LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No Date Experiments Pg.No Marks Sign

1. IDENTIFICATION OF FIELD AND
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
2. SEEDS - ESTIMATION OF SEED RATE,
GERMINATION OF SEEDS AND PRACTICING
THINNING, GAP FILLING OPERATIONS
FOR OPTIMUM CROP STAND AND
INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
3. NURSERY, DEMONSTRATION ON
DIFFERENT TYPES IN FIELD
4. IDENTIFICATION OF SEEDS, MANURES,
FERTILIZERS, GREEN MANURES and
GREEN LEAF MANAURES.

5. IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS, WEEDING

PRACTICES AND HANDLING OF WEEDING
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
6. WEEDICIDE USES AND CAUTION.
7. PEST IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL,
DEMONSTRATION OF IPM METHODS

8. HARVESTING METHODS FOR VARIOUS

FIELD AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS AND
IMPLEMENTS USED
9. DOCUMENTING OF GROWTH STAGE AND
RECORDING OF BIOMETRIC
OBSERVATIONS.
10. WORKING OUT MANURE AND
FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
 Ex.No: 1 IDENTIFICATION OF FIELD AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Farm location:
The farm located at Paravai in Madurai district. It is situated at 10 km from Centre of
Madurai. It is located at 9.96oN latitude, 78.06oE longitude and altitude at 134 m MSL.
Mean weather data
Maximum temperature (oC) : 32.8 Evaporation (mm day-1) : 6.0
Minimum temperature (oC) : 23. 7 Sunshine (hrs.) : 6.8
Relative humidity (%) : 78.9 Rainfall (mm) : 697.2
Wind velocity (km h-1) : 7.9 Rainy days : 41.3
Irrigation source
The main irrigation source supported by open and borewells. Canal water is pumped by
one 40 HP and one 25 HP motor. Water is available in the canal for ten months from June to
March.
Soil
The wet land soil is clay gravel while the garden and dry land soils are black gravel. The
pH is 6.8 to 8.1. The nitrogen status of the soil is low (132-250 kg ha-1) white phosphorus and
potassium content are high with the values of 11-45 and 120-630 kg ha-1 respectively.
Wetland
Land under gravitational water flow from river or tank irrigation system is generally
called wet land. There is standing water. Mostly crops that require more water are grown in this
area. Rice is the predominated crop. The other major wet land crops are banana, sugarcane,
turmeric etc. these crops are grown in wet lands having proper drainage facilities.
Major rice Oryza sativa season in Tamil Nadu
Month Season Duration of variety
December – January Navarai Below 120 days
April – May Sornavarai ‘’
April – May Advance Kar in Tirunelveli ‘’
and Thoothukudi district
May – June Kar ‘’
June – July Kuruvai ‘’
July – August Early samba 130 – 135 days
August Samba ‘’
September – October Late samba / Thaladi / ‘’
Pishanam
October – November Late Thaladi / Late Phisanam ‘’

Duration of rice varieties (days)

Short duration : TKM 9 (100 - 105), ADT 36 (110), IR 50 (105), TPS 1
(110 - 115), PMK 1 (110 - 115), ASD 41 (105 - 110),
ASD 18 (105 - 110), JJ 92 or ADT 41 (105 - 110), ADT
42 (110 - 115), CORH 1 (110 - 115), MDU 5 (95 - 110),
ASD 20 (110), ADT 43 (110), ADT 45 (110), TRY (R) 2
(115 - 120) and TKM (R) 12 (115 - 120)
Medium duration CO 43 (135 - 140), IR 20 (130 - 135), ADT 39 (120 -
125), ASD 19 (127), ADT (R) 44 (140 - 150) AND
White Ponni (135)
Long duration Ponmani (155 - 160), Paiyur 1 (150), ADT 40 (140 - 150)
and ADT 44 (145 - 150)

Rice fallow crops

Blackgram : ADT 3, ADT 5, TMV 1
Greengram : ADT 3, VBN 1
Soybean : ADT 1
Gingelly : SVPR 1, TMV 3
Cotton : MCU 7, SVPR 1, ADT 1, LRA 5166

Banana : Poovan, Rasthali, Morris (Dwarf cavendish)

Pacchanadan, Red banana (12 – 13 months)
Cooking variety : Monthan, Nendran, Chakkai.

Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum

Main season
Early : December – January
Mid : February – March
Late : April – May
Special season : June – July

Other crops
Green manure crop
Daincha : Sesbania aculeate
Sunhemp : Crotalaria juncea
Manilaagathi : Sesbania rostrata
Agathi : Sesbania grandiflora

GERDEN LAND
Garden land is one, where the water table is high. There will be sufficient amount of water;
however, water stagnation will not be there. In garden land underground wells are dug and water
is lifted through various sources like oil motor, electrical motor, etc. the crops grown in this area
requires less water for their growth and developments. They are mostly rain fed crops, but
cultivated under irrigated condition. Hence frequently these crops are called ID crops (irrigated
dry crops).
The major crops is garden land are sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), cumbu (Pennisetum
glacum), ragi (Eleusine coracana), maize (Zea mays), minor millets like thenai (Setaria italic),
panivaragu (Panicum miliaceum ),samai (Panicum miliare), varagu (Paspaluim searobiculatum )
and kudiraivalli (Echinochola colona). Pulses like redgram (Cajanus cajan), blackgram (Vigna
mungo), greengram (Vigna radiate), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), soybean (Glycine max) and
horse gram (Macrotyoma unifloram) are also grow. Apart from the above, groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea), sesamum (Sesamum indicm), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), castor (Ricinus
communis), and cotton (Gossypium hersutum) are also grown in garden land.
Season
It is a part of the year comprising few months during which the prevailing weather
condition will be more or less similar.
Major garden land season
Thaipattam - January - February Chithiraipattam -April -May
Adipattam - June - July Puratasipattam -September – October
Marghazipattam - December –January
MAJOR GARDEN LAND CROPS, VARIETY AND DURATION
Variety Duration (days) Variety Duration (days)
Sorghum Ragi
K7 : 105-110 CO 13 : 95-100
K8 : 85 K7 : 95-100
CO 25 : 115 -120 CO 11 : 90-95
CO 21 : 100-105 CO 7 : 100
K4 : 90 TRY 1 : 102
COH3 : 105-110 K5 : 105
CO26 : 150 -110 CO12 : 110-120
COH 4 : 105 Maize
BSR 1 : 105 – 110 CO 1 : 105 – 110
K Tall : 90 COH 3 : 100
APK 1 : 105 – 110 CO BC 1 (Baby corn) : 55 – 65
CSK : 100 Ganga 5 : 100 – 110
K9 : 120 K1 : 80 – 85
COH 1 : 90 – 95
COH 2 : 100 - 105

Cumbu
WCC 7 : 95 X6 : 90 – 100
K3 : 85 X7 : 90
CO 7 : 90 – 100 K4HB : 110
Thenai : CO 4 (65), CO 5 (90), CO 6 (85 - 90) and K 3 (82)
Samai : CO 2 (55), CO 3 (80 - 95), Paiyur 1 (105) and K 1 (100)
Varagu : K1 (70), CO 3 (80 - 95), APK 1 (100) and Vamban (95 - 100)
Panivaragu : K1 (7), K 2 (75), CO 2 (80), CO 3 (80) and CO 4 (75)
Kuduraivalli : CO 1 (105) and K 2 (90)
Wheat : HD 2189 (85 - 90)and DWR 39 (85 - 90)
Variety Duration (days) Variety Duration (days)
Redgram Hoursegram
SA 1 : 180 CO 1 : 110
CO 3 : 130 Paiyur 1 : 110
CO 4 : 130 Paiyur 2 : 100 – 105
CO 5 : 110 Bengalgram
BSR 1 : 180 CO 2 : 90
CO 6 : 170 – 180 CO 3 : 85
Vamban : 95 – 100 CO 4 : 80 – 85
COH 1 : 115 – 120 Soybean
COH 2 : 120 – 130 CO 1 : 85
Blackgram ADT 1 : 85 – 90
CO 4 : 75 CO 2 : 75 – 80
CO 5 : 70 – 75 Groundnut
VBN 1 : 60 – 65 TMV 7 : 100 – 105
T9 : 65 – 70 TMV 10 : 120 – 135
ADT 3 : 70 – 75 CO 1 : 100 – 105
ADT 5 : 65 CO 2 : 100 – 105
K1 : 70 – 75 VRI 4 : 105 – 110
VBN 2 : 60 – 70 BSR 1 : 100 – 105
Greengram Gingelly
ADT 3 : 65 VRI 1 : 70 – 75
KM 2 : 65 – 70 SVPR 1 : 75 – 80
VBN 1 : 65 Paiyur 1 : 90
CO 5 : 70 – 75 TMV 6 : 85 – 90
K1 : 70 – 75 Castor
CO 4 : 85 TMV 5 : 4 months
Cowpea TMV 6 : 160
CO 2 : 90 TMVCH 1 : 160 – 170
CO 3 : 80 CO 1 : Perennial
CO 4 : 85
KM 1 : 60 – 65
Paiyur 1 : 90
CO 6 : 65 – 70
VBN 1 : 55 – 65
VBN 2 : Vegetable cowpea

DRY LAND
Dry land is one which totally depends on rain for crop production. If this is no sufficient
water the crop cultivation is affected and the crop fails.
The farming in dry land is divided the two categories
1. Dry land farming
2. Rainfed farming
Dry land farming is one in which the potential evapotranspiration will always be more than
precipitation. The annual rainfall will be less than 800 mm. There will be moisture stress in any
one of the crop growth period. Mainly arid and semiarid area will come under this category.
Mainly these are single crop area. Intercropping is also followed.
Rainfed farming is one where the potential evapotranspiration will be less than precipitation.
The annual rainfall will be more than 800 mm. There will not be any moisture stress during the
crop growth period. The temperature, wind velocity will be normal. Sub humid and humid area
comes under this category. It is double crop area. Intercropping is also followed.
Major cropping season
NEM – October – February – Southern districts
SWM – June – September – Salem, Dharmapuri, North Arcot, South Arcot.
Major Crops
Cotton, sorghum, minor millets, pulses, cumbu, sunflower and gingelly.
Cropping pattern following in dry land
1. Cotton / Sorghum / Blackgram / Sunflower / Gingelly.
2. Cotton – pulse intercropping
3. Sorghum – pulse intercropping
Important dryland technologies
 1. Summer ploughing
2. Selection of crop / intercropping
3. Premonsoon sowing
4. Mulching
5. Seed hardening
6. Midterm correction

Latest released variety

Crop Variety Duration (days)
Rice ADT (R) 46 135
Rice TKM (R) 2 115 – 120
Maize COH (M) 4 94
Cowpea CO (Cp) 7 65 – 75
Groundnut CO (Gn) 5 125
Tapioca CO (Tp) 4 260
Coconut ALR (Cn) 1 Perennial
French beans Ooty (Fb) 2 90
Brinjal PP (B) 1 185
Coriander CO (Cr) 4 65 - 75

Field crops can be classified into

1. Cereals 2. Forages
3. Millets (Major and Minor) 4. Plantation
5. Pulses 6. Narcotics
7. Oilseeds 8. Spices and condiments
9. Sugars 10. Green manures
11. Fiber crops

Cereal crops
Crops Botanical Name
1. Rice (Paddy) : Oryza sativa
2. Wheat : Triticum vulgare
3. Barley : Hardam vulgare
4. Maize : Zea mays
5. Rye : Secale cereal
6. Oats : Avena sativa

Millet crops
a) Major millet
1. Sorghum/Jowar/Cholam : Sorghum bicolor
2. Cumbu/Bajra/Pearl millet : Pennisetum glacum
3. Ragi (Finger millet) : Eleusine corocana
b) Minor millet
1. Tenai (Italian millet or foxtail millet) : Setaria italic
2. Samai (Little millet) : Panicum miliare
3. Kudiraivali (Barnyard millet) : Echinochloa colaona
4. Varagu (Kodo millet) : Paspalum scrobiculatum
5. Panivaragu (Proso millet) : Panium miliaceum

Pulse crops
These crops supply vegetable protein and also capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen to the soil
1. Redgram/Pigeonpea/Thuvarai : Cajanus cajan
2. Blackgram (Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo
3. Greengram (Pasuppayaru) : Vigna radiate
4. Bengalgram/Chickpea/Kondakkadalai : Cicer arietinum
5. Cowpea (Thattaiparayu or Karamani) : Vigna unguiculata
6. Horsegram (Kollu or Kanap payaru) : Macrotyloma unifloram
7. Soybean (Soya mochai) : Glycine max
8. Peas (Pattani) : Pisum sativum
9. Garden bean (Avarai) : Dolichos lablab

Oilseed crops
1. Groundnut / Peanut : Arachis hypogaea
2. Sesamum / Gingelly : Sesamum indicum
3. Coconut : Cocus nucifera
4. Sunflower : Helianthus annuus
5. Castor : Ricinus communis
6. Indian mustard : Brassica juncea
7. Black mustard : Brassica nigra
8. White mustard : Brassica alba, Brassica hirta
9. Indian rape : Linum ustitatissimum
10. Niger : Guizotia abyssinica
11. Safflower : Carthamus tinctorius
12. Soybean : Glycine max

Sugar and Tuber crops

1. Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum
2. Sugarbeet : Beta vulgaris
3. Potato : Solanum tuberousum
4. Tapioca / Cassava : Manihot esculenta
5. Sweet potato : Ipomoea batatas

Fiber crops
1. Cotton : Gossypium arborium (Karunkanni cotton)
G. herbaceum (Uppon cotton)
G. barbadense (Sea-Island cotton)
G. hirsutum (American cotton)
2. Jute : Corchorus olitorius, C. capsularis
3. Deccan hemp, Brown hemp : Hibiscus cannabinus
4. Mesta : Hibiscus sabdariffa
5. Sunnhemp : Crotalaria juncea
6. Sisal hemp : Agave spp.
 Forage crops
These crops are used to feed cattle. They are of two types: viz., grasses and legumes.
Forage crops are also called as fodder crops.
a) Grasses
1. Napier grass / Elephant grass : Pennisetum purpureum
2. Para grass / Water grass : Brachiaria mutica
3. Guinea grass : Panicum maximum
4. Rhodes grass : Choris gayana
5. Bermuda grass : Cynodon dactylon
6. Sudan grass : Sorghum sudanense
7. Australian grass : Panicum antidotale
8. Hybrid NB 21 : Hybrid between Napier x Bajra

b) Legume fodder crop

1. Lucerne / Alfalfa : Medicago satira
2. Egyptian clover / Berseem : Trifolium alexandrimum
3. Indian clover : Melilotus parviflom
4. Siratro : Macroptilum atropurpureum
5. Stylos : Stylosanthes hemata
6. Subabool : Leuceana leucocephala
7. Velvet bean : Mucnna cochinchinensis

Plantation crops
1. Tea : Camellia sinensis
2. Coffee : Coffee arabi
3. Cacao : Theobroma cacao
4. Areca : Areca catechu

Narcotics
 Tabacco : Nicotiana tabacum

Spices and condiments

1. Chillies : Capsicum annum
2. Onion : Allium cepa
3. Garlic : Allium sativum
4. Turmeric : Curcuma longa
5. Ginger : Gingiber officinale
6. Coriander : Coriandrum sativum
7. Fennel : Foeniculum vulgare
8. Fenugreek : Trigonella foenumgraecum
 Ex.No: 2. SEEDS - ESTIMATION OF SEED RATE, GERMINATION OF SEEDS AND
PRACTICING THINNING, GAP FILLING OPERATIONS FOR OPTIMUM CROP
STAND AND INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
SEED RATES:
Guidance for calculating seed rate

Plants population =Total area / spacing

Plant population m2=100*100(cm2)/spacing (cm)= x

Population ha-1 =x*10000 =y

Test weight (1000 grain weight) = w/1000

Quantity of seed required = w/1000*y =z

Seed rate = z*100/% Germination

A margin of 15-20 per cent of the seed over and above the quantity of seed worked above may
be added to arrive the

Total seed rate so as to overcome the field damage, handling loss etc.

PRACTICING THINNING AND GAPFILLING

Crop factor that influences the crop establishment and yield are optimum plant
population, plant geometry, time and method of sowing
Plant population
Plant population refers to the number of plants per unit area. The plant population should
be optimum. Both excess (or) low plant population is not advantages. At low population the
individual plant growth and yield increases besides waste of nutrient, weed growth etc. At higher
population, competition among plants is more for growth factors, and the yield will be reduced.
Yield per plant decreases as plant population per unit area is increased. However, the yield per
plant decreases as plant production is good for getting higher yield. Among various factors that
influences optimum population, gap filling and thinning are important.
Gap filling
It is common that gaps exist in crop rows due to various reasons like poor quality seeds,
soil crustation, very shallow or deep depth of sowing, mechanical as well as biological damages
to seeds and young seedlings etc. Gap filling refers to putting seeds in the gap seen in crop rows
due to various reasons. It should be done 5-7 days after sowing .If gap filling is delayed, there
will be difference in crop growth with in the same yield which causes inconvenience to field
operations like fertilization, plant protection, harvesting etc. Gap filling is done if the gap in the
field is less than fifty percent of the total population. If the gap is more than fifty per cent
resowing is done. Immediately after gap filling irrigation/watering should be done.
Thinning
Thinning is the removal of extra plants from the thickly populated crop stand with an
objective of maintaining optimum plant production. Excess plants may occurs due to high seed
rate, uneven spreading of seeds in broadcast sowing, putting more seed at dibbing etc.
Further thinning helps the plants to utilize the resources properly without competition,
which otherwise affect the crop growth and yield. Normally thinning is done by removing the
weak, pest and disease attacked seedling etc. leaving one healthy plant which, helps in getting
higher yield. Thinning has to be done within 7-10 days from seed sowing. If it is delayed the
plant suffers due to competition, which will lead to low yield. However, thinning is a expensive
and time consume operation.
Ex.No: 3: NURSERY, DEMONSTRATION ON DIFFERENT TYPES IN FIELD

Seedling in Nursery Bed:

A nursery bed is a compact/ consolidated area where seeds are sown density to germinate
and emerge and emerge and nourished for a so period to enable them to grow into seeding until
they are ready for transplants in main field. A nursery bed may be dry, semidry or wet and may
be raised beds, flat beds or flat with furrows.
Transplanting is the removal of an active growing seeding from one place and planting it in
another place for further growth and development. Plants which are able to endure the shock of
uprooting growth and have the capacity to prude newer roots/shoots can be used for transplanting
.This operation may done when the seedlings acquire some ability to endure such shocks and
when environmental conditions are favorable for easy establishment in the new field/location..
In general transplanting is done with seedlings of the crop such as rice, tobacco, ragi,
tomato, brinjal, chillies etc. Vigorous seedlings produce better yields than poor seedlings.
Advantage of transplanting
1. Optimum population can be maintained.
2. Duration in the main field is reduced and hence the management cost.
3. Plants with high vigor can be selected for planting.
4. Less cost of maintenance and more care could be given in the early stages, since the area
of operation is reduced considerably.
5. Multiple crops can be raised
6. Precious recourses like water is saved considerably.
7. Easy management.
8. Less competition by weeds in the initial stage the main field.
9. Thinning is not necessary.
10. Better Tillering is possible.
SELECTION OF SITE FOR NURSEY:
a. Must be located nearer to the irrigation source.
b. Fertile piece of land must be chosen.
c. Shall be at an elevated place.
d. Soil must be able to drain away all water even after heavy rain.
 e. Must be far away from trees to avoid shade effect and root effect.
NURSERY FOR WETLAND (RICE)
I. Dry nursery
II Semi - dry nursery
III wet nursery
I. Dry nursery:
This is practiced in rainfed forming .This soil is brought to fine tilth and manured
heavily(ten tonnes of FYM) and mixed with soil. Small beds of 1.0 m to 1.5m width are formed
with irrigation channels to give protective irrigation.
The nursery bet should be leveled perfectly and seeds may be sown by broadcast method or
is sown by making furrows of 2 to 2.5 cm deep. Seeds should be covered with loss soil or well
decomposed FYM and pressed slightly. Seedling will be read in 25 – 30 days.
II.Semi- Dry Nursery:
Nursery beds are raised as in the case of dry nursery in anticipation of water supply. as
soon as water is received the nursery beds are treated as wet nursery beds where in water in
stagnated till the seedling are ready for planting .
II. Wet Nursery:
This is the widely practiced method were water availability is abundant. Here the land
is ploughed under water to make a puddle so that the pores on the surface soil is clogged to
create an impervious soilsurface.800 square meters of nursery area is required to transplant one
hectare. About one tonne or well rotten FYM is applied during Ploughing or green leaf is applied
15 days prior to sowing. Small beds of 15 mm width are formed with drainage facilities.
Sprouted seeds are sown uniformly b broadcasting (75 to 80 gm-2).Seedlings are nourished wt
care till they are ready for planting.
Dapog nursery:
The land is prepared as in the wet bed method, but banana leaves or plastic sheets are
used to cover the soil. The dapog bed should be about 1.5 m wide, andit is length will depend on
the planted. 80 m2 raised beds are required for one hectare. Banana bracts are placed on seedbed
with bamboo pegs to keep the leaves in position. The seed rate is twice as that of wet bed. Seed
rate is 100 kg per ha. Sow the pre-germinated seeds @ one kg m2. Dapog seedlings are ready for
transplanting on 9 to 14 days after the seed is sown. For dapog seedlings, seedbed is cut into
convenient sizes and the seedlings mats are rolled with roots outward.
Advantages of dapog method:
 Labour savings because of the bed are easily made.
 Short period for raising seedlings
 Relative ease in transport of seedlings because a mat of seedlings can be rolled
 Required small seedbed area
 Seedlings recover faster after transplanting
 Less expensive
Disadvantages of dapog method:
 Require more seeds
 Needs better water management
 Seedlings are harder to transport
 Seedlings are less competitive against weeds
Nursery for Garden land crops
Seedlings of small grained crops like tobaco, ragi, chillies, tomato etc are raised in the
nursery beds. Here the land is brought to fine tilth and beds of 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm width are
formed with irrigation channels to facilitate irrigation. Usually raised beds are formed to
facilitate easy drainage and to avoid stagnation of water. The soil along the bunds are scooped
away to a depth of 30 cm wide and placed in middle of the bed is made wet by seepage from all
directions. After wetting the bed, the water in the furrow are drained off. Seedlings are nourished
till the stage of plating is reached.
Crop Nursery(m2) Seedling age (day)
Rice 800 20-25 for short duration
25-30 for medium duration
30-35 for long duration
Sorghum 300 17-18
Cumbu 300 17-18
Ragi 500 17-18
 Ex.No: 4. IDENTIFICATION OF SEEDS, MANURES, FERTILIZERS, GREEN
MANURES and GREEN LEAF MANAURES.

Seed may be defined in may ways. That is

1. Seed is fertilized, ripened ovule.

2. The part of following plant which contains the embryo and develops into a new plant if sown.

3. Seed is an embryo plant consisting of .a rudimentary stem and root together with food
sufficient to establish a plant, all enclosed in a protective coat.

4. Agronomically a seed or seed material is the living organ of the crop in rudimentary from that
is used for propagation or any part of a crop from which a new crop will grow.

Some plants may have seed at specific season at a specific time. Seeds in some plants
may ripen synchronously while in others they may or may not.some crops bear seeds in their
apex (Rice, Wheat) below apex (Maize) below the ground (Ground Nut). A plant may produce
seeds varying from dozen (Peas), even lakhs (Tobacco). The weight may vary from less than mg.
as I tobacco to grams as I beans. The size, shape and weight are extremely variable.

Fertilizers

Similar to animals and human beings, plants also require food for growth and
development. Man requires 19 essential elements. Animal 18 and plant 16.

Essential Elements for Plants – 16

1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorous 6. Postassium
7. Calcium 8. Magnesium
9. Sulphur 10. Iron
11. Managanese 12. Boron
13. Zinc 14. Copper
15. Molybdenum 16. Chlorine

Essential Plant nutrients and their Sources

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are available in plenty from atmosphere. The other plant
nutrients are grouped into three categories viz.

1. Major Nutrients 2. Secondary Nutrients 3. Micro Nutrients

I.Major Nutrients 3

1. Nitrogen 2. Phosphorous 3. Potassium

II. Secondary Nutrients 3

1. Calcium 2. Magnesium 3. Sulphur

Note: Major Secondary nutrients are collectively called as macro nutrients.

III. Micro Nutrients 7

1. Iron 2. Manganese 3. Boron 4. Zinc 5. Copper 6. Molybdenum 7.Chlorine

Non – Essential but useful elements for plants

Beside the sixteen essential nutrients, three are other minor elements which may increase
crop growth when present in soluble from. They are

1. Sodium 2. Cobolt 3. Iodine 4.Strontium

5. Fluorine 6. Vanadium 7. Bromine

Any manufactured material, Solid or liquid, added to the soil in order to supply one or
more plant nutrients is called as fertilizer.

Fertilizers Consumed in India are of five types. They are

1. Nitrogenous fertilizers
2. Phosphatic fertilizers
3. Potassic fertilizers
4. Complex fertilizers
5. Mixed fertilizers
I. Nitrogenous fertilizers
There are the fertilizers supplying Nitrogen. They are classified into four groups on
the basis of the chemical form in which N is which other elements within fertilizers

S.no Form Formula N Content (%)

1 Nitrate fertilizers Na NO3 16.0
a) Sodium nitrate (Chliean nitrate Ca (NO3)2 15.5
b) Calcium nitrate
2 Ammonium fertilizers (NH4)2 SO4 20.0
a) Ammonium Sulphate NH4CI 24.0 -26.0
b) Ammonium Chloride
3 Nitrate and ammonium fertilizers NH4 NO3 33.0 -34.0
a) Calcium nitrate 20.0
 b) Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) 26.0
c) Ammonium Sulphate nitrate (ASN)
4 Amide fertilizers CO (NH2)2 46.0
a) Urea Ca CN2 21.0
b) Calcium Cyanamide
II. Phosphatic fertilizers

The Phosphatic fertilizers can be classified three groups.

1. Containing water soluble phosphoric acid

(Mono Calcium Phophate) Ca (H2PO4)2

a. Super Phosphate Single 16.0

b. Double Supper Phosphate 32.0
c. Triple Super Phosphate 18.0
d. Ammonium Phosphate 20.0 Plus
20.0 Nitrogen

2. Containing Citric acid – Soluble Phosphoric acid

(Di – Calcium Phosphate) Ca2H2 (PO4)2

a. Basic Slag 14.0 -18.0

b. Di – Calcium Phosphate 34.0 -39.0

3. Containing insoluble phosphoric acid

(Tri – Calcium Phosphate) Ca3 (PO4)2

a. Rock Phosphate 20.0 -40.0

b. Raw Bone Meal 20.0 – 25.0 plus 3.0 -1.0 % N

c. Steamed Bone Meal 22.0

III. Potassic fertilizers

Potash fertilizers having K in Chloride form

Muriate of Potash (Potassium chloride) 60.0
Fertilizers having K in Non – Chloride form
Sulphate of Potash 48.0 -52.0
Potassium Nitrate 44.0 K2O Plus 13.0% N
IV. Complex Fertilizers

Complex fertilizers are that commercial fertilizers containing atleast two or of the
primary essential nutrients.

Complex Fertilizers N P(%) K

1. NPK Complex 17 17 17
2. NPK Complex 14 28 14
3. NPK Complex 10 26 26
4. NPK Complex 12 32 16
5. NPK Complex 14 36 12
6. Diammonium Phophate 18 46 00

V. Mixed Fertilizers

A Mixture of two or more straight material is referred to as mixed fertilizer of fertilizer

mixture.

Types of fertilizer mixtures

a. Open – Formula Fertilizer mixture. The formulae of such fertilizers in term of kinds and
quantity of the ingredients mixed are disclosed by the manufacturers.
b. Closed – formula – fertilizer mixture the ingredients or straight fertilizers used in such
mixture are not disclosed.

Some standard fertilizer mixture in Tamil Nadu state

Mixture Composition of fertilizer mixture (%) Crops to which recommended

N P2O5 K2O
1. 14 7 0 Millets rainfed cotton
2. 12 6 6 Fruit crops
3. 6 6 12 Fruit crops
4. 6 12 6 Potato Paddy
5. 9 9 9 Paddy millets
6. 15 15 Top dressing paddy millets
7. 4 8 12 Groundnut
8. 6 6 18 Banana
9. 10 0 30 Banana
10. 15 5 5 Sugarcane
11. 16 4 4 Sugarcane
12. 16 0 12 Top dressing Mixture
13. 10 10 0 Cholam, Cumbu
14. 14 4 12 Coconut
15. 15 15 15 Paddy Millets Vegetable
 16. 20 0 10 Sugarcane
17. 30 30 50 Tea
18. 17 17 17 Paddy
Bio fertilizers
Bio fertilizers more appropriately called microbial inoculants can be defined as
preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing phosphate
solubilizing micro organism.
Bio fertilizers are the living organisms capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen making
native soil nutrients available to crops.

Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed effectively through the agency of microorganisms either in

symbiotic with plant system (eg. Rhizobium, Anabaena Azollae) or associative Symbiosis
(Azospirillum )or free living system (Azotobacter, blue green alage).

a. Rhizobium

The quantities of nitrogen fixed by Rhizobia differ with the rhizobial strain the host plant
and the environmental conditions under which the two develop the species of the genus
Rhizobium are numberous and require certain host plants. For example the bacteria that live
symbiotically with soybean will not host with alfalfa. Fixation of nitrogen by the leguminous
plants will be at maximum only when the level of available soil nitrogen is at a minimum it is
sometimes advisable to include a small amount of nitrogen in the fertilizer of legume crops at
planting time to ensure that the young seedlings will have an adequate apply until the rhizobia
can become established larger quantity of nitrogen or continued applications of nitrogen however
reduce the activity of the Rhizobia and therefore are generally uneconomic.

b. Azolla

It is a small water fern of worldwide distribution under natural conditions. It conations

the heterocystous blue green Anabaena Azollae as a symbiont in an enclosed chamber in the
dorsal leaf lobes. Azolla derives its entire total nitrogen requirement by the symbiotic association
with the algae. The Azolla Anabaena system is agronomically most significant plant algal
association and this is being employed as a nitrogen source. Azolla contains 3.1 - 4.2 % N, 0.5 to
8% P205 and 2.4 % K20 on dry weight basis. Azolla can be applied to rice in two ways one as
green manure and the other as dual crop.

1. Azolla as a green manure

a. Apply azolla at the rate of 6.25 t ha

b. incorporate before transplanting the rice seedings.

2. Azolla as a dual crop

a. Apply azolla at the rate of 250 kg ha 3-5 days after planting.

b. Allow to grow and multiply for 25-30 days

c. incorporate at the time offhand weeding.

c. Azospirillum

This Bacteria has association with cereals like sorghum, maize, cumbu, ragi, tenai and
other minor millets and also fodder grasses. Theses bacteria colonizing the roots, not only remain
on the root surface but also a sizable proportion of them penetrates into the root tissues and live
in harmony with the plants they do not however produce any visible nodules or out growth on
the root tissue. In the absence of any plant, azospirillum lives in the soil just like any other
microorganism saprophytically however when a suitable crop is raised, they are attracted
towards the root system where they colonize and grow in almost a symbiotic manner.

d. Azotobactor

the beneficial effects of Azotobactor on plants was associated not only with the process
of nitrogen fixation and improve the nitrogen fixation of plants but also with the systhesis of a
complex of biologically active compounds such as nicotinic acid pyridoxine, biotin, gibberellins
and probably other compounds which stimulate the germination of seeds and accelerate plant
growth Azotobactor population in soil or near the root zone crops (Rhizosphere) is very low
when compared to other soil bacteria. The nitrogen fixation potential of these bacteria is also not
very high and appreciable. A fairly high population is required for substantial nitrogen fixation
enormous energy is required by Azotobactor for nitrogen fixation. The possible source of energy
for Azotobactor is this soil organic matter. The energy generated during the utilization of organic
matter is used for nitrogen fixation.

e. Blue – green algae

The blue green algae occur under a wide range of environment conditions.hey are completely
autotrophic and requires only light, water free nitrogen(N 2), Carbon – Di – Oxide (CO2) and salts
containing the essential mineral elements. They play major role in the nitrogen economy of
paddy soils in tropical countries. It fix atmospheric nitrogen in paddy field at 20 – 30 kg ha-1.
Blue green algae are applied to rice field at the rate of kg ha -1 at the time of planting. In
multiplies within one week.

f. Phosphobacterium

It is free living bacteria (Bacillus megatherium). It solublises the fixed ‘P’ in the soil and
make it into available form for crop utilization. Seed treatment is done @ 600 grams for one
hectare.
 g. Mycorrhizae

It is fungai, used as biofertilizer. The mycorrhizal symbiosis is an intimate association

between plant root system and fungai. Plant provides energy for fungi, which increases nutrient
uptake. Mycorrhiza increases yield, protects crop against pathogens andincrease the uptake of P,
Cu, Zn and B.

MANURE
Manure is the organic material derived from animal, human and plant residues, which
contain plant nutrient in organic form .They are added to improve the physical condition of the
soil, to replenish and keep up its humus status, to maintain the optimum condition for the
activities of soil microorganism.
Organic manure
Organic manure is normally called as manure. This may be bulky (or) concentrated
organic manure depending upon the volume and nutrient content of the manure.
A) Bulky Organic manure
These are bulk in quantity and low in plant nutrient.
1. Farm yard manure 2. Compost
3. Night soil 4. Sewage and sludge
5. Green manure
1. Farm yard manure
Most commonly used organic manure .It consists of a mixture of the cattle dung, the
bedding used in the stable and straw and plant stalks fed to cattle. Sheep manure and poultry
manure also called farm yard manure.
2. Compost
Composting is the process of reducing vegetables and animal refuse (rural or urban ) to
quickly utilizable condition for improving and maintaining soil fertility .When compost is made
from farm waste and rural compost .When town refuse is composted , it is called town compost .
3. Sewage and sludge
The sewage and sludge which contain large quantities of plant nutrients are used for
growing sugarcane, vegetables and fodder crops near large town by organizing sewage farms.
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF BULKY ORGANIC MANURES

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF
MANURE
N P2O5 K2O
Cattle dung
0.40 0.20 0.20
Cattle urine
1.00 …….. 1.35
Sheep and goat dung
0.75 0.50 0.45
Sheep and goat urine
1.35 0.05 2.10
Sheep and goat manure
3.00 1.00 2.00
Poultry manure
3.03 2.63 1.40
Horse manure
2.00 1.50 1.50
Horse urine
1.35 ……… 1.25
Pig dung
0.60 0.50 0.40
Pig urine
1.10 0.10 0.45
Farm liter compost
0.50 0.15 0.50
Rural compost
1.22 1.08 1.47
Town compost
1.40 1.00 1.40
Vermicompost
3.00 1.00 1.50
Night soil
5.50 4.00 2.00
Paddy straw
1.50 1.34 3.37
Sugarcane trash
2.73 1.81 1.31
Sewage sludge
1.5-3.5 0.75-4.00 0.3-0.6
4. Green manures
Green manuring, wherever feasible is the supplementary means of adding organic matter
to the soil. It consists of raising a quick growing crop mostly leguminous plant, and
incorporating into the soil. The crops commonly used sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea), Daincha
(Sesbania aculeate) and kolinji (Tephrosia purpue)
Green leaf manure
Collection of green leaves from tres like neem, pungam, glyricidia etc. and incorporating
them in the field is called green leaf manuring.
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF GREEN MANURE CROPS AND GREEN LEAF
MANURES

NUTRIENT CONTENT (%) ON AIR

PLANT SCIENTIFIC NAME DRY BASIS
N P2O5 K2O
Green manure

Sun hemp Crotalaria juncea 2.30 0.50 1.30

Manila agathi Sesbania rostrata 3.30 0.60 1.20

Daincha Sesbania aculeate 3.20 0.60 1.20

Pillipesara Phaseolus trilobus 2.80 0.50 1.15

Sesbania Sesbania speciosa 2.71 0.53 2.21

Koliniji Tephrosia purpurea 3.10 0.52 1.18

Green leaf manure

Glyricidia Glyricidia maculate 2.76 0.28 4.60

Pungam Pongamia glabra 3.31 0.44 2.39

Neem Azadiracta inidca 2.83 0.28 0.35

Gulmohur Delonix regia 2.76 0.46 0.50

Vadanaryanan Delonix eleta 3.51 0.31 0.43

Subabul Leucaena leucocephala 3.50 0.48 0.81

Peltophorum Peltonphororum 2.63 0.37 0.50

ferrugenium
Weed
Parthenium Parthenium 2.68 0.68 1.45
hystorophorus
Water hyacinth Eichenium crassipes 3.10 0.90 0.15

Sarannai Trianthema 2.64 0.43 1.30

portulacastrum
Aduthoda Aduthoda vesica 1.32 0.38 0.15

Impomea Impomea cornea 2.01 0.33 0.40

Calotrophis Calotrophis gigantean 2.06 0.54 0.31

Cassia Cassia fistula 1.60 0.24 1.20

B.) CONCENTATED ORGANIC MANURE

These are organic maunures rich in plant nutrient and low in volume.
1. Oil cakes 2. Blood meal 3. Meat meal
4. Fish meal 5. Horn and hoof meal
NUTRIENT CONTENT OF SOME CONCENTRATED ORGANIC MANURES
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF
MANURE
N P2O5 K2O
Caster cake 4-4.4 1.9 1.4
Groundnut cake 6.5-7.5 1.3 1.5
Cotton seed cake (decorticated) 6.9 3.1 1.6
Cotton seed cake (undecorticated) 3.6 2.5 1.6
Linseed cake 5.6 1.4 1.3
Coconut cake 3.4 1.9 1.9
Neem cake 5.2-5.6 1.1 1.5
Safflower cake (decorticated) 7.9 2.2 1.9
Safflower cake ( undecorticated) 4.9 1.4 1.2
Sesamum cake 4.7-6.2 2.1 1.3
Mahua cake 2.5 0.8 1.9
Nager cake 4.7 1.8 1.3
Pungam cake 4.0 1.0 1.3
Raw bone meal 3.0-4.0 20-25 ……..
Steamed bone meal 1.0-2.0 25-30 ……..
Basic slag 4 14-18 1.3
Fish slag 4-10 3.0-9.0 1.5
Blood meal 10-12 1.0-2.0 1.0
Meat meal 9.0-11 3.5 ……..
Horn and hoof meal 10-15.0 1.0 ……..
Press mud 1.0-1.15 4.0-5.0 2.0-7.0
Guano ( Perunvian bird) 11.0-16 8.0-12.0 2.0-3.0
 Ex:No: 5: IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS, WEEDING PRACTICES AND HANDLING
OF WEEDING TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
Weed is a plant growing out of place, where it is not wanted. Weed is a plant where it is
not desired. Plants are considered as weeds when they interfere with man’s activity or his
welfare. Weeds interfere with the utilization of land, water, nutrient and other resources. Weeds
are classified in many ways viz, based on life span, ecology affinity, no. of cotyledons, stem
nature, place of occurrence, place of origin, soil type, morphological characters etc.
Wet land weeds
Based on morphological characters wet land weeds are classified as grasses, sedges and
broad leaved weeds.
Botanical name Family Common name
Grasses
a) Echinochloacolonum Poaceae Kuduraivali
b) Echinochloacrusgalli “ Barnyard grass
c) Panicumreipens “ Injipul
d) Brachiuriamutica “ Water grass
Sedge
a) Cyperusrotundus Cyperaceae Nutgrass(purple)
b) Cyperusiria Cyperaceae Vayalkorai
c) Cyperusdifformis Cyperaceae Vayalkorai
d) Cyperuseaculentus Cyperaceae Nut grass(yellow)
e) Cyperusbulbosus Cyperaceae Korai
f) Fimbristylismiliaceae Cyperaceae Mayilkorai
Broad leaved weeds

MarsiliaQuadrifoliata -Marciliaceae -Arakeerai

Ammanniacrusgalli -Lythraceae -NeermelNeruppu
Asteracanthalongifolia -Acanthaceae -Neermulli
Ecliptaaiba -Euphorbiaceae - Karisalanganni
Centellaasiatica -Umbelliferae -Vallarai
Mimosa pudica -Mimoceae -Thottalsinungi
Ludwigiaparviflora -Ongraceae -Seelaipoondu
Lippianodiflora -Cruciferaceae -Poduthalaichedi
Monochoriavaginalis -Ponteriaceae -Neerthamarai

Garden land weeds

Acalynhaindica Euphorbiaceae Kuppaimeni
Amaranthusviridis Amaranthaceae Kuppaikeerai
Avenafatua Poaceae Wild oats
Boerhaaviadiffusa Nictaginaceae Mukkurataikeerai
Chorisbarbata poaceae MayilKondaipul
Cleome viscosa Capparidaceae Manjakadugu
Cynodondactylon Poaceae Arugampul
Cyperusrotundus Cyperaceae Koraikilangu
Dactylocteniumaegypticum Poaceae Crow foot grass
Digeraarvensis Amaranthaceae Thoyyakeerai
Leucasaspera Labiatae Thumbai
Ocimumcanum Labiatae Naithulasi
Portulacaoleraceae Protulacaceae Paruppukeerai
Physalis minima Solanaceae Sodakkuthakkali
Plyllanthusniruri Euphorbiaceae Keelanelli
Phyllanthusmederaspatensis Euphorbiaceae Melanelli
Solanumnigrum Solanaceae Manathakkali
Solanumelaeagnifolium Solanaceae Kattukandankathiri

Dry land weeds

Abutilanindicum Malvaceae Tutti
Achyranthesaspera Amranthaaceae Nayruvi
Argemone Mexicana Papaveraceae Brahmadandu
Aristolochiabractcata Aristolochiaceae Aduthinnapalai
Boerhaaviadiffusa Nyctaginaceae Mukkurataikeerai
Calotropisgigantia Asclepiadaceae Yerrukku
Convolvulus arvensis Convolulaceae Bhumminchakkrapoondu
Croton spaciflores Euphorbiaceae Naimilakai
Cynodondactylon Poaceae Arugampullu
Cyperusrotundus Cyperaceae Koraikizhangu
Daturafatuosa Solanaceae Ummaltam
Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Amman pacharisi
Leucasaspera Labiatae Thumbai
Trichodesmaindicum Boranginaceae Kazhuthaithumbi
Tribulusterrestris Zygophyllaceae Nerunji
Tridaxprocumbens Compositae Vettukathalai
Gomphrenadecumbens Compositae Neervadamalli
Acalyphaindica Suphorbiaceae Kuppaimeni
WEEDING TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS:
Japanese rotary weeder
It consists of two small toothed rollers or drums mounted on a frame provided with
handle. Each roller consists of about 5 toothed blades. This implement, while working is pushed
and pulled alternatively by the operator in between rows of paddy crop. The float provided will
guide the implements smoothly while working and prevent the implement sinking into the
puddle. The weeder is used to burry the weeds into the mud so as to decompose them and add
organic matter to the soil, sufficient for working this implement.
Cone weeder
It is also similar to rotary weeder in which instead of two toothed rollers or drums two
toothed cones are mounted and a frame provided with handle. This implement while working is
pushed and pulled alternatively by the operator in between rows of paddy crop. The float
provided will guide the implement smoothly while working and prevent the implement from
sinking.

Long handled weeders

Long handled weeders are used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted
weeds. Useful in dryland and garden and crops when the soil moisture content is 8 to 10 percent.
They are manually operated. One man labours covers 0.05 ha per day. It cost Rs. 350/-.
Peg tooth type:
It is a long handles tool consists of two numbers of 2.5 cm diameter, 120 cm long pipes over
which 52 cm long handle is fitted. To the bottom of the vertical pipe frames, two arms made up
of 25 x 2.5 x 0.3 cm MS plates are fitted. At the extreme end of the arm, peg wheel is placed.
The blade can be adjusted to the desired angle and depth. The peg teeth permit the movement of
the roller in clay soil without getting clogged.
Star wheel type
It is similar to the peg type weeder excepting that the star type roller facilitates easier operation
of the weeders in loamly and sandy soils.
 Ex.No: 6 WEEDICIDE USES AND CAUTION
Herbicide:

It is a chemical used to kill some targeted plants.

Principles of chemical weed control

The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its

associated weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such
selectivity may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential
translocation, differential deactivation etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
1) Based on Method of application

 Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of
weeds. Eg. Fluchloralin
 Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage
Eg.Glyphosate, Paraquat

2) Based on Mode of action

 Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of

plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. Eg. Atrazine
 Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation Eg. Paraquat

3 Based on mobility
i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in direct
contact Eg. Paraquat
ii) Translocated herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move from treated part to untreated areas
through xylem / phloem depending on the nature of its molecule. Eg. Glyphosate
4) Based on Time of application

 Pre - plant application (PPI)

Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well as foliar
application is done here. For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and incorporated before
sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial weeds
like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.
  Pre – emergence

Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops application
is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of weeds and this is referred as
pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can be said as pre-emergence to
weeds. For example soil application by spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to sugarcane can be
termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil application by spraying the same immediately
after a rain to control a new flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-
emergence to weed. Eg. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor

 Post – emergence

Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-emergence

application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the soil and are
killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence. For example spraying 2,4-D Na
salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called as post-emergence while spraying of
paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days after planting potato can be called as early
post-emergence. Eg. Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D Na Salt.
  Early post emergence: Another application of herbicide in the slow growing crops like
potato, sugarcane, 2-3 week after sowing is classified as early post emergence.

5) Based on molecular structure

 Inorganic compounds
 Organic compounds

FORMULATIONS
Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or insoluble.
Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use. An herbicide
formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active ingredient with substances
like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc

Objectives in herbicide formulations are;

 Ease of handling
 High controlled activity on the target plants

Need for preparing herbicide formulation

 To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types of
application equipment and conditions.
 To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to use
 To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local conditions?

Types of formulation
I. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC): A concentrated herbicide formulation containing organic
solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water eg., Butachlor
ii. Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with an added
surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may form a suspension when
agitated with a required volume of water eg., Atrazine
iii. Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide (active
ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant parts (ground corn cobs) as
carrier material. eg. Alachlor granules.
iv. Water soluble concentrates (WSC): eg. paraquat
METHODS OF APPLICATION

 Spraying
 Broadcasting
Factors influencing the methods of application are

 Weed-crop situation
 Type of herbicides
 Mode of action and selectivity
 Environmental factors
 Cost and convenience of application

Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified in to

a. Soil applied herbicides
b. Foliage applied or foliar herbicides
Different methods by which these herbicides are applied is tabulated below

Soil application Foliar application

a. Surface i. Blanket spray
b.Sub surface ii. Directed spray
c. Band iii. Protected spray
d.Fumigation iv. Spot treatment
e. Herbigation
Soil appication of herbicides
a. Surface application
Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil either by spraying or by
broadcasting. The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated in to the soil.
Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photo-decomposition of the herbicides.
Eg. Fluchoralin – Left undisturbed under irrigated condition

 Incorporated under rainfed condition

b. Subsurface application
It is the application of herbicides in a concentrated band, about 7-10 cm below the soil surface
for controlling perennial weeds. For this special type of nozzle is introduced below the soil under
the cover of a sweep hood.
Eg. Carbamate herbicides to control Cyperus rotundus

Nitralin herbicides to control Convolvulus arvensis

c. Band application
Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an untreated band in the inter-rows.
Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is possible here. For example
when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a croprows that were spaced 90 cm apart,
then two-third cost is saved.
d. Fumigation
Application of volatile chemicals in to confined spaces or in to the soil to produce gas that will
destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation are called as fumigants.
These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating weed seeds.
Eg. Methyl bromide, Metham
f. Herbigation
It is the application of herbicides with irigation water both by surface and sprinkler systems. In
India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western countries application of
EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in Lucerne.
Foliar application
i. Blanket spray
It is the uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without considering the location of
the crop. Only highly selective herbicides are used here. Eg. Spraying 2,4-Ethyl Ester to rice
three weeks after transplanting
ii. Directed spray
It is the application of herbicides on weeds in between rows of crops by directing the spray only
on weeds avoiding the crop. This could be possible by use of protective shield or hood. For
example, spraying glyphosate in between rows of tapioca using hood to control Cyperus
rotundus.
iii. Protected spray
It is a method of applying non-selective herbicides on weeds by covering the crops which are
wide spaced with polyethylene covers etc. This is expensive and laborious. However, farmers are
using this technique for spraying glyphosate to control weeds in jasmine, cassava, banana.
iv. Spot treatment
It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill it and to prevent its
spread. Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here.

Herbicide Dose Trade name and Time of application

Crop (kg ai/ha) formulation
1. Rice Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence
Delchlor 50% EC
Thiobencarb 1.25 Thunder 50% EC Pre-emergence
Saturn 50% EC
Anilophos 0.40 Arozin 30% EC Pre-emergence
Aniloguard 30% EC
Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
2,4-D Na salt 1.00 Fernoxone 80% SS Post-emergence
Pretilachlor+S Sofit Pre-emergence
2. Rice (Upland direct Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence (8
sown) DAS)
Pretilachlor 0.45 Refit 50% EC Pre-emergence
3. Sorghum Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
4. Ragi (Transplanted) Butachlor 1.25 Machete 50% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.75 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
5. Maize Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
6. Cumbu Atrazine 0.25 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
7. Cotton Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence
Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Diuron 0.40 Karmex 50% WP Pre-emergence
8. Groundnut Metolachlor 1.00 Dual 50% EC Pre-emergence
Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
9. Sunflower Fluchloralin 0.90 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
10.Vegetables Fluchloralin 1.00 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
11. Sugarcane Atrazine 1.00 Atrataf 50% WDP Pre-emergence
12. Pulses Fluchloralin 0.70 Basalin 45% EC Pre-emergence
Pendimethalin 0.60 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
13. Wheat Isoproturon 0.60 Arelon 75% WP Pre-emergence
Cropping Systems
1. Sorghum + Pendimethalin 0.90 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Cowpea
2. Sugarcane + Thiobencarb 1.25 Saturn 50% EC Pre-emergence
Pulses
3. Maize + Pendimethalin 1.00 Stomp 30% EC Pre-emergence
Soybean
Alachlor 2.00 Lasso 50% EC Pre-emergence
 Ex.No:7 PEST IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL, DEMONSTRATION OF IPM
METHODS

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that, in the context of asso ciated
environment and population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques
and methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains pest populations at levels
below those causing economic injury.
IPM definition by Luckmann and Metcalf (1994)
IPM is defined as the intelligent selection and use of pest control tactics that will
ensure favourable economical, ecological and sociological consequences.
Need for Pest Management (or) Why Pest Management
1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP and synthetic
pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera.
2. Out break of secondary pests e.g. Whiteflies emerged as major pest when spraying
insecticide against H. armigera.
3. Resurgence of target pests e.g. BPH of rice increased when some OP chemicals are
applied.
4. When number of application increases, profit decreases.
5. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality.
6. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies.

7. Human and animal health hazards.

Stages in crop protection leading to IPM

1. Subsistence phase : Only natural control, no insecticide use

2. Exploitation phase : Applying more pesticides, growing High Yielding

varieties and get more yield and returns
3. Crisis phase : Due over use pesticides, problem of resurgence,
resistance, secondary pest out break, increase in
production cost
4. Disaster phase : Due to increased pesticide use - No profit, high
residue in soil - Collapse of control system
5. Integrated : IPM integrates eco-friendly methods to optimize
Management Phase control rather than maximise it.

Objectives of pest management

1. To reduce pest status below economic injury level. Complete elimination of pest is not
the objective.
2. To manage insects by not only killing them but by preventing feeding, multiplication and
dispersal.
3. To use ecofriendly methods, which will maintain quality of environment (air, water, wild
life and plant life)
4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply control measures only when
needed.
5. To use component in sustainable crop production.
Requirements for successful pest management programme
1. Correct identification of insect pests
2. Life history and behaviour of the pest
3. Natural enemies and weather factors affecting pest population
4. Pest surveillance will provide above data
5. Pest forecasting and predicting pest outbreak
6. Finding out ETL for each pest in a crop
7. Need and timing of control measure - Decision
8. Selection of suitable methods of control
9. Analysis of cost/benefit and benefit/risk of each control measure
10. Farmer’s awareness and participation
11. Government support
12. Consumer awareness on use of pesticides free products

TOOLS OR COMPONENTS OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

i. Cultural method or use of agronomic practices
1. Crop rotation
2. Crop refuse destruction
3. Tillage of soil
4. Variation in time of planting or harvesting
5. Pruning or thinning
6. Fertilizer management
7. Water management
8. Intercropping
9. Trap crop
ii. Host plant resistance - Antixenosis, antibiosis, tolerance
iii. Mechanical methods of pest control
1. Hand destruction
2. Exclusion by screens, barriers
3. Trapping, suction devices, collecting machine
4. Crushing and grinding
iv. Physical methods
1. Heat
2. Cold
3. Energy - light trap, irradiation, light regulation
4. Sound
v. Biological methods
1. Protection and encouragement of NE
2. Introduction, artificial increase and colonizing specific parasitoids and predators
3. Pathogens on insects like virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa
4. Use of botanicals like neem, pungam, etc.
vi. Chemical methods
1. Attractants
2. Repellents
3. Insecticides - OC, OP, carbamates, pyrethroids, etc.
4. Insect growth inhibitors
5. Chemosterilants
vii. Behavioural methods
1. Pheromones
2. Allelochemics
viii. Genetic/biotechnology method
- Release of genetically incompatible/sterile pests
- Transgenic plant
ix. Regulatory/legal method
- Plant/animal quarantine
- Eradication and suppression programme
 Ex.No:8 HARVESTING METHODS FOR VARIOUS FIELD AND HORTICULTURAL
CROPS AND IMPLEMENTS USED

Harvesting : “Removal of entire plant or economic parts after maturity from the field is
called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a
combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants / crops. The
portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic
product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.
Harvest Index : (H.I) : It is the ratio of the economic yield to the total biological yield
expressed as percentage.
H.I = (Economic yield / Biological yield) x 100
Time of Harvesting : If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture
and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and
reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality.
Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during
rainy season and breakage during processing.
Losses due to later harvesting Percentage of loss
Harvesting at physiological maturity 0.71
Harvesting at harvest maturity 3.50
Harvesting one week after maturity 5.63
Harvesting two week after maturity 8.64
Harvesting three week after maturity 14.70
Harvesting four week after maturity 16.40
Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to get good quality grains and higher yield.
Time of harvesting can be assessed by
Assessing Maturity : Crops can be harvested by assessing the maturity i.e. at physiological
maturity or at harvest maturity.
a) Physiological maturity refers to a development stage after which no further increases
in dry matter occurs in the economic part. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity
when the translocation of photosynthesis to the economic part is stopped.
 b) Harvest maturity generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The
important processes during this period is loss of moisture from the plants.
External symptoms of physiological maturity
The major symptoms of physiological maturity of some field crops are as follows:
(i) Wheat and Barley – Complete loss of green colour from the glumes.
(ii) Maize and Sorghum – Black layer in the placental region of grain
(iii) Pearlmillet – Appearance of bleached peduncle
(iv) Soybean – Loss of the green colour from leaves.
(v) Redgram – Green pods turning brown about 25 days after flowering.
Harvest maturity symptoms
The harvest maturity symptoms of some important crops are as follows,
(i) Rice – Hard and yellow coloured grains.
(ii) Wheat – Yellowing of spikelets.
(iii) Sorghum, Pearl millet, foxtail millet – Yellow coloured ears with hard grains.
(iv) Ragi – Brown coloured ears with hard grains
(v) Pulses – Brown coloured pods with hard seeds inside the pods.
(vi) Groundnut – Inner side of the pods turn dark from light color.
(vii) Sugarcane – Leaves turn yellow. Sucrose content is less than 15% and brix reading is
more than 18%
(viii) Tobacco – leaves slightly turn yellow in colour and specks appear on the leaves.
Criteria for harvesting of crops
Crop Criteria for harvesting
Rice 32 days after flowering, Green grains not more than 4-9%
Wheat About 15% moisture in grain,Grain in hard dough stage.
Maize 25 – 30 days after tasselling, Seed moisture content is at 34%
Sorghum 40 days after flowering
Cumbu 28 – 35 days after flowering
Redgram 35 – 40 days after flowering
Blackgram Pod turn brown / black
and
Greengram
Rapessed 75% of the silique turn yellow, Seed moisture at 30%
and mustard
Sunflower Back of heads turns to lemon yellow
Groundnut Yellowing of leaves and shedding, Development of purple colour of the testa
Cotton Bolls fully opened
Jute 50% pod stage (120 – 150 days)
Sugarcane Brix 18 – 20%, Sucrose 15%

Determination of harvesting date is easier for determinate crops and difficult for
indeterminate crops because at a given time, the indeterminate plants contain flowers, immature
and mature pods or fruits. If the harvesting is delayed for the sake of immature pods, mature
pods may shatter, If harvested earlier, yield is less due to several immature pods. This problem
can be overcome by,
(i) harvesting pods or ears when 75% of them are mature (or)
(ii) periodical harvesting or picking of pods
(iii) inducing uniform maturity by spraying Paraquat or 2,4-D sodium salt.
In fodder crops, toxins present in the crop, nutritive value, purpose of harvest (whether
for stall feeding or for storage) and single or multi cut are also to be considered during harvest.
Example – HCN toxin content in sorghum is high upto 30 – 45 DAS.
Methods of Harvesting:
Harvesting is done either manually or by mechanical means.
Manual : Sickle is the important tool used for harvesting. The sickle has to be sharp, curved and
serrated for efficient harvesting. Knife is used for harvesting of plants with thick and woody
stems. Nowadays improved type of sickle is available which reduce the druggery of harvesting
labourers.
Mechanical : Harvesting with the use of implements or machines
Implements / machinery used for threshing and drying
For harvesting :
Power tiller operator paddy harvester, combine harveste, guntaka etc., are used
i) Paddy harvester :
 It is used for non-lodging varieties. During operation, the nose of the harvester first
enters into the standing crop and movement brings the crop between star projection of the wheel,
then it cuts the standing crop. Capacity of this machine is one hectare per day. The width of the
coverage for one movement will be 0.75 m. The power requirement is 3 H.P. The present cost
of the unit will be Rs.30,000 and operation cost is Rs.260/ha including cost of two labourers.
ii) Combine harvester :
It is possible to harvest and thresh the produce simultaneously using combine harvester.
It cuts the crop, separates the grain from straw, cleans it from chaff and dust and stores the grains
in the storage tank. The combine harvester reaps 2-9 rows at a time depending on its size and is
equipped with 8 to 10 H.P engine. The cutting operation is done by a reciprocating type of cutter
bar with a speed of 800-900 strokes per minute. The cut portion is transferred to conveyor belt
or plant form with the help of wheel. Threshing cylinders operating at a peripheral speed of 800-
1200 stroked per minute are used for threshing. Grain and chaff are separated with the help of
blowers.
iii) Guntaka : Ground nut is harvested using heavy blade harrows called Guntakas – R.E.
Guntaka
For threshing : (i) Olpad thresher, (ii) Japanese rotary paddy thresher; (iii) multi crop
thresher, (iv) rollers etc., are used.
i) Olpad thresher is used for wheat, barley, oats etc. It consists of 20 circular discs each
45 cm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness placed 15 cm apart in three rows run by pair of
bullocks over the dried crop spread circularly on the threshing floor.
ii) Japanese paddy thresher:
It consist of a threshing drum, driving mechanism and a supporting frame. Main parts are
wooden drum with peg-teeth all around its circumference. The diameter of the drum is about 43
cm to 76 cm. The thresher is operated by a single person with the help of a pedal. Threshing of
paddy is done by holding the bundle of harvested material against the teeth of revolving drum.
iii) Multi-crop threshers:
Mechanical thresher commonly used for threshing major cereals, oil seeds and pulses. It
is operated by an electric motor or oil engine. These threshers have provision to control concave
clearance and threshing drum and blower speed independently so as to reduce grain breakage and
improve cleaning. Sunflower and safflower which are difficult to thresh with traditional methods
can also be threshed by the multi-crop thresher.
iv) Rollers
It is made of stone are used to thresh grains from ears of millets like ragi, sorghum and cumbu.
Earheads are spread to a thickness of 20 cm in a circular fashion on a threshing floor and rollers
are drawn over it by a pair of bullocks.
Drying:
It is done either by using solar energy or by artificial heating (mechanical drying) of air
and circulating it as in driers.
Storage :
Though harvesting of crops is seasonal, consumption of the food grains is continuous.
The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. Therefore, there is
necessity to store the produce for different periods. The different categories of agriculture
produce needing storage are food grains, pulses, oilseeds and seeds.
 Ex.No: 9. DOCUMENTING OF GROWTH STAGE AND RECORDING OF BIOMETRIC
OBSERVATIONS.

Removal of entire plant or economic part after maturity from the field is called
harvesting.
Portion of the stem that is left on the field is know be as stubble. The economic produces
may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant as the case may be.
Time of harvest
In case of early harvest the produce contain high moisture and more immature grains. As
such the yield will be low and storage is also problem .quality as well as germination affected.
Late harvest results in shattering of grains, breakage during processing and germination even
before harvesting. Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity.
Physiological maturity
Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity when the translocation of economic
part is stopped (or) physiological maturity refers to a development stage after which no further
increase in dry matter occurs in economic part.
Harvest maturity
It occurs seven days after physiological maturity. During this period the moisture in the
plant is lost. The general symptom of harvest maturity is yellowing of leaves and drying of
grains or pod.
Biological yield
The total dry matter produces by a crop is known as biological yield.
Economic yield
It fraction of the biological. Yield which is having economic value and useful for man.
Yield attributes
Economic yield is expressed as a function of factors which contributes to yield and these
yield attributes.
(e.g.) economic yield in rice is worked out as follows:
Y=a*b*c*d
Where,
Y = Economic yield (or) yield
 a, b, c, d = Final plant population hill-1, number effective tillers hill-1, number of
filled grain/ear and test weight (g) respectively.
(e.g) Worked out the yield of ADT 36 rice using the following data
Plant population m-2 (A) (e.g.) 66 hills/m2
Number of productive tillers per hill (B) (e.g.) 8/hill
Number of filled grains per productive tiller (C) (e.g.)110/tiller
Thousand grain weight (D) (e.g.) 20.3 g/100 grains
Yield (kg ha-1) =A*10000*B*C*D*1/1000(or) A*0.01*B*C*20.3
=66*10000*8*110*20.3/1000*1/1000 (or) 66*0.01*8*110*20.3
=11790 kg
Ex:No: 10 WORKING OUT MANURE AND FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
Calculation of fertilizer

To calculate the quantity of fertilizer required for application to a crop, data like crop,
recommended fertilizer dose, name of the extent of area needed.

(e.g.) crop–rice ADT 36 fertilizer recommended 120:38:38 kg NPK ha -1, Area 1.5 ha,
fertilizer to be used urea (46% N) super phosphate (16% P2O5) and muriate of potash (60%
K2O)/ DAP, urea and potash.

Quantity of fertilizer required dose (kg ha-1)*100/nutrient content of the fertilizer*Area

to be applied (ha)

In terms of urea, super and potash

Urea required =120*100/46*1.5=391 kg

Supper phosphate required =38*100/16*1.5=356 kg

Potash required=38*100/60*1.5=95 kg

In terms of Urea and Muriate potash

First find out the quantity of DAP required for 1.5 ha to

Supply the recommended P =38*100/46*1.5 =124kg

Find out the quantity of N in the quantity of DAP worked out= 18/100*124=22.3kg

Total N required for 1.5 ha 120*1.5=180 kg

Subtract the quantity of N available in the quantity of DAP worked out from the total N worked
out for

1.5 ha =180-22.3=157.7 kg

Now work out the urea required to supply the

Balance 157.7 kg N =157.7*100/46=341.3 kg

Muriate potash can be calculated as mentioned earlier