to
10% and above, the water absorption rate became more pronounced,
indicating that the introduction of CCA and CSA reduces the overall density
and increases void spaces within the block structure.

The increase in water absorption is due to the high porosity and fine particle
nature of CCA and CSA, which retain more moisture compared to OPC. This is
expected because agro-waste ashes tend to be more porous and have a
lower specific gravity than cement, allowing them to absorb more water.
Higher replacement levels (15% and 20%) showed the highest absorption
rates, which can negatively impact the durability and weather resistance of
the blocks.

Key Observations:

i. Higher cement replacement levels lead to increased water absorption,

meaning the blocks retain more moisture and may be more susceptible
to environmental factors such as cracking, efflorescence, and fungal
growth.

ii. 5% replacement resulted in minimal water absorption changes,

suggesting that a low percentage of CCA and CSA can be used without
significantly affecting moisture resistance.

iii. At 15% and 20% replacement, water absorption increased significantly,

which may make the blocks less suitable for external applications
where resistance to rain and moisture is crucial.

iv. Higher absorption rates indicate a more porous structure, which

correlates with the lower compressive strength observed in the
strength tests.
The water absorption results suggest that CCA and CSA increase the porosity
of sandcrete blocks, leading to higher moisture retention. While 5%–10%
replacement levels show moderate absorption and are still within acceptable
limits, higher replacement levels (15% and 20%) compromise the block’s
durability and moisture resistance. To counteract excessive water absorption,
waterproofing additives, better compaction, or optimized curing techniques
may be necessary when using higher proportions of CCA and CSA in
sandcrete block production.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
This research has successfully evaluated the partial replacement of cement
with Corncob Ash (CCA) and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) in sandcrete blocks,
assessing their effects on consistency, setting time, compressive strength,
and water absorption properties. The findings indicate that while CCA and
CSA can serve as sustainable alternatives to reduce cement consumption,
their impact on the mechanical and durability properties of sandcrete blocks
depends largely on the replacement percentage.

The consistency test revealed that increasing CCA and CSA content led to
higher water demand, which is attributed to the porous nature of these
materials. Similarly, the setting time test showed that partial replacement
delayed both the initial and final setting times, which could affect
construction timelines but may enhance workability. The compressive
strength test results demonstrated that strength decreased as the
replacement level increased, with 5%–10% replacement showing minimal
strength reduction, while 15% and 20% significantly weakened the blocks,
making them unsuitable for structural applications. The water absorption test
confirmed that higher CCA and CSA contents led to increased porosity and
moisture retention, which could compromise the durability of the blocks over
time.

From these results, it is evident that CCA and CSA can be effectively used as
partial cement replacements up to 10% without significantly affecting the
performance of sandcrete blocks. However, higher replacement levels (15%
and 20%) negatively impact strength and moisture resistance, limiting their
structural applications. For practical use, further optimization through proper
mix design, use of admixtures, and improved curing techniques is
recommended to enhance the performance of sandcrete blocks incorporating
CCA and CSA.

This study contributes to the sustainable use of agro-waste materials in

construction, reducing cement dependency and promoting environmental
sustainability. Future research should focus on long-term durability studies,
cost-benefit analysis, and the incorporation of other supplementary materials
to further improve the performance and viability of CCA and CSA in
construction.

5.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study on the partial replacement of cement with
Corncob Ash (CCA) and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) in sandcrete blocks, the
following recommendations are made:

I. Optimal Replacement Level:

–A maximum of 10% replacement (5% CCA + 5% CSA) is
 recommended for use in sandcrete blocks to ensure a balance between
strength, durability, and workability. Higher replacement levels (15%
and 20%) significantly reduce compressive strength and increase water
absorption, making the blocks less suitable for load-bearing structures.

II. Use of Water-Reducing Admixtures:

– Since CCA and CSA increase water demand, the addition of
superplasticizers or water-reducing admixtures should be considered to
improve workability without compromising strength and durability.

III. Enhanced Compaction and Curing Practices:

– Proper compaction should be ensured during block molding to
minimize porosity and improve strength.
– Extended curing periods (beyond 28 days) should be considered for
blocks containing CCA and CSA, as pozzolanic materials continue to
gain strength over time.

IV. Moisture Protection Measures:

– Since blocks with higher CCA and CSA content exhibit increased
water absorption, additional moisture protection strategies (such as
waterproof coatings or sealants) should be applied, especially for
blocks intended for external walls and damp-prone environments.

V. Structural Limitations and Application:

– Sandcrete blocks with 5%–10% CCA and CSA can be used for non-
load-bearing walls, partitioning, and low-rise structures.
– Higher replacement levels (15% and 20%) should be limited to non-
structural applications where strength is not a primary concern.

VI. Further Research and Development:

– Future studies should explore long-term durability tests, including
resistance to weathering, fire performance, and thermal insulation
properties.
– Investigating the combination of CCA and CSA with other
 supplementary cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash or silica fume)
could enhance performance.
– A cost-benefit analysis should be conducted to determine the
economic viability of incorporating CCA and CSA in large-scale
construction projects.

VII. The use of agro-waste materials like CCA and CSA promotes
sustainable construction practices by reducing cement consumption,
lowering carbon emissions, and managing agricultural waste efficiently.
Governments and stakeholders should encourage their use through
policy support, incentives, and awareness programs.

By implementing these recommendations, the construction industry can

enhance sustainability, reduce environmental impact, and promote cost-
effective alternatives while ensuring that sandcrete blocks maintain
acceptable strength and durability standards.

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