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Bahirdar Institute of
Bahirdar 1. Design Consideration for Bridges;
Technology, BiT 2. Loading: types of load. Bridge Deck Loading
and Analysis
3. Dynamic Analysis of Bridges
4. Super Structure Design:
◦ Multi-cell, multi-girder reinforced concrete
bridges
5. Substructures: End supports – Abutments, wing
walls & slopes, Intermediate supports- Piers,
BRIDGE ENGINEERING Bearings, access and drainage to bearings,
Retaining Walls – RC stem, drainage in RWs,
Gravity walls, Reinforced soil wall;
Abrham G. (Ph.D
(Ph.D)) 1 2

 AASHTO: American Association of State

6. Design of Bearings
Highway and Transportation Officials, LRFD
7. Bridge Management: Bridge
Bridge Design Specifications, 4th edition,
Inspection, Evaluation and assessment
of existing bridges, Non-destructive Washington, 2007.
tests for steel bridges, Maintenance of  AASHTO: American Association of State
Bridges; Highway and Transportation Officials, LRFD
8. Bridge Detailing Bridge Construction Specifications,
9. Construction sequence in RC and steel
Washington, 2002.
Bridges: Concrete Bridge Construction,  Bridge and Highway Structure Rehabilitation
Steel Bridge Construction and Repair by Mohiuddin A. Khan, The
10. Introduction to computer Programs McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2010.
and software for bridge design

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 Bridge Management by M. J. Ryall, Jordan Hill, A

division of Reed Educational and Professional
Publishing Ltd, 2001.
Chapter 1
 Bridge Engineering, Seismic Design, by Wai-Fah
Chen and Lian Duan CRC Press LLC, 2003
 ERA: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Bridge Design
Manual, Addis Ababa, 2002. BRIDGE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS

Selection of Bridges
 Typically there are three to four viable
Bridge Engineering covers : structure types for each span length. Criteria
planning,
to select bridge include:
economy and
design,
ease of maintenance,
construction and operation of structures that aesthetics, etc
carry facilities for the movement of humans,
animals, or materials over natural or created
obstacles.

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Design philosophy  The design specifications for different limit

states per Table 3-1, ERA Bridge Design
 Bridges shall be designed for specified limit
Manual, 2002, are adopted.
states to achieve the objectives of
Constructability, Safety and Serviceability with  Strength Limit State
due regard issues of Inspectability, Economy  Serviceability Limit State: condition of the
and Aesthetics as stated in article 2.5.2 bridge during the service period
(AASHTO).

 In LRFD method, load factors are applied to  Minimum requirements are provided for
the loads and resistance factors to the clearances, environmental protection,
internal resistances or capacities of sections. aesthetics, geological studies, economy,
 Moreover, the load combinations and load rideability, durability, constructability,
factors are considered accordingly. inspectabilty, and maintainability.

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 SLS due to deflection: this should not  SLS due to vibration: this should not produce
adversely affect the appearance of the structural damage or cause discomfort.
structure. Special pre­cautions may be necessary to
 SLS due to cracking: this should not adversely isolate the source of such vibration.
affect the appearance or the durability of the  Durability
structure. For example, excessive cracks
would allow the ingress of moisture with  Investigation of Fatigue Limit State
subsequent corrosion and/or frost damage.

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 Permanent Loads: Dead and Earth Loads

 Transient Load: Live, Water, Wind
Chapter 2 

Dynamic Loads: Earthquake Loads
Force effects due to superimposed

Bridge Loadings deformations (temp gradient, shrinkage,

creep, settlement, . .)
 Friction Forces
 Vessel Collision
 Other stresses

Vehicular Live Loads

 includes the weight of all components of the
structure, utilities attached thereto, earth Vehicular live load is designated as
cover, wearing surface, future overlays, … HL-93 and shall consist of a
combination of the followings:
• Design truck or design tandem,
and
• Design lane load

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(IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic

 The design lane load shall consist of a load of effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to
9.3kN/m, uniformly distributed in the two sources:
longitudinal direction.  Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the
 Transversely, the design lane load shall be wheel assembly
assumed to be uniformly distributed over a  Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole
3.0m width. Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:
 The force effects from the design lane load  Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions

shall not be subject to a dynamic load from the superstructure, and

 Foundation components that are entirely below
allowance.
ground level.

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 The dynamic load allowance shall not be  The dynamic load allowance for culverts
applied to pedestrian loads or to the design and other buried structures, in %, shall be
lane load. taken as:
 The factor to be applied to the static load
shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100). IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

where: DE = the minimum depth of

earth cover above the structure (mm)

 Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways

 Generally, the number of design lanes with multiple design lanes but this is unlikely that all
should be determined by taking the integer adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will
be considered by the multiple presence factors.
part of the ratio w/3600.
 When the loading condition includes the pedestrian
Where: w is the clear roadway width in mm loads combined with one or more lanes of the
between curbs and/or barriers. vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken
to be one loaded lane.

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 Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of  From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on
vehicles on curved bridges at speed. energy principles, and assuming uniform
Centrifugal forces shall be applied deceleration (retardation), the braking force
horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight.
roadway surface.
 Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the  From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be
taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck
product of the axle weights of the design or tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed
truck or tandem and the factor C, taken as: in the same direction.
 These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at
a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway surface in
either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force
effects.

 Unless protections are provided a horizontal

force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the  Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream
ground should be considered. Pressure)

◦ Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be

Pedestrian Loads assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
 A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa shall be applied to retaining the water.
all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and considered ◦ P=γ g h
simultaneously with the vehicular design live
load.

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 Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force

shall be taken as the product of longitudinal
stream pressure and the projected surface
exposed thereto. Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on
substructure due to water flowing at an angle, Θ,
to the longitudinal axis of the pier

 Earthquake loads are given by the product of the

 Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the
medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length equivalent weight of the superstructure.
the wind load on structures shall be neglected.
 In the absence of more precise data, design wind
pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:

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 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES =

Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD =
Down drag)

Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:

 Type and density of earth,

 Water content,
 Soil creep characteristics,
 Degree of compaction
 Location of groundwater table,
 Earth-structure interaction,
 Amount of surcharge, and
 Earthquake effects.

 The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance

between the surface of the backfill and the bottom
of the footing.
 Uniform temperature, (TU): it is used to calculate
thermal deformation effects.
 Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can
differ on the top and bottom surfaces of a bridge.
 Differential Shrinkage, (SH):
 Creep, (CR): dependence on time and changes in
compressive stresses shall be taken into account.
Down Drag (DD):  Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in
continues structures.
 When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a
downward force. In this case, the force should be
considered.

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Earthquake damage to a bridge can

Chapter 3 have severe consequences. Clearly,
the collapse of a bridge places people
on or below the bridge at risk, and it
Dynamic Analysis must be replaced after the earthquake
unless alternative transportation paths
Methods for Seismic are identified.
Bridge Design

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Higashi-Nada Viaduct collapse in the 1995

Rio Bananito Bridge collapse in the 1991 Costa Rica earthquake

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Depending on the seismic zone, geometry,

and importance of the bridge, the following
analysis methods may be used for seismic
bridge design:
 The single-mode method
 Multimode spectral analysis
 The time-history method

2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan

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 Single-mode spectral and uniform-load  Multimode spectral analysis assumes that

analysis assumes that seismic load can be member forces, moments, and displacements
considered as an equivalent static horizontal due to seismic load can be estimated by
combining the responses of individual modes
force applied to an individual frame in either using methods such as the complete quadratic
the longitudinal or transverse direction. combination (CQC) method and the square root
of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method.
 The equivalent static force is based on the
natural period of a single degree of freedom  The CQC method is adequate for most bridge
(SDOF) and code-specified response spectra. systems, and the SRSS method is best suited
for combining responses of well-separated
modes.

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 This method is a numerical step-by-step

integration of equations of motion. It is
usually required for critical/important or
geometrically complex bridges. Inelastic
analysis provides a more realistic measure
of structural behavior when compared with
an elastic analysis.

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 The response of a structure depends on its

mass, stiffness, damping, and applied load or
displacement. The structure could be excited
by applying an external force p(t) on its mass
or by a ground motion u(t) at its supports.

 In the SDOF system shown in the Figure, the

mass of the bridge superstructure is the mass of
the dynamic system.
 The stiffness of the dynamic system is the
stiffness of the column against side sway, and
the viscous damper of the system is the internal
energy absorption of the bridge structure.
51 52

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 The displacement of the ground motion ug,

the total displacement of the single mass ut, The equation of motion for an SDOF system
and the relative displacement between the subjected to a ground motion is given by
mass and ground u are related by:

u t = u+ ug and
Where: k is the spring constant; c is the
Where: fI the inertia force, fD is the damping damping ratio; and m is the mass of the
force on the mass and related to the velocity dynamic system.
and is the elastic force exerted on the mass fS
and related to the relative displacement

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 Free vibration is typically initiated by

disturbing the structure from its equilibrium
state by an ext
 Once the system is disturbed, the system
vibrates without any external input. Thus, the
equation of motion for free vibrationrnal
force or displacement.

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The natural cyclic frequency of vibration, fn is

given by:
Where: the natural circular frequency of
vibration or the undamped frequency
is the damping ratio
The damped period of vibration ( Td) of the
The time required for the SDOF system to system is given by
complete one cycle of vibration is called the
natural period of vibration (Tn ) of the system
and is given by

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 For structures such as buildings, bridges,  Damping dissipates the energy out of a
dams, and offshore structures, the damping structure in opening and closing of
ratio is less than 0.15 and thus can be microcracks in concrete, stressing of
categorized as underdamped structures. The nonstructural elements, and friction at the
basic dynamic properties estimated using connection of steel members. Thus, the
damped or undamped assumptions are damping coefficient accounts for all energy-
approximately the same. dissipating mechanisms of the structure and
can be estimated only by experimental
methods.

59 60

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 A bridge structure may experience inelastic

behavior during a major earthquake.
 In seismic bridge design, a main objective is to
ensure that a structure is capable of deforming in a
ductile manner when subjected to a larger
earthquake loading. It is desirable to consider the
inelastic response of a bridge system to a major
earthquake.
 The ductility of a structure is usually referred to as
the displacement ductility factor defined by μ.

 where Δu is ultimate displacement capacity and Δy

is yield displacement.

61 62

 The simplest approach to developing the  An SDOF bridge structure is shown in the
inelastic design spectrum is to scale the following Figure. To simplify the problem, the
elastic design spectrum down by some bridge is assumed to move only in the
function of the available ductility of a longitudinal direction. The total resistance
structural system: against the longitudinal motion comes in the
form of friction at bearings, and this could be
considered a damper.

63 64

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Given:
 damping ratio ξ = 0.05, Assume
 area of superstructure A = 3.57 m2, damping ratio ξ = 0.05,
 moment of inertia of the column Ic = 0.1036 m4, area of superstructure,
 Ec of column = 20,700 MPa, A = 3.57 m2,
 material density γ = 2400 kg/m3, moment of inertia of the column,
 length of column Lc = 9.14 m, and length of the Ic = 0.1036 m4,
superstructure Ls = 36.6 m. Ec of column = 20,700 MPa,
material density γ = 2400 kg/m3,
length of column Lc = 9.14 m, and length of the
superstructure Ls = 36.6 m.

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Determine
(1) natural period of the structure,
(2) (2)damped period of the structure,
(3) maximum displacement of the
superstructure, and
(4) maximum moment in the column.

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 The SDOF approach may not be applicable for

complex structures such as multilevel frame
structures and bridges with several supports.
To predict the response of a complex
structure, the structure is discretized with
several members of lumped masses.

69 70

 The equation of motion of an MDOF system is

 As the number of lumped masses increases, similar to the SDOF system, but the stiffness
the number of displacements required to k, mass m, and damping c are matrices. The
define the displaced positions of all masses equation of motion to an MDOF system under
increases. The response of a multi-degree- ground motion can be written as:
of-freedom (MDOF) system is discussed in
this section.

 The stiffness matrix [k] can be obtained from

standard static displacement-based analysis
models and may have off-diagonal terms.

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bearing supported
Higher modes in pier

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◦ Design of Multi-beam multi-cell Reinforced

Chapter 4 Concrete Bridges
◦ Curved and Skew Bridges
◦ Design of Plate Girders
◦ Design of Bearings and Joints
Super Structure
Design
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 Design of Box Girder Bridges  Design of girder bridges consists of deck

slab analysis and design, and the girders
analysis and design.

 Structural analysis of the deck slab involves

taking a continuous strip perpendicular to
the girders (AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and
analyzing by moment distribution or using
design aid given by AASHTO.

77

 If a T- girder bridge contains any  Box girders, being more stable are
curves, the beams become subject to also able to span greater distances
twisting forces, also known as torque. and are often used for longer spans,
The added second web in a box girder where I-beams would not be
adds stability and increases resistance sufficiently strong or stable. However,
to twisting forces. This makes the box the design and fabrication of box
girder the ideal choice for bridges with girders is more difficult than that of I
any significant curve in them. beam.

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 The width of equivalent interior transverse strip over

which the wheel loads can be considered distributed For moment:
longitudinally in cast - in - place concrete decks is
 The live load flexural moment for interior and
given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.I .3-1]
exterior beams with concrete decks shall be
determined by applying the lane fractions

For shear:
 The live load shear for interior and exterior
beams shall be determined by applying the
lane fractions

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87 88

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Procedures and Design Example

..\Box Girder

89 90

Loadings
 As per AASHTO Specification

Structural Materials
 Steel meeting the AASHTO-M
Steel Bridges requirements is prequalified for use in
welded bridges.
(Steel deck plate girder  Concrete with 28-day compressive
bridges) strength = 16 to 41 MPa is commonly
used in concrete slab construction.
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The flexural resistance of a steel beam/girder

is controlled by four failure modes or limit Webs:
states:  The web mainly provides shear strength for
◦ yielding, the girder. The web height is commonly
◦ flange local buckling, taken as 1⁄₁₈ to 1⁄₂₀ of the girder span length
◦ web local buckling, and
for highway bridges and slightly less for
◦ lateral-torsional buckling.
railway bridges.
 The moment capacity depends on the yield
 Since the web contributes little to the
strength of steel, the slenderness ratio λ in
bending resistance, its thickness, t, should
terms of width-to thickness ratio for local
buckling and unbraced length to the radius of be as small as local buckling tolerance
gyration about strong axis ratio for lateral- allows.
torsional buckling.
93 94

Flanges: Hybrid Sections:

 The flanges provide bending strength. The  The hybrid section consisting of flanges
width and thickness are usually determined with a higher yield strength than that of the
by choosing the area of the flanges within web may be used to save materials; this is
the limits of the width-to-thickness ratio, becoming more promoted because of the
and the requirement as specified in the new high-strength steels.
design specifications to prevent local
buckling. Variable Sections:
 Lateral bracing of the compression flanges Variable cross sections may be used to save

is usually needed to prevent lateral material where the bending moment is
torsional buckling during various load smaller and/or larger near the end of a
stages. span
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 Transverse stiffeners increase shear

resistance by providing tension field action  Bearing stiffeners are also required at the
and are usually placed near the supports bearing supports and concentrated load
and large concentrated loads. locations and are designed as compression
 Longitudinal stiffeners increase flexure members.
resistance of the web by controlling lateral
web deflection and preventing the web
bending buckling. They are, therefore,
attached to the compression side.
◦ It is usually recommended that sufficient web
thickness be used to eliminate the need for
longitudinal stiffeners as they can create difficulty
in fabrication.
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Diaphragms and cross frames are transverse

components used
◦ to transfer lateral loads such as wind or
earthquake loads from the bottom of girder
to the deck and from the deck to bearings,
◦ to provide lateral stability of a girder bridge,
and
◦ to distribute vertical loads to the longitudinal
main girders.
 Cross frames usually consist of angles and
act as a truss, while diaphragms use channels
or I-sections as a flexural beam connector.
10
99 0

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The following general guidelines should be

followed for diaphragms and cross frames:
 The diaphragm or cross frame shall be as deep
as practicable to transfer lateral load and to
provide lateral stability. For rolled beam, they
shall be at least half of beam depth
[AASHTOLRFD 6.7.4.2].

 Member size is mainly designed to resist lateral

wind loads and/or earthquake loads. A rational
analysis is preferred to determine actual lateral
forces.
10 10
1 2

 Spacing shall be compatible with the  The lateral bracing transfers wind loads to
transverse stiffeners. bearings and provides lateral stability to
compression flange in a horizontal plan.
 Transverse connectors shall be as few
 All construction stages should be
as possible to avoid fatigue problems. investigated for the need of lateral bracing.
 Effective slenderness ratios (KL/r) for  The lateral bracing should be placed as near
compression diagonal shall be less the plane of the flange being braced as
than 140 and for tension member (L/r) possible.
less than 240.  Design of lateral bracing is similar to the
cross frame.

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3 4

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 Plate girders are used to carry larger loads

over longer spans than are possible with
rolled universal or compound beams.
 They are used in buildings and industrial
structures for long-span floor girders, heavy
crane girders and in bridges.
 Plate girders are constructed by welding
steel plates together to form I-sections. A
closed section is termed as a ‘box girder’.

10 10
5 6

To be competitive and cost effective, the web  Variations in girder depth are permitted. For
of a plate girder is made relatively thin instance, for simply supported girders,
compared to rolled section, and stiffeners are where the bending moment is maximum at
introduced to prevent buckling either due to the centre, the depth may be varied as
compression from bending or shear. shown in the figure below.
 Stiffeners are used at the load points,
supports and at intermediate points.
 Optimum use of materials is made
 Stability problem due to erection of
compression flange

10 10
7 8

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Girder Stresses
 The stresses from moment and shear for a
plate and box girder in the elastic state are
shown below. The flanges have uniform
direct stresses and the web shear and
varying direct stress.

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9 0

Cross Section Choice of Plate Girders  The deeper the girder is made, the smaller are
Depth and breadth of flange the flange plates required. However, the web
 The depth of a plate girder may be fixed by plate must then be made thicker or additional
headroom requirements but it can often be stiffeners provided to meet particular design
requirements.
selected by the designer. The depth is
usually made from one- twelfth to one-  A shallow girder can be very much heavier than
a deeper girder in carrying the same loads.
twentieth of the span.
 The ratio of the breadth of the flange to its
 The breadth of flange plate is made about thickness is with in the semi compact section
0.3 to 0.5 of the depth of girder (in most (class 3) to avoid local buckling of the
cases 0.4 is used). compression flange.

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1 2

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Web Design
 The choice of the thickness of the web is
related to the stiffening. The minimum web
thickness varies from 10mm for girders up
to 1200mm deep to 20mm for girders up
to 1500mm deep.
 If the web plate slenderness d/tw>69ε, the
local buckling capacity can be increased by
the provision of web stiffeners.

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3 4

Moment capacity Simple Post – Critical Method

 If the depth/thickness ratio d/t for the web The design shear buckling resistance Vba,Rd is
is less than or equal to 69ε (for unstiffened given by the following equation.
webs) and 30ε√kr (for stiffed webs), the web Vba,Rd =dtw /γm1 > Vsd
ba
is not susceptible to shear buckling.
where  ba is the simple post – critical shear
Resistance of shear buckling strength
 For webs without intermediate stiffeners,
shear buckling resistance may be verified
using either simple post – critical method or
Tension Field Method.
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5 6

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Flange Design Flange thickness

 If the applied shear is greater than 50 per  Local buckling of the compression flange
cent Vpl,Rd, the web is designed for shear only may occur if C/tf>14ε.
and  The moment capacity (Plastic modulus will
 If the flanges are not Class 4 (slender), then be determined based on compression flange)
the moment capacity may be obtained by for a girder with laterally restrained
assuming that the moment is resisted by the compression flange is: Mf,Rd=Afdofy/γm1 > Msd
flanges alone with each flange subject to a  where: do=h-tf
uniform stress not exceeding fyf . If Vsd > 0. 5Vba,Rd then Msd < Mf,Rd+(Mpl,Rd - Mf,Rd)[1-ρ]
2
 
where-    2Vsd  1
11
7
Vba , Rd  11
8

Design of Stiffeners
Two main types of stiffeners used in plate
girders are:
 (1) Intermediate transverse web stiffeners: These
divide the web into panels and prevent the web from
buckling due to shear. They also have to resist
direct forces from tension field action and possibly
external loads acting as well.
 (2) Load carrying and bearing stiffeners: These are
required at all points where substantial external
loads are applied through the flange and at
supports to prevent local buckling and crushing of
the web. The stiffeners at the supports are also
termed ‘end posts’.
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9 0

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Intermediate stiffeners
Stiffeners thickness, ts
 Intermediate transverse stiffeners may be
Transverse stiffeners not subjected to any
placed on either one or both sides of the
external loads or moments should have a
web.
second moment of inertia Is about the
Spacing (a) centreline of the web not less than Is given by:
 This depends on: (i) Minimum web thickness ◦ If a/d ≥ √2, Is = 0.75dt 3 and If a/d < √2, Is = 1.5(d/a)2dt3
 (ii) Web shear buckling resistance required. where
The closer the spacing is, the greater the shear a is the actual stiffener spacing,
buckling resistance d the depth of web and t the minimum required web
Outstand (bs) thickness for actual stiffener spacing a.
 The outstand should be between 13tsε and  Therefore the moment of inertia of the
19tsε, stiffeners becomes:
3
where ts is the thickness of stiffener and ε = (235/fy)0.5 I s  ( t s b s ) / 12 12
121 2

Buckling Resistance Effective X-section

 The intermediate stiffener should be  The effective cross section of a stiffener
checked for buckling for a compression should be taken as a width of web plate
force of Ns. The compression force in an equal to 30εtw arranged with 15εtw in each
intermediate stiffener, Ns, is obtained from: side of the stiffener.
N s  Vsd  dt w bb /  m1  0  The out- of- plane Buckling Resistance of
compression members will be determined by
where V  dt  /  is the critical shear using buckling curve C and buckling length
cr w bb m1
buckling resistance of web not less than 0.75d.

12 12
3 4

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Buckling Resistance
Load Carrying and Bearing stiffeners,
 The bulking resistance of the stiffener is
 Load carrying and bearing stiffeners are
checked by considering the cross-sectional
required to prevent local buckling and
area As at the centre of the girder. As is the
crushing of the web due to concentrated
area of stiffener plus 15 times the web
loads applied through the flange when the
thickness (t) on either side of the centre line
web itself cannot support the load. The
of the stiffener (As = 2bsts + 30εt2).
stiffeners are fully effective in resisting the
Thus Npl,Rd ≥ P
load.
 If tension field is utilized in the web, the
Outstand combined external transversal shear force,
 This is the same as set out for intermediate
Fx should not exceed the buckling resistance
stiffeners
Npl,Rd of the stiffener. (Fx=P+V-Vcr)
12 12
5 6

Where: Bearing Resistance

P is the applied concentrated load adjacent to the  The bearing capacity of the stiffeners Ps is
stiffener given by the following equation and the
V is the maximum shear in the web stiffener is designed for this force. Ps=Asfy
Vcr is the critical shear buckling resistance of web /γm1 and Ps > P
Steps to determine3 Npl,Rd
◦ Compute IX  (t s bs ) / 12 , As, rx = (IX /As)0.5
and Le=0.75d
◦ compute λ = Le/r
◦ Obtain reduction factor for buckling χ using
buckling curve C
◦ Calculate Buckling Resistance, Npl,Rd = χ Asfy/γm1
12 12
7 8

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End-post design Outstand

 End anchorage should be provided to carry  This is the same as set out for intermediate
the longitudinal anchor force representing stiffeners
the longitudinal component of the tension Bearing Resistance
field at the end panel of the web with  The bearing resistance of the end post is
intermediate transverse stiffeners. given by: Ps= As,net fy/γm1 > Rsup
 The end post of a plate girder is provided for where Rsup Reaction force at the support and
this purpose, and may consist of a single or As,net=bt
twin stiffeners. Buckling Resistance
 This is the same as set out for load carrying
stiffeners
12 13
9 0

Connection between web and stiffeners Connection of end- post to web

The connection between each plate and the  The welds between the stiffener and web
web is to be designed for a shear of not less must be designed to carry the reaction and
than: t2/5bs (kN/mm). In most cases t2/8bs is the shear from the end-post beam action.
used. Rsup
◦ where t is the web thickness (mm) and bs the  weld value
Lwd
outstand of the stiffener (mm).
Lwd is the length of weld (=2d)
Connection between bearing stiffeners to web
Papp t 2
  weld value
Lwd 8bs

13 13
1 2

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Flange to web welds

 Fillet welds are used for the flange to web
welds. The welds are designed for the
horizontal shear per weld:= FAy/2Ix.
Introduction to Design
where of Railway Bridges
F is the applied shear,
◦ A the area of flange,
◦ y the distance of the centroid of A from the centroid
of the girder and
◦ Ix the moment of inertia of the girder about the x–x
axis. 13
3
13
4

Railway Bridges
 Basically in Road and Railway Transportation System Bridge is
 Railways: characteristic is the guided movement of the mandatory for two reasons :
wheel by the track through a metal-to metal contact.  To pass obstacles
 Advantages of Railway  To facilitate the transportation system
 Provide an integrated system of service for passenger and  A bridge shall be defined as any structure which displays a
freight transport definite superstructure (i.e. deck and girders) and substructures
 Pollute the environment minimally in contrast to other (i.e. abutments, piers and foundations) erected over a depression,
transport means. watercourse, railway line, road or other obstacle for carrying
 Contribute decisively to relieve congestion in peak travel motor, railway, pedestrian or other traffic.
periods
 Consume much less energy for the same traffic  Selection of Bridge Type
 Provide reduced fares for large segments of the society  Geometric Condition of the Site
 Disadvantages of Railway  Subsurface Conditions of the Site
 Administration and organization inflexibility  Functional Requirements
 Staff shortages  Aesthetics
 High costs  Economics and ease of maintenance
 Rolling stock often difficult to operate  Construction and erection considerations
 High maintenance expenses  Legal Considerations

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Railway Bridge Design Loads

Basic Differences between Railroad and Highway Bridges
 Dead load:- consists of the weight of the structure itself, the
 The ratio of live load to dead load is much higher for a railroad track it supports, and any attachments it may carry
bridge than for a similarly sized highway structure.  Live load: Cooper E80 load model
 The design impact load on railroad bridges is higher than on
highway structures.
 Simple-span structures are preferred over continuous structures for
railroad bridges.
 Interruptions in service are typically much more critical for
railroads than for highway agencies.
 Impact: is the dynamic amplification of the live-load effects
 Since the bridge supports the track structure, the combination of
on the bridge caused by the movement of the train across
track and bridge movement cannot exceed the tolerances in track
the span.
standards.
 Railroad bridges have performed well during seismic events.  Centrifugal force: is the force a train moving along a curve
 Railroad bridge owners typically expect a longer service life from  Wind loading: is the force on the structure due to wind
their structures than highway bridges owners expect from theirs. action on the bridge and train
 Stream Flow, Ice, and Buoyancy and Seismic Load

Example: Design of 40m RC-Railway Bridge Design of Deck Slab

 Determine the dead load amount from the assumed
 Design Parameters
 Design Data
preliminary dimensions and calculate the maximum
 Material Property Used bending moment
 Select preliminary dimensions  Determine the live load following AREMA section
2.2.3 specification and the calculate the maximum
bending moment
 Using load factor design combination determine the
maximum design positive and negative moment
 Using ductility requirement check the provided depth
of the deck with the required depth to sustain the
maximum design moment
 If the provided depth is sufficient enough, determine
the reinforcements

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Design of Deck Slab Continued….

Design of Deck Slab Continued….
Bottom Slab Design
 Check the maximum and minimum reinforcement
ratio using AREMA section 2.32.1 and 2.35.7
Using AREMA section 2.23.11d(1)
specification. determine the amount of reinforcement
 Check serviceability requirement following AREMA required for the provided section
2.37 specifications. If the section fails to satisfy Check the minimum and maximum
serviceability requirements revise the section spacing of reinforcement using AREMA
geometry. section 2.5 (a) specification
 Check the minimum and maximum spacing of
reinforcement using AREMA section 2.5 (a)
Determine the amount of distribution
specification\Determine the Shrinkage and reinforcement required using AREMA
temperature reinforcement using AREMA section section 2.23.11d(2) specification
2.12 specification and check the spacing of same

Design the girders for bending moment

Design of Girders
 Determine the dead load the interior and exterior girders and  Using AREMA section 2.23.11b(1) determine the
compute the maximum and minimum bending moment and
effective flange width
shear force at different points of the bridge span
 Using Cooper E 80 (EM 360) live loading and Table 15-1-15  Using AREMA Section 2.5 (a) and 2.5 (c)
tabulated values of for simple span bridge determine the specification determine the minimum spacing of
maximum bending moment and shear force at different points reinforcement both in vertical and horizontal
of the bridge span direction
 Using AREMA section 2.2.3 (d) specification and lever rule
 Assume various layers of reinforcement and check
determine the distribution factor of the live load effects
among the exterior and interior girder the sectional capacity using either rectangular or T-
 Multiply the distribution factor of live load obtained from beam analysis
lever rule by the maximum moment and shear force obtained  If the section fails to accommodate the maximum
from Table 15-1-15 for exterior and interior girders moment, revise the design
respectively
 Accordingly, using trial and error set the depth of
 Combine the maximum moment and shear force of the dead
loads and live loads both in service load design and factor the girder and layers of reinforcement that satisfy
load design method and select the maximum positive and the sectional capacity to resist the maximum
negative design moments design moment

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Design of Girders Continued….

 Check the reinforcement provided against the
maximum and minimum steel ratio
 Check the reinforcement provided for serviceability
requirements according to AREMA specifications

Design the girders for shear

 From the maximum shear force determined from factored
load design method determine the factored shear stress
Chapter 5
 Pursuant to AREMA section 2.35.2 (b) specification check
the factored shear force against the shear stress the Substructure Design
concrete on the provided section can hold.
 If the factored shear force is greater than the shear
resistance of the concrete provide shear reinforcement in
accordance to AREMA section 2.10.3 provisions otherwise
provide the minimum shear reinforcement.
14
6

Piers provide vertical supports for spans at

Substructures intermediate points and perform two main
• Abutments and Retaining Structures, functions:
• Piers and Columns  transferring superstructure vertical loads to

• Bearings, access and drainage to the foundations

bearings  resisting horizontal forces acting on the
bridge

14 14
7 8

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Generally piers are subjected to the following  Drag forces due to the friction at bearings
loads:  Earth pressure
 Dead loads  Stream flow pressure
 Live loads and impact from the  Ice pressure
superstructure  Earthquake forces
 Wind loads on the structure and the live  Thermal and shrinkage forces
loads  Ship impact forces
 Centrifugal force from the superstructure
 Force due to prestressing of the
 Longitudinal force from live loads (vehicular superstructure
braking force)  Forces due to settlement of foundations
14 15
9 0

Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier consists of a

Design Criteria: In general, the design of solid wall which extends up from a foundation
a highway bridge pier should address: consisting of a footing or piles.
❏ Safety against overturning
❏ Safety against sliding
❏ Safety against bearing failure of the
soil
❏ Safety against excessive or differential
settlement

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Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes Column Bent Pier: A column bent pier consists
one or more columns with a pier cap in the of a cap beam and supporting columns in a
shape of a hammer. frame-type structure.

15 15
3 4

 Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a Finally selection of pier is made based on
variation on the column bent pier with the the following considerations.
supporting columns and footing replaced
 Economy
with individual supporting piles.
 Aesthetics
 Flow of water and traffic under the
bridge
 Superstructure

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5 6

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 Abutment is component of a bridge

Types of Abutments
• provides the vertical support to the Abutments can be classified based on the load
bridge superstructure at the bridge resisting mechanism as:
ends 1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting
• connects the bridge with the with its dead weight and dead weight of
approach roadway retained soil or backfill on its inclined back
• retains the roadway base materials face.

2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance

derived from cantilever action and usually
constructed from reinforced concrete.
15 15
7 8

Abutments and Retaining Structures . . .

Types of Abutments ….. Types of Abutments …..
3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to
cantilever ones but ties called counterforts are
provided to tie the stem to the footing.

4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential

concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or
fibers to reinforce the fill material in the lateral
direction so that the integrated fill material will
act as a gravity retaining structure

15 16
9 0

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Abutment Type Selection An abutment should be designed so as to

 The selection of an abutment type needs to consider withstand damage from:
all available information and bridge design
requirements. Those may include bridge geometry, ◦ the Earth pressure,
roadway and riverbank requirements, geotechnical ◦ the gravity loads of the bridge superstructure
and right-of-way restrictions, aesthetic and abutment,
requirements, economic considerations, etc. ◦ live load on the superstructure or the
approach fill,
 Knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages for ◦ wind loads, and
the different types of abutments is important in ◦ the transitional loads transferred through the
choosing the right type of abutment for the bridge connections between the superstructure and
structure. the abutment.

16 16
1 2

Abutment Wingwall Abutment Slope Protection

 Abutment wingwalls act as a retaining  Flow water scoring may severely damage
structure to prevent the abutment backfill bridge structures by washing out the bridge
soil and the roadway soil from sliding abutment support soil.
transversely.  To reduce water scoring damage to the
 A wingwall design similar to the retaining bridge abutment, pile support, rock slope
wall design. However, live-load surcharge protection, concrete slope paving may be
needs to be considered in wingwall design. used.

16
3 164

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Scour is the washing away of streambed

material by water channel flow. Typically,
scour occurs when the water channel becomes
narrowed or constricted.

The removal of material from under a pier’s

foundation, often associated with scour, is
known as undermining or undercutting.

16 16
5 6

 If scour occurs at a specific localized point in the

channel, it is known as local scour.
 If scour takes place over a large area of the channel
it is known as general scour.

Scour Protection:
Scour protection is required when some restriction is
made to the flow of the flood.
Chapter 6
 Riprap
 Gabion and Reno mattresses Design of Bearings
 Filter Blankets
 Vegetation

16
7

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 The forces applied to a bridge bearing mainly

 Bearings are structural devices positioned include superstructure self-weight, traffic
between the bridge superstructure and the loads, wind loads, and earthquake loads.
substructure.
 Movements in bearings include translations
and rotations. Creep, shrinkage, and
Their principal functions are as follows: temperature effects are the most common
1. To transmit loads from the superstructure causes of the translational movements, which
to the substructure, and can occur in both transverse and longitudinal
2. To accommodate relative movements directions.
between the superstructure and the  Traffic loading, construction tolerances, and
substructure. uneven settlement of the foundation are the
common causes of the rotations.
16 17
9 0

Sliding Bearings
 Bearings may be classified as fixed bearings  A sliding bearing utilizes one plane metal plate
and expansion bearings. sliding against another to accommodate
 Fixed bearings allow rotations but restrict translations.
translational movements. Rocker and Pin Bearings
 Expansion bearings allow both rotational  It typically consists of a pin at top that facilitates

and translational movements. rotations, and a curved surface at the bottom

that accommodates the translational movements
Roller Bearings
 Roller bearings are composed of one or more
rollers between two parallel steel plates.
 Roller bearings have been used in both steel and
17
concrete bridges. 17
1 2

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 Elastomeric Bearings
 An elastomeric bearing is made of elastomer
(either natural or synthetic rubber). It
accommodates both translational and
rotational movements through the
deformation of the elastomer.
 Elastomer is flexible in shear but very stiff
against volumetric change. Under
compressive load, the elastomer expands
laterally. To sustain large load without
excessive deflection, reinforcement is used
to restrain lateral bulging of the elastomer. 17 17
3 4

17 17
5 6

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 Generally the objective of bearing selection

is to choose a bearing system that suits the
needs with a minimum overall cost. The
following procedures may be used for the
selection of the bearings.

1. Determination of Functional Requirements

2. Evaluation of Bearings
3. Preliminary Bearing Design

17 17
7 8

The design procedure is according to AASHTO-LRFD [1]

and is as follows:
1. Determine girder temperature movement (Art. 5.4.2.2).
2. Determine girder shortenings due to post-tensioning,
concrete shrinkage, etc.
3. Select a bearing thickness based on the bearing total
movement requirements (Art. 14.7.5.3.4).
4. Compute the bearing size based on bearing compressive
stress (Art. 14.7.5.3.2).
5. Compute instantaneous compressive deflection (Art.
14.7.5.3.3).
6. Combine bearing maximum rotation.
7. Check bearing compression and rotation (Art.
14.7.5.3.5).
8. Check bearing stability (Art. 14.7.5.3.6).
17
9. Check bearing steel reinforcement (Art. 14.7.5.3.7). 9 180

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Chapter 7
Bridge Management

18 18
1 2

 Bridge Management  Bridge Management

 The most common approach to assess the safety of  Assess the safety and performance of a bridge in
a bridge in bridge management is the bridge management is essential.
determination of its load carrying capacity and it is  Performance assessment of existing bridges could be
an important task that needs more attention and to
done by:
be exercised with care.
 In case the bridges damaged, their loading
◦ - conducting load test,
capacities can be reduced and it requires ◦ - correlating the bridge under study with
considerable amount of time and money to similar bridge whose details are known,
reconstruct. - existing observations and measurements

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1. Introduction
Bridges by year of construction
Inspection (Bridges along Federal road Network)
1200
1007
1000

800 731

Repair, 600 507

556

Rehabilitation, Inventory Assessment 400 286

391

or Replacement 200
200 115
10
0

Selection
Prioritization
of Action

Bridge Management Cycle

ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Data ERA-BMS Software
18
185 6

Bridge by Type ( Bridges along Federal road Network)

Name Type Length Year Remark

Tekeze RC Deck Girder 424 2014

Blue Nile RC Deck Girder and 355 2010 along Sherkole-Blue

Steel Bridge Nile road segment
(Asossa)
Beshilo RC Deck Girder 319 2002 7-span

Hidasse Extradose, PC 303 2009 3-span

Tekeze No.3 Steel Truss 280 2001 The longest steel

Bridge

Baro RC Deck Girder 276 1981

Multi span bridge
ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) Data ERA-BMS Software Abay No.5 PC Box Girder 236 1992
18
7

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1. Introduction . . . cont’d
 Bridges Inspection
Old Bridges WHY?  is one of the maintenance management and all the technical
activities to maintain the function of bridges to meet the
PROBLEM requirement of the structures through its service life.
In various state of Causes
deterioration  Overloading
-An issue to  Aging  objectives of inspection
maintain a fully  Poor design
functioning Load capacity reduced  Poor construction  to get the present condition on bridges
transportation.  to prevent damages by removing causes of damage
- Accommodation Major defects  to identify damages in early stage & proper measures are
of modern and Performance Flexural cracks,
taken before serious damage develop
existing traffic is in Shear cracks,
question. assessment ??? Concrete peel off,  to find progress of damage
Rebar exposure,  to try to reduce restriction and protection of safe and
Honey comb & smooth traffic
Repaired, stren abrasion
gthened or
replaced
18
9

Classification

 According to ERA bridge inspection manual

Bridge inspections are classified into three types in terms of  A great deal of experience and technical
purposes and frequencies. understanding is required in order to conduct
an inspection in a methodical and systematic
• Regular inspection  Visual Inspection way.
• Major inspection
• Emergency inspection  Detailed Inspection  The superstructure is subjected to greater
wear and tear from traffic while the
Types and frequency of Inspection substructure is less affected. As a
result, substructures are not replaced as
 Regular inspection – once a year / visual inspection /
often as superstructures. Hence, the life cycle
 Major inspection – once in every 3 years / detail
inspection/
costs and rehabilitation efforts are greater for
 Emergency inspection -shall be conducted when natural the superstructure components.
disasters and severe traffic accidents may be occurred.

19
2

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 To obtain required information on the material

properties, various tests should be performed. The load testing of bridges can be of great
Among these, visual inspection and load testing
are important inputs for design restoration.
benefit to engineers in aiding their
understanding of the behavior of bridges at
both serviceability and the ultimate limit
Visual Inspection
states under the action of live load.
 Visual inspection, as a preliminary step of
bridge assessment, involves gathering of data  There are three types of static load test that

from existing bridge via regular visual control can be used on bridge superstructures:
based on various standards. Results of ◦ Supplementary load testing
inspection are saved in the records (bridge ◦ Proving load testing
book, sheets and digital files as well) for ◦ Collapse load testing
further analysis.

19 19
3 4

 This type of test is supplementary to the

assessment process and is preferred by most
engineers because it involves applying a known
load to the bridge which is no greater than the
existing traffic load and therefore should be safe Strength Evaluation and Assessment of
with no damage or risk of collapse. Existing Bridges
Proving Load Testing
 This type of test is the ideal one from an
assessment point of view since it involves applying
loads incrementally up to a value equivalent to the
assessment loads factored for the ultimate limit
state and in some ways is an extension of the
supplementary load test.
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 Capacity performance assessment is one of the

major tasks to be performed in bridge
management and should be exercised with care.
 Original design documents, drawings and plans
are important to perform such an activity.
 In cases of older bridges, assessing as much
design information as possible is difficult. In the
absence of these data, assessing bridge’s
performance will be a common problem bridge
engineers face.

19 19
7 8

 The procedure for assessment and evaluation of  The rating check is done by comparing the
existing bridges requires knowledge of the factored load effects (both dead and live) with
physical conditions of the bridge and the applied the factored resistance at all critical sections.
loadings.
 The output is a rating factor, which
 Performance assessment of bridges can be
determines the suitability of the given bridge
expressed in terms of load rating. Load rating is
for the loads under consideration.
the process of ascertaining the capacity of each
existing bridge in the nation’s diverse inventory
in order to inform the public of load limits and to
develop freight policies and truck routes.

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 When rating the full section of a bridge, like a box

girder or 3D truss, or crossbeams, which have two
 The rating factor is the ratio of the safe level or more lanes, the following formula applies when
of loading to the load produced by the rating overload trucks.
nominal or standard vehicle.

 The formula above assumes that there is one

overload truck occupying one lane, and one of the
legal trucks occupying each of the remaining lanes.
 Trucks shall be placed in the lanes in a manner that
 produces the maximum forces. The LLlgl shown in
the equation above corresponds to the maximum
 effect of the legal trucks(s).
20 20
1 2

 The maximum permitted traffic live load

effect will be the total resistance minus the
effect of loadings other than the rating Legal
Truck.

 As per the recommendation of ERA BDM, the

Flow Chart for Rating Procedure is shown
below.

20
1 20
3 4

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 Rating Legal Trucks with axle spacing and

relative axle weights similar to actual
vehicles are recommended as evaluation
vehicles. These vehicles, together with the
prescribed live load factors, give a realistic
estimate of the maximum live load effects
????? of a variety of heavy trucks in actual traffic.

20 20
5 6

The steps required for the detailed structural Bridge Load Rating
evaluation of bridges include the followings  The bridge load rating determines the safe load
carrying capacity. Ratings are calculated for a
 1. Frequent inspection
new bridge and are recalculated throughout the
 2. Material testing to assess strength of bridge’s life as changes occur.
structural components and condition of
materials Live Load Rating
 3. Load rating
 This is used to determine the usable live load
 4. Nondestructive load testing capacity by inspection and by rating. Each
 5. Remaining fatigue life evaluation. component is evaluated and the lowest
component rating is the most critical.

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Rating is dependent upon:

 i) Inventory rating: A load level which can safely
Magnitude of live load (legal rating load), intensity and
utilize a bridge for an indefinite period of time.
frequency of traffic,
 Inventory level reflects the existing bridge and Number of lanes,
material conditions with regard to corrosion, loss Existing conditions of structure,
of section and other deficiencies. It does not Bridge age and material properties.
exceed the design stresses.
Live load capacity is based on bridge inspections:
 ii) Operating rating: The absolute maximum  Identifying condition changes
permissible load to which the bridge can be  Measurement of any losses
subjected. The use of bridge by unlimited
 Field measurements
number of heavier vehicles would exceed the
capacity and is not permitted.

20 21
9 0

Bridge load-ratings provide several useful results:  ERA _BMD

 Confirm a bridge has adequate design for normal
operations capacity
 Identify those bridges that do not have adequate
capacity for normal operations and consider such
bridges for posting
 Provide bridge capacity information and models
for routing overload permit vehicles
 Identify unused capacity in existing bridges
 Support examination of structurally deficient
bridges
 Provide a review on new bridge design

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21 21
3 4

 An impact allowance shall be added to the

static loads used for rating.
 Under an enforced speed restriction, impacts
shall be reduced
 Impact loads are taken to be primarily due to the
roughness or unevenness of the road
surface, especially the approach spans

For longer spans (upto 90m), a legal lane loading is

specified in the evaluation.

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 Nominal strength calculations shall take into consideration

 For smooth approach and deck conditions, the the observable effects of deterioration, such as loss of
impact shall be taken as 0.10. concrete or steel cross-sectional area, loss of composite
action or corrosion.
 For a rough surface with bumps, a value of 0.20
should be used.
 Under extreme adverse conditions of high
speed, spans less than 12m and highly distressed
pavement and approach conditions, a The strength of sound concrete shall be assumed to be:
 Values taken from the plans and specifications or
 value of 0.30 should be taken.  the average of construction test values.
 For span ≤ 12.0 m, where the measured  When these values are not available, the ultimate stress
deflection exceeds1/90 of the span, 0.10 should of sound concrete shall be assumed to be 25 MPa.
be added to these values.  For deteriorated concrete 15 MPa shall be taken

21 21
7 8

 The area of tension steel to be used in computing

the ultimate flexural strength of reinforced  When tests are performed to assess yield
concrete members shall not exceed that available stress, the mean values shall be reduced by
in the section or 75 percent of the steel 10% to produce nominal values for strength
reinforcement required for a balanced condition. calculations.

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Load Carrying Capacity of RC Bridge

 Load carrying capacity of the RC bridge is the most
important function of the bridge and it can be
calculated using the information of its as-built
drawings or design drawings. ESTIMATION OF MATERIAL
When such drawings are not available, the amount of

re-bars of slabs and girders are estimated from the STRENGTHS
calculated forces using the design loads of its
construction period.
 Using the estimated re-bars, load carrying capacity of
slabs and girders are calculated under the present
loadings. Taking account of this calculated capacity
and actual damages/deterioration, repair method
must be selected.

22
2

Rebar detection by radar method

Concrete Test Hammer

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 Design restoration is a process of accurately describing the

initial condition (design values) of a structure from its current  The statistical variations of the design parameters are
condition (actual values).
- Probabilistic design restoration :-it takes into account the scatter considered.
in the design parameters
 Different combinations of random variables are based
 Direct and indirect method can be used to estimate yield on the Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) method.
strength of steel
◦ Measurement and observation Bridge dimensions,  Allowable limits of dimensional measurements by
Deterioration conditions AASHTO are used (mean, std).
◦ Load test Deflection

 A flow of design restoration based on the deflection of the

bridge from load test is used.
 i.e., the incremental instantaneous mid-span deflection of the
bridge due to applied load needs to be measured.
22 22
5 6

Inspection data,
Design Current
deflection, cracking,
deterioration, . . . condition Assumptions:
Restoration
Initial  The section is already cracked by the maximum possible
condition
Empirical Actual values
load experienced in the past.
Design values relationships The required  The distribution of the neutral axis is independent of load
dimensions of the
Measurement and structure are position
determined
observation
through
 The NA doesn’t move with load and is assumed to be
measurements. unchanged
Load Test

FEM
Statistical
simulation
random variables
Estimation of
Deflections
current values

The statistical 2
variations of the 4( y1  y0 ) 2  2x    2 x 2   2x 
2   2 x 2 
design parameters are y 2
y  y0  y1    y0 1     ; I ( x)  I1    I cr 1    
L L
   L  L   L  
expressed by        
Flow chart for design restoration of RC bridges assuming normal
distribution.

22 22
7 8

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Estimation of fay
Assumptions:
• Flexural capacity of the section is estimated by
considering the effect of maximum design loads.

• Since the test load is below the yield load, the

bridge is considered as elastic and the moment is
computed prior to yield point (onset of yielding),
besides AASHTO LRFD, allows working stress
(Generate different combinations of the above random variables)
design method.

• The linear strain distribution is assumed. The

effect of bond deterioration between concrete For each combination
and re-bars is considered but it is assumed that estimate d, As and fy
it is not severe.
22 23
9 0

5.0
Cross Sectional Area of Steel
Initial condition (3% loss) Initial condition A sa  As (1   ) 2
0.20 Current condition (491.32, 9.95)
 t   0  Px
Initial condition (6% loss)
4.0 :decrease in steel bar

diameter (%)
(487.24,
Probability density (%)

0.15
Probability density (%)

3.0
(4784.05, (5094.29, 10.46) (3% and 6%) are considered
231.08) 246.07)

0.10 2.0

0.05 1.0

0.0
0.00
460 470 480 490 500 510 520
4000 4250 4500 4750 5000 5250 5500 5750

Area of steel, mm2/m

Initial effective depth, mm To estimate the initial effective depth, , the COV of
cover thickness obtained from the test beam
Distribution of initial As and d specimens is used.
d  D a  [( D a  d a )(1  COV)]

23 23
1 2

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 The fraction of vehicle load effect transferred to a

single member shall be selected in accordance with
the design manual and the following correction
factors shall be used.

23 23
3 4

23 23
5 6

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 Reduction Factors for Live Load

Numerical Example
Strength Evaluation of a RC Slab Bridge

23 23
7 8

Performance Assessment of Bridges for

Special Load Arrangements

190t, 16 AXLE

23 190t, 18 AXLE 24
9 0

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Loading
Condition

Load Rating of a 36m RC Box- SFD

Girder Bridges

BMD

24 24
1 2

24  Shear Capacity 24
3 4

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Bending Moment
Shear Force (kN) (kN-m)
Due to Due to
the the
Section propose Rating Section propose Rating
Span. Capacity d load Factor Capacity d load Factor Remarks
The bridges will be
overloaded if 172t
6,799.3 trailer with 14 axles
1,241.70 1,064.30 0.65 15,520 3 0.92 has been used
Possible to transport
36m 1241.7 586.71 1.19 15,520 6759.66 0.99 using 16 axles

Moment Capacity
24 24
5 6

Load Posting Analysis

Once the current performance assessment As described in AASHTO rating manual, the
of bridges is done, the next step is the following rating results are used for posting
recommended actions to be made by the analysis:
1. When RF > 1.0, posting is not required.
respective bridge authorities. This is
2. When RF > 0.3 but < 1.0, the safe posting load =
expressed in terms of load posting analysis. W (RF – 0.3)/0.7
3. When lane load governs, W = 40 tons.
1. When RF > 1.0 posting is not required. 4. For any vehicle when RF < 0.3, the vehicle type
2. When RF > 0.3 but < 1.0 the safe posting load should not be allowed on the span.
5. When RF for all three legal loads (Type 3; Type 3-
m k
Rn    Di Di    Li Li (1  I )
S2 and Type 3-3 units) <0.3, the bridge shall be
RF  i 1 i 1 closed for vehicular traffic.
 L L(1  I ) 6. Speed limit may be lowered to reduce impact live
load.
24 24
7 8

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Confidence
Confidence
interval
interval
1.826 1.87 1.425
1.394

50.00 100 60.0 100

 Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide
Probability
Cum. percent
Probability
Cum. percent
group of analysis techniques used to evaluate
40.00 80
50.0
80 the properties of a material, component or
(1.86, 0.01) 40.0 system without causing damage.

Cumulative percent

Cumulative percent
Probability density

Probability density
30.00 60 60

30.0
(1.41, 0.008)
 Non-destructive testing for steel structures
20.00 40
20.0
40 consists of the following methods:
◦ Eddy Current Testing (ET)
10.00 20 20
10.0 ◦ Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
0.00 0 0.0 0 ◦ Penetrant Testing (PT)
1.800 1.825 1.850
Rating factor
1.875 1.900 1.375 1.390 1.405
Rating factor
1.420 1.435
◦ Radiographic Testing (RT)
Using conventional
method, RF=1.54
◦ Ultrasonic Testing (UT) and
Distribution of rating ◦ Visual Testing (VT)
Distribution of rating
factor for inventory
factor for load posting
24 25
9 0

 Selection of NDT method depends on type of

materials, welds, coatings, forgings, thicknes Prior to testing, the following information is
s of steel plate, weld thickness, etc. Selection usually required:
of testing method is shown in Table 1 below.
 grade of parent material
 welding parameters and conditions used to
make the weld
 location and extent of welds to be tested
 weld surface geometry
 coating type and thickness.

25 25
1 2

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 Maintenance of bridge infrastructure presents many

challenges. Maintenance is carried for the following reasons
 To keep the performance of a bridge to the
 Presently only a limited number of accurate and
required level.
economical techniques exist to test structures for
 To preserve the planned level of traffic safety
integrity and safety as well as insure that they meet
original design specifications. and quality.
 To keep or increase the design load bearing
capacity of the bridge.

The standard repair methods commonly

involve crack injection, element
restoration, and surface coating.
25
3 254

 Maintenance in general is categorized in to four

groups as shown below.
I. Preventive Maintenance:- to prevent the
appearance of visible deterioration during the
service time.
II. Corrective Maintenance:- appropriate measure
should be taken after degradation appearance
on the structures has appeared.
III. Observational Maintenance:- It carries out
primarily on the basis of visual inspection
without any direct measure.
IV. Non-inspection Maintenance:-it applied to the
direct inspection is difficult or practically
impossible to be carried out such as
underground structures.
25
255 6

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Damage The followings are the basic defect types of RC

highway slab bridges.
 Contamination – Dirtiness or not designed plant vegetation
Failure Deterioration  Deformation – Geometry changes incompatible with the
project, with changes of mutual distances of structure
element points
Initial Defect
 Deterioration – Physical and/or chemical changes of structural
features against designed values
 Failure：Failure of structure including damage, deterioration and  Discontinuity – Inconsistent with a project break of material
initial defect caused by design stage, construction stage or other
continuity
external forces
 Damage：Failure occurred in the short period by external forces  Displacement – Change (or restriction) of location of a
structure or its part incompatible with the project but without
 Deterioration：Failure of long time its deformation
 Initial defect ： Failure based on the defect of design or
 Loss of material – Decrease of designed amount of structure
construction
material
25 25
7 8

Cause on Defect of Concrete Bridges

Initial Defect (Caused in Design and Construction)

The damage identification process is generally
structured into the following levels. Cover for Reinforcement Bar, Quality of Material,
 Damage detection, where the presence of damage Construction Joint, Loading Condition
is identified.
 Damage location, where the location of the damage
Damage of Concrete (Caused in Structure)
is determined.
 Damage typification, where the type of damage is Impact, Earthquake, Fire, Traffic and Overloading
determined.
 Damage extent, where the severity of damage is
Deterioration of Concrete (Caused in Material)
assessed.
Carbonation, Chloride damage, Chemical Attack, Alkali
Silica Reaction (ASR)
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Examples of Defect on the Bridge

 Corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major 1) Crack
causes of deterioration of reinforced concrete.
 Shrinkage, thermal and load effects: Cracking Cause of cracks
is induced in concrete structures when free
movement due to shrinkage of concrete and - Lack of curing and quick removal of forms, etc.
thermal expansion and contraction is restrained, - Variation of temperature and moisture
even under simple loads.
 Impact forces: This damage can be caused by - External forces of bending moment, shearing force and
Collision of motor vehicles against piers, fatigue
abutments and parapets.
 Overloading: It may occur due to vehicles with - Differential settlement of foundation
above legal limit weight, extremes of high winds, - Corrosion of rebar for lack of covering, chloride damage
build up of flood debris against the structure.
 Poor workmanship: Poor workmanship is one of the and carbonation, etc.
most common causes of early deterioration.
26
2

Cracking Shear cracks :- are found near the bearing area and begin at the
bottom of the member and extend diagonally upward. Shear
A break without complete separation of parts,
cracks are caused by structural loading or movement of supports.
and caused by shrinkage, temperature, (eg due to foundation settlement ) or lateral displacement of
corrosion of reinforcement, load stress, frames and columns. Occurrence of shear cracks will result in
flexure. reduced strength of a member.
Cracks of concrete are classified as Structural
Cracks or non-structural cracks.
Structural Cracks :- are those cracks which result
from insufficiency of the section to withstand
the flexure, shear, settlement and other
stresses developed in that section due to dead
and live loads applied up on it.
-Flexure cracks :- are vertical and start in the
maximum tension zone and proceed towards
the compression zone.

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Crack on girder/beam and deck slab will be Some substance such as silica and clay in the aggregate of concrete react
occurred by the repetition and overloading of for a long time with alkali in the cement and they are causes of crack and
from wheel load. shelling of concrete by the distention of concrete. There are three type of
Crack in one direction develop to the mesh of alkali aggregate reaction, alkali silica reaction, alkali carbonate reaction
crack and alkali silicate reaction.
Crack Interval of crack are diminished by the wheel load
and water through the slab and finally some parts
of the concrete will be peeled off.

Mesh of crack on the wall Crack at irregular pattern on main

26 girder 26
5 6

 Cracks may cause corrosion of reinforcement if left

untreated and therefore should be taken seriously.
Longitudinal Cracks
 These run directly under or over and parallel
to reinforcing bars. They are normally formed
in hardened concrete and they lead to
spalling and complete loss of concrete cover.
They are caused by build up of rust on the
reinforcement.

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Transverse Cracks
 These cracks are transverse to the
reinforcement. These cracks are also formed
in hardened concrete.
 They are caused by concrete
shrinkage, thermal contraction or structural
loading.

Cold joint is occurred when the new concrete is cast after the hardening of concrete
which is cast earlier. The new concrete does not unify with the old concrete and
discontinuous line will be occurred along the joint between new concrete and old
 Before a concrete structure gets deteriorated, concrete. Cold joint would make defect area and cause of the crack of concrete and
it is essential to identify the cause, extent and would suffer to the durability, endurance and water tightness of concrete.

rate of deterioration and whether or not the

cause is still active.

Measuring and quantifying defects

 It is important to determine the nature, severity,
extent and location of defects by measurements
and test so as to determine appropriate repair
cold joint
actions.

27
2

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Honeycomb is a defective part on the surface of concrete. Course aggregate with

air space appear on the surface of concrete. Causes of honeycomb are segregation  the cover would become insufficient by the
of material at the concrete casting, lack of compaction of concrete and leaking of inadequate setting of spacer, error of
cement paste through forms. reinforcement bar arrangement and this will be
gradually rust and swell and the concrete cover
start to be peeled out.

Void
 an empty or unfilled space in concrete

27
3

Water leakage occurs by the following causes. Deformation of girder/deck slab/pier occurs the following causes.
- Deterioration of concrete - Over loading
- Inadequate construction joints - Differential settlement
- Honeycomb and cold joints - Earthquake
- Cracks - Quick removal of form, etc.
Deformation
- Cast-in-fitting such as drain pipe, etc.

deck slab drain pipes

girder

Deformation
Inadequate construction joints

Concrete cover are peeled off caused by

rusting reinforcement bar. 27 27
5 6

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 11/25/2017

27
7

 Scaling of concrete surfaces is a local flaking or

peeling away of portions of concrete or mortar near
surfaces. As the deterioration continues, coarse
aggregate particles are exposed and eventually
become loose and are dislodged.

The out let side of the water way is scoured

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Delamination
 Separation of layers of concrete & difficult to
identify visually.
 It can be detected by tapping the surface with
a heavy rod or hammer when a hollow or
drumming sound is given off indicating the
separation of concrete from the
reinforcement.

Leaching or efflorescence
 the white deposit of salts or lime powder formed
commonly on the underside of deck slabs. It is
caused by surface or subsoil water leaching
through the cracks and pores in the concrete.

Rust stain

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Scour at the out let side foundation

 Defects in steel structures should be repaired

early and on time.
 Damage to steel members results from
◦ Corrosion, fatigue, impact, aging of coats, loosing
of bolts, deformation and others.
◦ Cracking: caused by fatigue and poor detailing
practice.

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 Cracking, honeycomb, peel off, scour

 erosion and scour near the base abutment
 movement of the abutment
 Poor pointing or deterioration of stones.
 vegetation growing on or in the abutment.
 Stone pitching: Stones set in mortar on the
slope used to protect a slope from water
running down it.

Inventory Inspection (BMS)

Visual Inspection Measuring tape/binocular, etc

Evaluation/Judgment Evaluation sheet

Bridge Repair Technology Detailed Inspection Inspection instruments/tools

Selection of
Economical method/ many
Repair/Reinforcement performance
Method

Design of
Repair/Reinforcement

Repair/Reinforcement
Work
29
291 2

73
 11/25/2017

- Repair of Crack - Coating of Surface

- Injection of Resin Mortar
Repair - Filling of Resin Mortar
1. Improvement of functions by replacing damaged parts - Restoration of Structure
2. Control the progress of deterioration and damage to
keep the existing capability of bridge - Concrete Surface Cover
- Recover by Electro-
Electro- - Desalination
Chemical Reaction - Re
Re--alkalization

Strengthen - Cathodic Protection

1. Restoration of capabilities for structure which
- Other - Coating by Soak Resin
deteriorated or damaged to the expected level.
- Peel Out Protection
2. Improvement of capability for bridge than the initial
- Patching for road pavement
level such as upgrade a loading capacity.
- Protection of riverbed for scouring
- Replacement of expansion joint
29 29
3 4

i) Outline of Repair Method

- Injection of Resin Mortar - Restoration of Structure - Cleaning by Water-

Water-Jet - Restore Concrete Beam

29 29
- Coating of Concrete Surface - Covering of Concrete Surface 5 - Injection of Resin Mortar - Restore by Mortar - Mortar Spray 6

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- Sand Blast - Lining

1. Installing Revetment 2. Installing Revetment 3. Installing Riverbed
Protection Protection Protection

- Coating - Completion 29
4. Water Level of Flooding 5. Highest Water Level of 6. After Flooding Season 29
7 Season Flooding Season 8

 Seal Material  Grout Material  Putty Material  Jointing Material

29 30
9 0

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New Cut Off Joint Type

30 30
1 2

- Replacement Structural Member

- Increase Dimension of - Increase Thickness
Member - Roll up by Concrete
PC Cable PC Cable
- Built Additional Member
- Built Additional Support - Introducing of Pre-stress

- Reinforced by - Steel Plate Bond

Additional Material Bond
- Carbon Fiber Sheet Bond
- Steel Plate Roll up
Steel Plate
- Carbon Fiber Sheet Roll up
- Introducing of Pre-
Pre-stress - Built Out-
Out-Cable
Carbon Fiber
Sheet Anchor Bar
30 30
3 - Carbon Fiber Sheet Bond - Steel Plate Roll up 4

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Steel bar arrangement at anchor Anchor bracket Treatment/putty of concrete surface Paste CFS on concrete surface

Deviator
Anchor bracket

Adhesive of epoxy resin Completion of CFS

Deviator Completion of out cable 30 30
5 6

Reinforcement of Main Girder

Build Out Cable
Design standard for live load is increased from
former Standard. Build Additional Support
Strengthening of Deck Slab
Increase Thickness of Slab (Upper slab)
Increase Thickness of Slab (Under slab)
Steel Plate Bond
Loading capacity of existing
Carbon Fiber Sheet Bond
bridges shall be studied.
Build additional Beam
Replacement of Slab Deck
30 30
7 8

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PC Cable
PC Cable

Build Out Cable Build Out Cable Increase Slab Thickness (upper side) Increase Slab Thickness (lower side)

δH
Additional support
30 31
Build Additional Support Increase Girder Height 9 Steel Plate Bond Carbon Fiber Bond 0

Build Out Cable

Kobe Earthquake (17 Jan. 1995, Japan)

Roll up Reinforced Concrete Roll up Steel Plate

Falling down of Approach Bridge

Collapse of Viaduct Falling down of Railway Bridge 31 Roll up Carbon Fiber Sheet Preparation for Concrete Roll up 31
1 2

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 Design of repairing method (how to design)

 Surface preparation & repair method

Coupling of pier and girder by Pre-

Pre- Coupling of both girders by Pre-
Pre-
stressing Steel stressing steel

Expansion of Bridge Seat Coupling of pier and girder by chain 31 31

3 4

Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection

General Surface Preparation Procedure
General Procedure
Step 2.1 Concrete removal around the full
Step 1. Locate Repair Area
circumference of the corroded re-bar.

Step 2. Remove deteriorated concrete

Step 4.1 Removal of rust and other bad material of re-
using acceptable methods.
bars.

Step 3. Prepare boundaries to avoid poor Step 4.5 Repair or replacement of damaged bars or
edge condition . bars with critical section loss.

Step 5.1 Anti-corrosion coatings may be applied to re-

Step 4. Clean the surface of the exposed bar protection.
reinforcing steel and concrete.
Do not paint on
31 31
5 concrete 6

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Repair of Steel from Section Loss General Preparation Procedures for Bonding Surface
Step 2.0 Initial removal of deteriorated concrete, clean
and free of bond- inhibiting materials such as
oil, fats, hardened epoxy, etc.

Step 2.01 Confirm that the surfaces are free from

delaminates and voids by hammer sounding
method.

Step 2.02 Re-chipping of any unsound concrete areas.

Final Surface Condition After Performing the

Above Three Steps
About 30d
31 31
7 8

General Preparation Procedures for Bonding Surface

General Bonding Procedures to Existing Surface
Step 5.2 Pre-application of sufficient amount of fluid
Before step 4
paste such as cement paste or mortar for
Step 4.0 Surface of existing structure shall be
absorption into the pores of the substrate to
cleaned to give open pore structure,
remove dust, slurry or water. increase bonding.

Step 6 Placement of repair material in a manner that

produces close contact between the new
and the old at the bond line e.g. by internal
vibration, hydraulic pressure pumping or
Step 5.0 Supply water to make best condition of impact of hand application.
After step 4
“Saturated surface dry condition” if too
much water is not so good, because it will Condition After Performing the Above Two Steps
clog the pores. If too dry is also not good,
it will absorb water from repair material.

Step 7 Pull-off test can be performed to monitor the

tensile bond strength between repair and
substrate.
31 32
9 0

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Appraisal of Surface Repair Placement Methods

Dry Packing Form and
Cast-in-
Place
This is a method of placing zero-slump or
near zero-slump, mortar or concrete, by
ramming in layers, into surface cavities
using a hammer and a hardwood stick.

Most common areas of application of this

Using flowable material, but,
method is at small cavities.
do not use too much water.
For reducing water,
using water reduce agent
(admixture)
32 32
1 2

Full Depth Hand-

Repair Applied

Using
No-shrinkage mortar

32 32
3 4

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Connection Stabilization and Strengthening Reconstruction of Underdesigned or Non-functional Corbel

Underdesigned or Non-functional Corbel Repair

Approach
Defective
Corbel

Frozen Bearing
or
Inadequate
Reinforcement

32 32
5 6

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CFRP(Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics)

Purpose of Repair
 Repair basically means the rehabilitation of the target
bridge to restore necessary function and performance
maintaining the present load carrying capacity of the
bridge. The main purposes of the repair are:
Repair and Strengthening 

 ①Prevention of further progress of re-bars

 ②Removal of damaged concrete and restoration of section
(covering)
 ③Water proofing of deck slab


 The standard repair methods include crack

injection, section restoration, and surface coating.

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Purpose of Strengthening Availability of Repair Materials

 Strengthening means to upgrade and improve the actual poor  Commonly used materials for repair and
bridge performance and its load carrying capacity to meet the strengthening are steel plates, cement, epoxy
desirable levels. The main purposes of the strengthening are:

resin, and carbon fiber sheets. These
 ①Decrease of tension stress of re-bars materials are of good specified quality to meet
 ②Decrease of deflection the specifications. Special polymer emersion
 ③Increase of rigidity with additional members to be mixed with cement is of designated
 ④Control of crack width and crack prevention
quality by instructions. Repair materials


 The standard strengthening methods are increasing the size of should be procured from the reliable source
members, steel plate bonding, application of carbon fiber sheets,
and additional outer cables.

Availability of Repair Materials Proper Working Procedure

 The materials used for restoring section must satisfy the  Epoxy resin adhesive is a sensitive material so
following requirements.
 ①Strong adhesive
that instructed working procedures should be
 ②Early strength development followed to materialize the strong adhesion. For
 ③Resistance to cracking and spalling easy working, undesignated thinner or water
 ④Good durability should not be added to the resin. These
 ⑤Easy workability practices may damage the proper performance.
 In this seminar, glass fiber reinforced Ultra High Early
Strength Cement is introduced. This cement is mixed with
special polymer emersion and water before applying to the
concrete section. To avoid danger and serious mistakes proper
materials should be used.

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Rehabilitation of Gibe Bridge

•strengthening the structure by
External prestressing through the use
of 6 post- tensioned high tensile steel
Cables and each consisting of 12
strands. (increase load carrying
capacity of the bridge.)
 The rehabilitation work carried out
by Salini Costruttori S.P.A , Nov
2007)

Rehabilitation of Gibe Bridge . . . Cont’d

steel cables

33 34
9 0

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Storm Damage Maintenance

 Maintenance functions relative to the highway
drainage vary from establishing and caring
for vegetative cover on slopes for erosion
control purposes to extensive emergency
repairs resulting from major storm damages.
 Maintenance measures include the following.
1) Repair of damaged bridge elements, due to
aging, cracks, peel off, spalling etc
2) Provide riprap or other means of protection
at drainage outlets to avoid fill and bank
erosion.
Concrete abutment jacketing wall

 A schedule for removal of debris after major

floods. Chapter 8
 Removal of sand and gravel bars in the
channel that may direct stream flow in such a
manner as to cause harmful scour at piers
and abutments. Bridge Detailing
 Modifying or increasing existing protective Complete Standard Detail Drawings.pdf
measures when needed.

34
4

86
 11/25/2017

Chapter 9

Construction sequence in RC
and steel Bridges: Concrete
Bridge Construction, Steel
Bridge Construction

34 34
5 6

34 34
7 8

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 11/25/2017

34 35
9 0

THE END
 BridgeDeckConstructionManual.pdf

35
1 352

88