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M 4 study-note

Linguistic or language science is the scientific study of language. Moreover, linguistics is a

frontier science, so much remains to be explored.

Psycholinguistics: the relationship between language and mind

Sociolinguistics: the relationship between language and society

Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound which can be used in meaningful contrast with other
sounds of a particular language. / / are used to denote phonemes

Vowels: sounds made with the mouth partly open and where the air is not stopped by the tongue,
lip or teeth

Consonants: the flow of air is partly blocked by the tongue, lip or teeth when the sounds are
made

Bilabial sounds are made with both lips. Eg. /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/

Labiodental: these are made with the lower lip and upper teeth. Eg. /f/, /v/

Dental: Sounds produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth. Eg. / θ/, /ð/

Alveolar: Sounds produced by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge. Eg. /t/, /d/, /n/.

Palato-alveolar: Sounds produced by placing the front of the tongue against the hard palate and
alveolus. Eg. shin /ʃ/, chin /tʃ/, gin /dʒ/ and vision /ʒ/

Palatal: Sound produced by placing the back of the tongue against the hard palate. Eg. /k/

Velar: Sound produced by placing the back of the tongue against the soft palate. Eg./ŋ/

Glottal: Sound produced by using the glottis. E.g. /h/

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Manner of articulation
Stops or Plosives
Plovsives are formed by completely blocking the airflow in the vocal track and suddenly
releasing it. There are six plosive sounds.

Voiced Unvoiced/ voiceless

/b/ /p/ Bilabial

/d/ /t/ Alveolar

/g/ /k/ Velar

Fricatives: The air escapes but through a restricted space. There is friction between the tongue
and the upper part of the mouth. /f/, /v/, / θ/, /ð/,/s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/

Affricates: These are more restricted than a fricative but not quite a stop. The air is blocked
slightly. chin /tʃ/, gin /dʒ/

Flaps: Part of the tongue briefly flaps an upper part of the mouth, resulting in a range of r
sounds. /r/

Laterals: The tongue is held against an upper part of the mouth with no friction, and the air
escapes around the sides. /l/

Semivowels or frictionless continuants: The air is somewhat restricted but without friction and
with little or no contact between the tongue and the upper part of the mouth. /j/ , /w/

Side Note: The manner of articulation depends on factors including place, nationality and region.
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Voiced sounds are produced with the vocal cords vibrating. All vowels, monophthongs and
diphthongs, are voiced.

Monophthongs are single vowel sounds where the tongue and the jaw are held in virtually the
same position. 12

Diphthongs are double vowel sounds where the tongue and jaw start in one position and finish
in another. They are still classified as one phoneme though they are the combination of two
vowel sounds. 8
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Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by only a single sound in the same position and
have different meanings. "ship" and "sheep" differ in the vowel sounds /ɪ/ and /iː/

Phonology is the study of the sounds in a language and how they work together to form words
and meanings.

Allophones are different versions of the same sound in a language that don't change the meaning
of a word. They are like variations of a single sound that occur depending on the surrounding
sounds or a word's position. E.g. clear /l/ in leap, and dark /l/ in peel.

Connected speech is how sounds and words run together when people talk naturally. Instead of
saying each word clearly, people often link words, drop sounds, or change sounds to make
speaking easier and faster. For example, "going to" might sound like "gonna."

Features of connected speech

● Elision ( a sound is omitted)

● Assimilation (a sound is changed by a neighbouring sound)
● Intrusion (a sound is added)
● Schwa

Elision is when sounds or syllables are left out or omitted in speech. It often happens with the
sounds /t/ or /d/.
E.g. She looked back and smiled. /lʊkt/ → /lʊk/
I don't know if I can come next week. /t/ is lost in don’t and next.

Assimilation is when a sound in a word changes to become more like a nearby sound. This
happens to make the word easier to pronounce. For example, in the phrase "input," the /n/ sound
often changes to a sound more like /m/, so it sounds like "imput." This is because /m/ is closer to
the sound of /p/ that follows it.
Handbag /ˈhænd.bæɡ/ → /ˈhæm.bæɡ/

Intrusion in connected speech is when an extra sound is added between words to make them
flow more smoothly. The added sounds ( /j/, /w/, or /r/) help the words blend more naturally.
● Go away -/w/ sound is added
● I am always late.- /j/
● Law and order are important. /r/
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Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables or words within a sentence. When a
syllable is stressed, it is pronounced louder, longer, and often at a higher pitch than the other
syllables around it. Stress can change the meaning of a word or sentence.
For instance:
"REcord" (with stress on the first syllable) is a noun (something you listen to).
"reCORD" (with stress on the second syllable) is a verb (to capture something on tape).

Rhythm is the pattern of beats or stresses in speech. It's how some syllables are emphasized
more than others, creating a flow or beat when we talk.

An accent is the way a person pronounces words, often influenced by where they come from or
their native language. It includes how they stress syllables, pronounce vowels and consonants,
and their speech rhythm.

Intonation is the rise and fall of the voice when speaking. It helps to show emotions, ask
questions, or emphasize something. For example, your voice might go up at the end of a sentence
to show you're asking a question: "You're coming, right?" Intonation can change the meaning of
what you say even if the words stay the same.
Structure of the tone group

Pre-head: all the unstressed syllables leading up to the head

Head: beginning with the first stressed syllables in the group and ending with the syllables
before the nucleus
Nucleus: the stressed syllable which carries the tone
Tail: anything after the nucleus
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Morphology

Morphology is the study of forms of words. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the
grammar of a language.

1. Indistinguishable: 1 free and 2 bound morphemes

In (prefix) + distinguish + able (suffix)

2. Bookcase: 2 free morphomes

Book ( lexical item) + case ( lexical item)

3. Shopkeepers: 2 free and 2 bound morphemes

Shoop+ keep + er + s

4. He carried her over the threshold.

Carry + -ed ( past tense morpheme)

5. He had carried it long enough.

Carry + -ed ( past participle morpheme)

6. Took: 1 free and 1 bound morpheme

Take + -ed ( past tense morpheme)

Exercise from TESOL handbook: A word can be analysed and distinguished through four key
linguistic dimensions: phonologically (its sound structure), orthographically (its written form),
grammatically (its role and function in a sentence), and semantically (its meaning). Each of these
aspects contributes to our understanding of how a word operates within a language system,
revealing its full linguistic complexity.
Example:
I have a red pen.
I have read two books.

The words "red" and "read" are the same phonologically, as they are pronounced the
same. However, they differ orthographically (in spelling), grammatically (in their function
within a sentence), and semantically (in meaning).
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Genre Analysis

Think about these categories to analyse the given text

Content: the kind of information included in the body of the text, or elsewhere on the page
1. Quotes
2. Dates
3. Contact information

Layout: How the information is presented on the page, including formatting

1. Picture
2. title/heading/headline in bold/CAPITAL LETTERS/italics

Lexis: The specific type of content words ( N, Adj, V, Adv), general lexis or idiomatic language
1. persuasive/positive adjectives
2. Lexis related to economics/ scientific research/ writing etc
3. Phrasal verbs/ idioms

Organisation: How the paragraphs are ordered within the body of the text relative to their
purpose
1. Engaging interest > giving factual information about the product/service > providing the
contact details
2. Beginning with relatable/ personal problems and then offering advice/ solutions
3. Chronological orders

Grammar: the tenses and sentence structure that are typically used in this genre
1. Present simple to give facts, past simple to show a sequence of past events, imperative to
command/persuade, 1st conditionals for promises
2. Simple sentences, complex sentences, relative clauses, participle clauses

Style: How the text is written in terms of register/ formality

1. Formal style
2. Semi-formal
3. informal

1 feature + 1 example
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Tip/ strategies

1. Ascertain the main purpose of the text

Many genres: only 4 main purpose
● To persuade ( magazine advert)
● To instruct ( rules of a game)
● To inform ( biography)
● To entertain ( interview transcript)

2. Start your analysis from a top-down approach:

● Title/picture/contact info/testimonials
● Structure of the text/ paragraphing
● Sentence construction ( simple/ complex?)
● Lexical items/ grammatical structures

Discourse Analysis

Discourse refers to the use of language in communication beyond just individual sentences. It
looks at how sentences are connected to create meaning in larger chunks of language, like
conversations, stories, or written texts. Discourse analysis studies these patterns to understand
how people use language in real-life contexts, considering coherence, cohesion, and the roles of
speakers and listeners. Discourse is more about the bigger picture of communication rather than
just the structure of single sentences.

Anaphoric: This refers to when a word (usually a pronoun) refers back to something mentioned
earlier in the text. For example, in the sentence "John arrived late because he missed the bus,"
"he" is anaphoric because it refers back to "John."

Cataphoric: This is when a word refers forward to something that is mentioned later in the text.
For example, in the sentence "Before he could say anything, John left," "he" is cataphoric
because it refers forward to "John."

Ellipsis: This involves leaving out parts of a sentence because they are understood from the
context. For example, in a dialogue:
● "Are you coming?"
● "I might (come)."

Substitution: This involves replacing a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition.
For example: "I need a pen. Do you have one?"Here, "one" substitutes for "a pen."
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Nominal Ellipsis: This happens when a noun (or noun phrase) is omitted because it is
understood from the context.
1. "Some students like reading books, and others (students) prefer watching movies."
● "Students" is omitted in the second part because it's understood.
2. "I have two dogs. One is black, and the other (dog) is brown."
● "Dog" is omitted after "other."

Verbal Ellipsis: This occurs when part of the verb phrase is omitted because it is clear from the
context.
1. "She wants to learn French, and he does (want to learn French) too."
● The verb phrase "want to learn French" is omitted after "does."
2. "They might go to the party, or they might not (go to the party)."
● The verb phrase "go to the party" is omitted after "might not."

Clausal Ellipsis: This type involves omitting a whole clause or part of a clause because the
meaning can be understood from the surrounding text.
1. "I didn’t go to the party, but I wanted to (go to the party)."
● The entire clause "go to the party" is omitted after "wanted to" because it’s understood.
2. "I could have helped if I had known, but I didn’t (know)."
● The entire clause "know" is omitted after "didn’t."

Tense analysis
1. Present Simple
- Form: Subject + base verb (add "s" for third person singular)
- Usage:
● Habitual actions or routines (e.g., "She works every day.")
● General truths or facts (e.g., "The Earth orbits the Sun.")
- Example: "I play tennis on Saturdays."

2. Present Continuous
- Form: Subject + am/is/are + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Actions happening at the moment of speaking (e.g., "He is reading now.")
● Temporary actions (e.g., "I am staying with a friend this week.")
● Future plans or arrangements (e.g., "We are meeting tomorrow.")
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- Example: "She is studying for her exams."

3. Past Simple
- Form: Subject + verb in past form (regular verbs add -ed; irregular verbs have specific forms)
- Usage:
● Completed actions in the past (e.g., "I visited Paris last year.")
● A series of past actions (e.g., "He opened the door, walked in, and sat down.")
- Example: "They watched a movie last night."

4. Past Continuous
- Form: Subject + was/were + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Actions in progress at a specific time in the past (e.g., "I was cooking dinner when the
phone rang.")
● Parallel past actions (e.g., "While I was reading, she was studying.")
- Example: "He was driving home when it started raining."

5. Present Perfect
- Form: Subject + have/has + past participle
- Usage:
● Actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past (e.g., "I have traveled to
Japan.")
● Actions that began in the past and continue into the present (e.g., "She has worked
here for five years.")
● Recent actions with relevance to the present (e.g., "He has just finished his
homework.")
- Example: "I have seen that movie."

6. Present Perfect Continuous

- Form: Subject + have/has + been + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Actions that started in the past and continue in the present (e.g., "I have been working
here since 2010.")
● Actions that have recently stopped but have an effect on the present (e.g., "She is tired
because she has been running.")
- Example: "They have been playing tennis for two hours."

7. Past Perfect
- Form: Subject + had + past participle
- Usage:
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● Actions that were completed before another past action (e.g., "By the time we arrived,
they had left.")
- Example: "I had already eaten when he called."

8. Past Perfect Continuous

- Form: Subject + had + been + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Continuous actions that were happening before a past action (e.g., "She had been working
for two hours when he arrived.")
- Example: "They had been waiting for over an hour before the train arrived."

9. Future Simple (will)

- Form: Subject + will + base verb
- Usage:
● Predictions about the future (e.g., "It will rain tomorrow.")
● Spontaneous decisions (e.g., "I’ll help you with that.")
- Example: "I will call you later."

10. Future Continuous

- Form: Subject + will + be + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future (e.g., "This time
tomorrow, I will be flying to New York.")
- Example: "They will be working late tonight."

11. Future Perfect

- Form: Subject + will + have + past participle
- Usage:
● Actions that will be completed by a specific time in the future (e.g., "By next year, I will
have graduated.")
- Example: "She will have finished by the time you arrive."

12. Future Perfect Continuous

- Form: Subject + will + have + been + verb + -ing
- Usage:
● Actions that will have been happening for a specific period of time in the future (e.g.,
"By next month, we will have been living here for a year.")
- Example: "He will have been working for 10 hours by the time he finishes."
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Why and When to Use the Passive Voice:

1. Focus on the Action or Result, Not the Doer

The passive is often used when the action itself is more important than the person or thing
performing it.
Example: "The road was repaired last week."
Here, the fact that the road is repaired is more important than who repaired it.

2. When the Doer is Unknown or Unimportant

Sometimes the agent (the doer) is either unknown or irrelevant. In such cases, the passive helps
avoid unnecessary details.
Example: "My wallet was stolen."
The focus is on the theft, not on who did it, especially if the thief is unknown or irrelevant to the
message.

3. Emphasize the Object of the Action

If the speaker/writer wants to emphasize the receiver of the action rather than the one performing
it, passive voice is effective.
Example: "The award was given to John."
The focus is on the award (and John receiving it) rather than who gave it.

4. To Sound More Formal or Impersonal

In academic, scientific, or technical writing, the passive voice can create a formal and objective
tone.
Example: "The experiment was conducted under strict conditions."
This avoids personal pronouns and emphasizes the action rather than the experimenter.