Plants are one of the most essential living region between the nodes is known

organisms on earth. They are immensely as the internode.

beneficial to both animals and human
beings. They produce oxygen which is Leaves
crucial for the survival of living organisms.
 Leaves are the most important part of
Trees provide shelter to animals and are also
a plant. They contain chlorophyll
known for their medicinal benefits. Overall,
that helps the plants to prepare their
different parts of plants have different roles
food using sunlight, carbon dioxide
to perform. They act as a source of food and
and water. A leaf consists of three
oxygen and maintain the ecological balance.
main parts- petiole, leaf base and
A plant has many parts. Different parts lamina.
perform different functionalities. The part of
the plant that appears above the ground level Flowers
is called the shoot system while the part of Flowers are the most beautiful and colourful
the plant which lies underneath the soil is part of a plant. They are the reproductive
called the root system. part of a plant. A flower has four major
parts, namely,
The main parts of a plant include:
 Petals: It is the colourful part of a
 Roots flower which attracts insects and
 Stem birds.
 Leaves  Sepals: Sepals are green leafy parts
 Flowers present under petals and protect the
flower buds from damage.
 Fruits
 Stamens: This is the male part of the
flower consisting of anther and
Roots filament.
 Roots are the most important  Pistil: This is the female part of the
flower consisting of stigma, style and
and underground part of a plant, ovary.
which are collectively called the root
system. They are the major part that Fruits
anchors the plant firmly in the soil.
 Fruits are the main features of a
They absorb water and minerals
flowering plant. It is a matured ovary
from the soil, synthesise plant
that develops after fertilisation.
growth regulators, and store reserve
Some fruits are developed without
food material. The apical part of the
fertilization and are known
root is covered by the root cap that
as parthenocarpic fruits and the
protects the root apex.
process is known as Parthenocarpy.

Stem

 The stem is the part of the plant

which is found above the ground.
The bark of trees are brown in colour
and younger stems are green in
colour. It forms the basis of the shoot
system and bears leaves, fruits and
flowers. The region where the leaves
arise is known as the node and the
PLANT DEVELOPMENT of just water without nutrients, a
process known as "flushing," so they
can use up all the nutrients they have
already absorbed.

GERMINATION

Germination is the process by which a seed

develops into a new plant. It starts when a
seed absorbs water, activating enzymes that
trigger the growth of the embryo inside.
Here are the key stages of germination:

1. Water Absorption (Imbibition):

When the seed absorbs water, it
swells and softens the seed coat. This
process activates the enzymes inside
the seed that begin breaking down
stored nutrients.
2. Activation of Metabolism:
Enzymes inside the seed break down
starches and proteins into sugars and
amino acids, which the embryo uses
Sprout as energy to fuel growth.
Each seed contains a small parcel of 3. Radicle Emergence (Root
Development): The radicle
nutrients that is all they need to (embryonic root) is the first part of
germinate and begin growing their first the plant to emerge. It grows
pair of leaves. downward to anchor the seedling and
begin absorbing water and nutrients.
Seedling 4. Shoot Emergence: The shoot, or
stem, grows upward, searching for
As plants' roots develop and spread, a light. The cotyledons (seed leaves)
boost of quickly absorbed, well- often break through the soil surface
balanced nutrients fuels the rapid first.
growth from spindly seedling to 5. Leaf Development: The plant starts
healthy plant. to produce true leaves, which begin
Vegetative photosynthesis, creating energy for
further growth.
Nitrogen is a key component of
chlorophyll, the green pigment in Germination requires the right conditions:
plants, so it's the critical sufficient moisture, warmth, and sometimes
nutrient when their energy is focused light, depending on the plant species.
on growing stalks and foliage.
SEED GERMINATION
Budding
Phosphorus is in extra high demand at Seedling growth is the stage after
the start of a plant's reproductive cycle, germination when the young plant starts to
the transition from growing leaves to develop more fully. This phase is crucial as
the seedling establishes itself and begins to
forming buds.
grow leaves, stems, and roots. Here's an
Flowering overview of seedling growth and how to
Potassium plays a primary role in care for seedlings as they grow:
producing and transporting the sugars
and starches plants use up as Key Stages of Seedling Growth
they develop healthy flowers and fruit.
1. First Leaves (Cotyledons)
o After germination, the first
Ripening leaves to appear are usually
When flowers and fruit are verging on the cotyledons (seed leaves).
These leaves don't look like
full maturity, they need a week or two
 the plant's true leaves but are enough sunlight but not too
important for storing energy much direct sun, as they can
and helping the seedling be sensitive in their early
grow. stages.
o Care Tip: Ensure the soil 2. Watering
stays moist but not soggy at o Water regularly, but avoid
this stage to prevent root rot. overwatering. Seedlings are
2. True Leaves Develop delicate and can easily
o After the cotyledons, the develop root rot if the soil
seedling begins to grow its stays too wet.
true leaves. These are the o Use a gentle watering
leaves that will resemble the method (like a spray bottle
mature plant's foliage and are or watering can with a fine
important for photosynthesis. spout) to avoid disturbing the
o Care Tip: At this stage, the delicate seedlings.
seedling will need more light. o Make sure the soil is well-
A grow light or direct draining to prevent water
sunlight will help it develop from pooling at the bottom of
properly. the pot or garden bed.
3. Root and Stem Development 3. Temperature
o As the seedling grows, it o Seedlings generally need
starts to establish a stronger warm temperatures (65-
root system and a thicker 75°F or 18-24°C) for optimal
stem. The roots begin to growth.
spread out in search of o If the temperature is too low,
nutrients and water, while the seedling growth will slow
stem strengthens to support down. Too hot, and they may
the leaves. become stressed or even
o Care Tip: Ensure the scorch.
seedling is planted deep 4. Fertilizing
enough (for seedlings that o Fertilize the seedlings with a
need soil) and that the roots diluted, balanced fertilizer
have enough space to grow. once they develop their true
If roots are restricted, it can leaves. Be careful not to
stunt growth. over-fertilize, as seedlings are
4. Growth of Lateral Roots and still fragile and can be
Shoots damaged by too many
o As the seedling matures, nutrients.
lateral roots develop to help o Organic options like compost
anchor the plant more firmly tea or fish emulsion are
in the soil and absorb gentle and good for
nutrients. seedlings.
o Care Tip: If your seedling is 5. Air Circulation
growing in a small pot, you o Adequate airflow is
may need to transplant it to a important to prevent fungal
larger container to allow the diseases. If seedlings are
roots to spread. This will also crowded or the air around
prevent the plant from them is stagnant, they can be
becoming "root-bound." more susceptible to molds
and mildew.
Caring for Seedlings as They Grow o You can use a fan to improve
airflow, especially for indoor
1. Light seedlings.
o Seedlings need plenty of light 6. Hardening Off
to grow strong and healthy. o Before moving seedlings
Ideally, they should receive outside permanently,
12-16 hours of light a day. If gradually harden them off.
you're growing indoors, use a This involves slowly
grow light to provide the acclimating the seedlings to
intensity of light they need. outdoor conditions (wind,
o If growing outdoors, ensure sun, and temperature
the seedlings are getting
 changes) over the course of requiring support to avoid
7-10 days. bending or breaking.
o Start by placing them outside o Care Tip: Provide support
for a couple of hours a day in for tall or leggy plants using
a shady spot, then gradually stakes or trellises. This is
increase the time and especially important for
exposure to sunlight. vining plants or those with
large, heavy stems.
3. Leaf Growth
o The leaves of the plant are
the primary sites for
photosynthesis (the process
by which plants convert
sunlight into energy). During
vegetative growth, the plant
will produce many new
leaves to maximize its energy
production.
o Care Tip: Ensure the plant is
getting enough light, as
insufficient light can cause
VEGETATIVE GROWTH poor leaf development and
lead to weak, leggy growth.
Vegetative growth is the stage in a plant’s If growing indoors, consider
life cycle after the seedling phase, where the using a grow light.
plant focuses on growing leaves, stems, and 4. Energy Storage
roots, rather than flowers or fruit. During o As the plant continues to
this stage, the plant's main goal is to increase grow, it stores energy in its
its size and establish a strong structure that roots, stems, and leaves. This
will support future reproductive growth. energy will be used later
Here’s a breakdown of what happens during when the plant transitions to
vegetative growth and how to care for plants the reproductive stage
during this stage: (flowering/fruiting).
o Care Tip: A balanced
Key Aspects of Vegetative Growth fertilizer with nitrogen (for
leaf growth) can support this
1. Root Development process. But be careful with
o During vegetative growth, the over-fertilizing, which can
plant's roots continue to lead to too much growth at
spread out and grow deeper the expense of the plant's
into the soil (or the growing overall health.
medium if in a container). A
well-developed root system is Nutrient Needs During Vegetative
crucial for the plant's stability Growth
and its ability to absorb water
and nutrients. Plants in the vegetative stage are using a lot
o Care Tip: Ensure that your of nutrients to build their structure. The
plant has enough space for its main nutrients they require during this phase
roots to expand. If the plant is include:
in a container, make sure to
repot it into a larger pot if it's 1. Nitrogen (N)
becoming root-bound. o Nitrogen is essential for
2. Stem Elongation healthy leaf and stem growth.
o The plant’s stem(s) will It helps the plant produce
continue to grow taller and chlorophyll, which is needed
thicker, supporting the leaves for photosynthesis.
and any future flowers or o Fertilizer Tip: A nitrogen-
fruits. rich fertilizer (like a 3-1-1 or
o In some plants, like tomatoes 5-1-1 ratio) is beneficial
or beans, the stem grows during this stage.
rapidly during this phase, 2. Phosphorus (P)
 o Phosphorus supports strong Key Aspects of Reproductive
root development and overall Growth:
plant health. While it’s more
important during early plant 1. Flowering – The plant produces
growth and the flowering flowers, which contain reproductive
phase, it still plays a role in organs.
vegetative growth. 2. Pollination – Pollen is transferred
o Fertilizer Tip: Choose from the male anther to the female
fertilizers with a balanced stigma.
nutrient profile, especially if 3. Fertilization – The fusion of male
the plant is still in its early and female gametes to form a
vegetative stage. zygote.
3. Potassium (K) 4. Fruit and Seed Formation – After
o Potassium strengthens cell fertilization, the ovary develops into
walls and helps the plant a fruit, and seeds form inside.
resist diseases. It also aids in 5. Seed Dispersal – Seeds are spread to
water regulation and new locations for germination and
photosynthesis. growth.
o Fertilizer Tip: Ensure the
fertilizer also contains SENESCENCE AND DEATH
potassium, as it supports
overall plant vigor. Senescence is the natural aging process in
4. Micronutrients plants, leading to the deterioration of cells,
o While not needed in large tissues, or the entire plant. This is a
quantities, micronutrients genetically programmed phase that
such as iron, magnesium, eventually results in death.
calcium, and sulfur play a
role in vegetative growth, Stages of Senescence:
especially in chlorophyll
production. 1. Leaf Senescence – Leaves turn
o Care Tip: A balanced yellow due to chlorophyll breakdown
fertilizer will usually provide and fall off (abscission).
these micronutrients. If your 2. Whole-Plant Senescence – The
plant shows signs of entire plant deteriorates after
deficiencies (e.g., yellowing reproduction (common in annual
leaves), you might need to plants).
add specific micronutrients. 3. Organ Senescence – Specific organs
like flowers and fruits wither after
fulfilling their function.

Causes of Senescence:

 Genetics – Some plants have a

programmed lifespan.
 Hormonal Changes – A decrease in
cytokinins and an increase in
ethylene and abscisic acid promote
aging.
 Environmental Stress – Drought,
temperature extremes, and nutrient
deficiency can accelerate senescence.
REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH

Reproductive Growth refers to the phase in

a plant's life cycle when it shifts from
vegetative growth (producing leaves, stems,
and roots) to producing flowers, fruits, and
seeds. This phase is crucial for plant
reproduction and the continuation of the
species.
 PLANT NUTRITION uptake (e.g., nitrogen-fixing
bacteria).
Plant nutrition refers to the process by
which plants take in and utilize essential GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
nutrients for growth, development, and
reproduction. These nutrients come from the as exchange in plants is the process by
soil, water, and air. which they take in and release gases
necessary for survival. This occurs primarily
Types of Plant Nutrients through specialized structures called
stomata, found on leaves, and lenticels,
1. Macronutrients (Needed in Large present on stems.
Amounts)
Key Gases Involved:
Primary Macronutrients
1. Oxygen (O₂) – Released during
 Nitrogen (N) – Promotes leaf and photosynthesis and used in
stem growth; essential for respiration.
chlorophyll. 2. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) – Absorbed
 Phosphorus (P) – Supports root for photosynthesis and released in
development, flowering, and fruiting. respiration.
 Potassium (K) – Enhances disease 3. Water Vapor (H₂O) – Lost through
resistance, water regulation, and transpiration
enzyme activation.
Processes Involved in Gas Exchange
Secondary Macronutrients
1. Photosynthesis (During the Day)
 Calcium (Ca) – Strengthens cell
walls.  Plants absorb CO₂ from the air
 Magnesium (Mg) – Central through stomata.
component of chlorophyll, aids in  O₂ is produced as a byproduct and
photosynthesis. released into the atmosphere.
 Sulfur (S) – Helps in protein
formation and enzyme activity. 2. Cellular Respiration (Day and Night)

2. Micronutrients (Needed in Small  O₂ is absorbed and used to break

Amounts) down sugars for energy.
 CO₂ is released as a waste product.
 Iron (Fe) – Helps in chlorophyll
synthesis. 3. Transpiration
 Manganese (Mn) – Aids in
photosynthesis and enzyme  Water vapor exits through stomata,
functions. helping with cooling and nutrient
 Zinc (Zn) – Supports hormone transport.
production and enzyme activity.
 Copper (Cu) – Important for Structures Involved in Gas Exchange
reproductive growth.
 Boron (B) – Assists in cell wall 🔹 Stomata – Pores on the leaf surface that
formation and pollen development. open and close to regulate gas exchange.
 Molybdenum (Mo) – Helps in 🔹 Guard Cells – Control the opening and
nitrogen metabolism. closing of stomata based on environmental
 Chlorine (Cl) – Supports conditions.
photosynthesis and ion balance. 🔹 Lenticels – Small openings in stems that
allow gas exchange in woody plants.
How Plants Absorb Nutrients 🔹 Root Hairs – Help absorb oxygen from
the soil for root respiration.
1. Soil Absorption – Roots take up
nutrients dissolved in water.
2. Photosynthesis – Carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen are obtained from CO₂
and water.
3. Microbial Assistance – Beneficial
bacteria and fungi help with nutrient
 PLANT TRANSPORT AND
CIRCULATION

Plants have specialized transport systems

that move water, nutrients, and sugars
throughout their structures. This process
ensures proper growth, energy distribution,
and overall plant health.

1. Transport Systems in Plants

🔹 Xylem – Moves water and minerals from

roots to leaves (upward transport).
🔹 Phloem – Transports sugars and nutrients
from leaves to other parts of the plant (both
upward and downward transport).

2. Water and Mineral Transport

(Through Xylem)

Process:

1. Absorption – Roots take in water

and minerals from the soil.
2. Cohesion-Tension Theory – Water
molecules stick together (cohesion)
and are pulled up through xylem by
transpiration.
3. Transpiration – Water evaporates
from leaves, creating a pull that
draws water upward.

Key Factors Affecting Water Transport:

 Root pressure
 Capillary action
 Transpiration pull

3. Sugar Transport (Through

Phloem) – Translocation

Process:

1. Source – Sugars produced in leaves

via photosynthesis enter phloem.
2. Pressure Flow Mechanism – Sugars
move from high concentration
(source) to low concentration (sink,
e.g., roots or growing fruits).
3. Sink – Sugars are stored or used in
non-photosynthetic parts of the plant.

Key Factors Affecting Sugar Transport:

 Pressure differences between source

and sink
 Active transport mechanisms