181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S.

Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 1 of 33

181100a Mathematics for Engineers

Part 1: Equations and Functions

Professor Dr. Stefan Güttler

Stuttgart Media University
Print‐Media‐Technologies
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 2 of 33

Objectives of the Mathematics for Engineers course and

recommendations for a successful attendance
Mathematics is an essential tool for any prospective engineer. This includes both the knowledge of math-
ematical foundations and concepts and the more general capability to work with abstract theories. Math-
ematics is abstract. The main goal of your studies is to acquire skills, not just factual knowledge (which
may be obsolete soon). This requires your ability to understand abstract theories, to think through them
clearly, and to apply theoretic concepts to concrete problems.
The approach of an engineer to any complex problem should be different from that of a technician or
trained worker. An engineer will analyze a system, conduct a research on what is known (usually a lot),
and will try to understand the link between input and output of a system (imagine a hidden error in a
defective machine). This approach requires the faculty to work one’s way into a new subject. In contrast,
a worker would rather regard the system as a black box and try to press some buttons or pull some levers
in order to find a solution. Even if he is successful he could not clearly say what the problem was.
A first semester course in elementary mathematics is a starting point for any program in engineering. A
next step will be the Physics for Engineers course in the second semester where much of the mathematics
learned in the first semester will be needed including the capability to work with abstract theories.
There are some recommendations for a successful attendance of this course:
 Understanding mathematics is like constructing a building. Floors are placed one above the other. Un-
til you have not finished the ceiling of a story, you are not ready to start with the next one. Or - if you
can not keep pace with the lecture at some point you will not be able to understand much of what fol-
lows. So if you lose track you need to rework the material in time. The exercises give you an immediate
feedback about your knowledge level. In the midterm and the final exam, the comprehension of math-
ematics is tested. Learning sample solutions by rote will not work out.
 Learning mathematics needs exercising. Hence, the lecture is complemented by exercises which you
are expected to solve on your own (or in learning groups). The solutions are discussed in the Exercises
in Mathematics class. The exercises are an important building block in the Mathematics for Engineers
course, and the capability to solve them is indispensable for reaching the learning goal (passing the ex-
ams).
 In addition to the exercises, a tutorial in mathematics is offered. In this course, some fundamentals of
mathematics that should be known from school are repeated and your calculation skills are practiced.
 Participate in the class, ask if something is not clear. Especially the Exercises in Mathematics class pro-
vides sufficient time for questions.
 You do not have to take notes of everything that is written on the blackboard. The lecture notes cover
the essential contents. This provides you time to think through the topics and to participate in class.

Organization
 On Tuesday, 03.12.24 a written midterm exam is scheduled. It covers the exercises of the first five
exercise sheets. The intermediate exam is a pass/ fail exam (not graded). You need a pass in order to
be admitted to the final exam. A second chance to sit the midterm will be next summer semester.
 The sample solutions of the exercises are presented in class but are not available as electronic docu-
ments. As mentioned, it is pointless to learn sample solutions by rote.
 All final exams are scheduled in the weeks after courses ended.

Literature
 Lecture notes provided in Moodle:
https://e-learning.hdm-stuttgart.de/moodle/course/view.php?id=3726
 Online tutorial: http://calculus.nipissingu.ca/calculus/tutorials.html
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 3 of 33

Content of Lecture
 Finite series
 Equations with a single variable
 Functions with a single variable
 Sequences, limits of sequences and convergence
 Limits of functions and continuity
 Infinite series and power series
 Differential calculus with a single variable
 Curve sketching
 Integral calculus with a single variable
 Taylor series

Part 1: Equations and Functions

1 EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1.1 Finite Series ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.2 Sum rules for finite series .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.1 Algebraic equations with a single variable ......................................................................................................... 6
1.2.2 Equations with roots ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.3 Modulus Equations ............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.1 Calculus with Functions..................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 POLYNOMIALS ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.1 Quadratic Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.2 Higher order Polynomials.................................................................................................................................. 19
1.6 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS................................................................................................................................................. 22
1.6.1 Zeros, Removable Discontinuities, and Poles .................................................................................................... 22
1.6.2 Asymptotic behavior of rational functions ........................................................................................................ 25
1.7 POWER FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS........................................................................................................................................ 29
1.8.1 Sine, Cosine, Tangent, and Cotangent functions ............................................................................................. 29
1.8.2 Harmonic Oscillations ....................................................................................................................................... 31
 181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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1 Equations and Functions

1.1 Introduction
Let’s start with some elementary calculations and simple identities. The objectives are to becoming famil-
iar with the mathematical language. It is important to correctly use mathematical expressions.

1.1.1 Finite series

We first introduce the sigma sign that allows a short form notation of sums or finite series.
Definition 1‐1 (Sigma sign)
For integers m,n   with m  n and a set of real numbers ai ; i  m,m  1, ,n that depend on an
index i one defines:
n

a
im
i  am  am 1  am  2    an 1  an i,m,n  ; m  n

For any function of integers f (i ) one defines accordingly:

n

 f (i)  f (m)  f (m  1)  f (m  2)  ...  f (n  1)  f (n)

i m
i,m,n  ; m  n

The variable i is called summation index, m is the lower and n the upper limit of the sum.

Examples: M1  a1 , a2 , a3   10,11,12 M 2  b1 , b2 , b3   24, 22, 20

3
a) a
k 1
k  a1  a2  a3  10  11  12  33

3
b) b
k 1
2
k  b12  b22  b32  242  222  202  1460

3
Exercise: a
k 1
k  bk 

n
Example:  i  3  4  5  ...  n
i 3

Exercises:
n n
1
a)  i2 
i 2
b) 
i 1 i


The calculation rules for finite series immediately result from the well-known calculation rules for real
numbers (commutative law, associative law, and distributive law):
n n n
a)  (ai  bi )   ai   bi
i m i m i m
Finite series of same length

n n n
b)  (c  a  d  b )  c   a  d   b
i m
i i
i m
i
i m
i Multiplication with a constant factor

n k n
c) a  a   a
i m
i
i m
i
i  k 1
i mk n Splitting up a series

n n n 1 n
d)  ai  am 
i m

i m1
ai   ai  an   ai  ak
i m i m
Splitting a summand off a series
i k
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 5 of 33

n
e) a
ik
m  am  am    am  (n  k  1)  am

Summands do not have the summation index i
n  k 1 summands

m
f) a
i m
i  am Upper and lower limits coincide: the series contains a single element

m1
g)  a  :0
i m
i Upper limit is smaller than lower limit: the series contains no elements. Per

definition, the series is equal to zero.

Examples:
20 20 20 20
1)  i 2   i 2  32  4 2   i 2   i 2  25
i 3 i 5

i 5
 i 5

0

20 20
1 20
 1 20 3
i 1
2)  i 2 
i 3 k 5 k
 25    i 2    25  
i 5  i i 5 i

1.1.2 Sum rules for finite series

Some series can be expressed as a function of the upper (and lower) limit of the sum. This allows a fast
calculation of the sum independent of the number of summands.
n
n(n  1)
1) Arithmetic series: i  2
i 1
Derivation:
n
S  i  1 2  n
i 1
 n  (n 1)  (n  2)  ...  1
 2  S  (1  n)  (2  (n 1))  (3  (n  2))  ...  (n  1)  n(n  1)

n Summands

n(n  1)
 S
2
n
a n 1  1
2) Geometric series:  ai  1  a  a 2  a3    a n 
i 0 a 1
Derivation:
n
S   ai  1  a  a2  a3    a n
i 0
n 1
 aS  a  a 2  a 3  ...  a n  a n 1   a i
i 1

n 1 n n
 n

 aS  S =  a i -  a i  a n+1   a i  1   a i  = a n+1  1
i 1 i 0 i 1  i 1 
n 1 a n 1  1
 aS  S = S(a  1)  a 1  S 
a 1
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
3)  i2  6
i 1
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Proof by induction:
It is easy to check that the equation holds for the n= 1, 2, 3 (n=1 in fact suffices). Assume that the
equation holds for a number n=N. If we can proof that under this assumption, it also holds for n=N+1
then the equation is valid. Since it holds for n=1 it also holds for n=2, therefore for n=3, and so on.
N 1 N
N ( N  1)(2 N  1) ( N  1)  N (2 N  1)  6 N  6
 i2   i2  ( N  1)2  6
 ( N  1)2 
6
i 1 i 1

( N  1)(2 N 2  7 N  6) ( N  1)  ( N  2)(2 N  3)  ( N  1)  ( N  1)  1 2( N  1)  1

  
6 6 6

1.2 Fundamentals of Equations

We continue with an overview over some types of fundamental equations. In general, an equation is given
by equating two arithmetic expressions. Identical equations and conditional equations are distinguished.
Identical equations
Identical equations hold under all defined conditions, i.e. for all allowed values of the variables, e.g.:
a2  2ab  b2  (a  b)2 or
a 2  b2  (a  b)  (a  b) or
sin 2 x  cos2 x  1
The validity of identical equations must be proven.
Conditional equations
Conditional equations are of general type f ( x )  c , where f is a function of the variable x. These equa-
tions hold for x  S , the elements of the solution set. In general, the solution set is a subset of the domain
of definition of the function f, i.e. S  D . S may be empty, and for S  D we have an identical equation.
The term “equation” usually means “conditional equation”.
4
Example: f ( x )   2  x  2 . Domain of definition: D   \{0} ; Solution set: S  {2}
x
Equivalent transformations
An equation is transformed into an equivalent equation by
 Adding or subtracting the same term on both sides
 Multiplying or dividing both sides by the same term, except zero.
1 1
Example: f ( x )   2  0; D   \ {0} . Multiply by x 2 : x  1  0  L  {1} .
x x

1.2.1 Algebraic equations with a single variable

n
Algebraic equations are of general type: a x
i 0
i
i
 0 , or an x n  an 1 x n 1    a1 x1  a0  0 an  0
General solutions exist for n=1, 2, 3 only. For odd n at least one real solution exists. Solutions of algebraic
equations are the zeros of polynomials f ( x)  an x n  an 1 x n1    a1 x1  a0 .

1.2.1.1 Linear equations

b  b
General type: ax  b  0 ( a  0) Solution: x  S   
a  a
1.2.1.2 Quadratic equations
General type: ax2  bx  c  0 ( a  0)
b c
ax2  bx  c  0  x2  x   0
a a
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 7 of 33

b c
By denoting  p and  q we obtain x 2  px  q  0 
a a
2 2 2 2 2
 p  p p2  p  p  p
x 2  px  q        x 2  px   q      x    q   
2 2 4 2  2 2
The last step is called completing the square. Extracting the root yields:
2 2
p  p p  p
x1       q and x2       q
2 2 2 2
Theorem 1‐1 (Quadratic formula I)

The solutions of the quadratic equation x  px  q  0 are given by

2

2
p  p
x1 2      q
2 2
2
 p
Discriminant: d     q
2
If: d  0 : two real solutions
d  0 : a single real solution
d  0 : no real solution

Substituting p und q into the formula above results in

Theorem 1‐2 (Quadratic formula II)
The solutions of the quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 , a  0 are given by:
b  b 2  4ac
x1 2  
2a
If: b 2  4ac  0 : two real solutions
b 2  4ac  0 : a single real solution
b 2  4ac  0 : no real solution

1.2.1.3 Cubic equations

General type: ax 3  bx 2  cx  d  0 ; a0
A general solution of cubic equations exists (Cardano’s formula) but it is very complicated. We regard the
special case d  0 only:
ax3  bx 2  cx  0 ; a0
We bracket x to obtain a quadratic equation:
ax3  bx2  cx  0  x(ax2  bx  c)  0
b  b2  4ac
 x1  0  ax  bx  c  0  x2 3
2

2a
Problem: How many real solutions exist in general for equations of type ax 3  bx 2  cx  0 ? Sketch a
graph of the function y  f ( x)  ax  bx  cx for each case, i.e., visualize the solutions as intersections of
3 2

the graph of a cubic function with the x‐axis.

1.2.1.4 Bi‐quadratic equations

General type: ax 4  bx 2  c  0 ; a0
A bi-quadratic equation is reduced to a quadratic equation by substituting z = x 2 :
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 8 of 33

az 2  bz  c  0
b  b2  4ac
z1 2 
2a
Back substitution: x 2  z :
x1/ 2   z1 ; x3/ 4   z2
Real solutions of a bi-quadratic equation exist, if:
1) b 2  4 ac  0 and
2) z1  0 or z2  0 .
Problem: How many real solutions exist in general for equations of type ax 4  bx 2  c  0 ? Sketch a
graph of the function y  f ( x)  ax  bx  c for each case, i.e., visualize the solutions as intersections of
4 2

the graph of a bi-quadratic function with the x‐axis.

1.2.2 Root equations

An example of an equation where the variable stands in a root is: 3  x  5  0 . This equation has no so-
lution, since 3 plus a positive number cannot be zero. The sign of the root is positive. However, we solve
the equation for x:
1. Isolate the square root: x  5  3
2. Square both sides: x5 9  x  4
This transformation results in a solution. Entering the solution into the original equation yields:
3  4  5  0  3  9  0  6  0 (contradiction)  S  {}
Let’s resolve the paradox: Squaring both sides of an equation is not an equivalent transformation as addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division are. Squaring generates an additional solution, which does
not solve the original equation. Therefore, a solution obtained by squaring both sides of an equation
needs verification. This is done by entering it into the original equation.
Example: x  5 . Squaring results in x 2  25 . This equation has two solutions x1,2  5 .
The solution set of a squared equation contains always solutions of two corresponding root equations
which differ by a sign. In the first example this pair is: 3  x  5  0 . x  4 is the solution of
3 x  5  0 .
Example: x 1 2x  5  4
1. Isolate the square root: 2x  5  5  x
2. Square both sides: 2 x  5  25  10 x  x 2  x 2  12 x  20  0
x1 2  6  36  20 x1  10 ; x2  2
Test x1  10 : 10  1  2 10  5  4  14  4  x1  10 is no solution
Test x2  2 : 2 1 2  2  5  4  4  4  x2  2 is a solution S  {2} .

Example: x2  x  1  x  1
Square: x 2  x  1  ( x  1) 2  x 2  2 x  1 x  1  2 x  1 (isolate the root)
Square again: x  1  (2 x  1)  4 x  4 x  1  4 x  3x  0 x1  0; x2  0, 75 .
2 2 2

Test x1  0 : 1  1 (solution)
Test x2  0, 75 : 17 4  1 4 (no solution) S  {0}
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 9 of 33

1.2.3 Modulus equations

Definition 1‐2 (Modulus)
For x   one defines:
 x, if x  0
x 
 x, if x  0
This is a definition by cases.

4
y

y  x  x y x x
2

Fig. 1‐1: Graph of y  x 0

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x

Definition 1‐3 (Modulus function)

y  x with x   is defined by:

 x, if x  0
y x 
 x, if x  0
Accordingly, y  f ( x) is defined by:

 f ( x), if f ( x)  0
y  f ( x)  
 f ( x), if f ( x)  0
Remarks:
 The graph of y  f ( x) is obtained by mirroring the graph of y  f ( x) at the x-axis for all negative
values of f ( x) .
 We need to find the intervals where f ( x)  0 , resp. f ( x)  0 . These intervals are separated by the
zeros of f ( x) . 4 y

Example: 3 y  x  3  ( x  3)
 x  3 if x  3 2
y  x 3  
( x  3) if x  3 y  x3  x3
1

0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
-1

-2

-3

Fig. 1‐2: Graph of y  x  3

-4
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 10 of 33

Example:

 x 2  1 if x  1  x  1 3 y
y  x 1   2
2

( x  1) if 1  x  1
2

y  x2  1
1

0
-2 -1 0 1 2
x

-1

Fig. 1‐3: Graph of y  x  1

2

1.2.3.1 Solving modulus equations by a case‐by‐case analysis

Example: 4x  3   x  2
The solutions of this equation are the intersections (x-values) of the functions:
 4 x  3 if (4 x  3)  0  x  3 4
y1  4 x  3   and
 (4 x  3) if (4 x  3)  0  x  3 4
y2   x  2
First case: x  3 4 :  4 x  3   x  2  5 x  5  x1  1

We have to check if x1 lies in the interval for which the first case holds. I1   x   | x  3 4  [3 4; )
 x1  I1
1
Second case: x  3 4 :  (4 x  3)   x  2   3x  1  x2 
3
Does x2 lie in the interval for which the second case holds? I 2   x   | x  3 4  (;3 4)

 1
 x2  I 2 S  1; 
 3
12 y

y1  4 x  3 10

6
y2   x  2
4

0
x
-2 -1 0 1 2
Fig. 1‐4: Graphical solution of 4 x  3   x  2
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 11 of 33

Example: x2  5x  6  x
The solutions of this equation are the intersections (x-values) of the functions:
 x 2  5x  6 if x2  5x  6  0
y1  x  5x  6   2
2
and
( x  5x  6) if x  5x  6  0
2

y2  x
We calculate the zeros zo determine the intervals for each case:
2
5 5 5 7
x  5x  6  0
2
 x1,2      6    x1  6 ; x2  1
2 2 2 2
Now we have:
 x2  5x  6 if x  1  x  6
y1  x  5x  6   2
2

( x  5x  6) if 1  x  6
y2  x
First case: x  1  x  6 :  x  5 x  6  x  x  6 x  6  0
2 2

 x1,2  3   3
2
 6  3  15  x1  6,873 ; x2  0,8731
Do the solutions lie in the interval for which the 1th case holds?
I1   x   | x  1  x  6  (; 1]  [6; )  x1  I1 ; x2  I1
( x1  6,873 is a solution, x2  0,8731 is no solution.)

Second case: 1  x  6 :  ( x 2  5 x  6)  x  x 2  4 x  6  0

 x3,4  2   2
2
 6  2  10  x3  5,1622 ; x4  1,1622
Do the solutions lie in the interval for which the 2th case holds?
I 2   x   | 1  x  6  (1;6)  x3  I 2 ; x4  I 2 ( x3  5,1622 is a solution, x4  1,1622 is no
solution.) S  {5,1622; 6,873}
Complete the square of the quadratic function to find the vertex of the parabola (for sketching the graph):
 ( x  2,5)2  12, 25 if x  1  x  6
y1  x  5x  6  ( x  2,5)  12, 25  
2 2

( x  2,5)  12, 25 if

2
1  x  6

20 y

15 y1  x 2  5 x  6

10
Exercise: What is the interpretation
of the solutions x2 and x4 that are
no solutions of the modulus equation?
5
y2  x
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x
-5

Fig. 1‐5: Graphical solution of x2  5x  6  x

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 12 of 33

1.3 Fundamentals of Functions

Definition 1‐4 (Functions)
A function f maps (assigns) each element (point) x in a domain of definition D to exactly one
element (point) y in a codomain C .
Notation: y  f ( x ) with x  D . (“y equals f of x“)

Notations:
x Independent variable, preimage
y Image
y  f ( x) y is the function of x
D Domain (of definition)
C Codomain
R Range
R is the subset of points in C for which a (at least one) preimage in D exists:
R  { y  C |  x  D : y  f ( x)} . The range is a subset of the codomain ( R  C ).
Example:
Let f : D  C be a mapping from D  {2, 1,0,1, 2,3} to C  {0,1, 2,3, 4,5,6,7,8,9} defined by
y  f ( x)  x2 . This mapping is a function.

Domain D Codomain C
Fig. 1‐6: Example of a function
Range: R  {0,1, 4,9} . Therefore, R  C (proper subset).
Exercise: Which mappings are well-defined functions?
f :    0 with y  x2
f :  0   with y   x
x 1
y for x
x
y  x  1 for x 
A function maps each x  D uniquely to a y  R . Hence, a function defines a set {( x, y )} which can be
drawn in a coordinate system in  2 . In the following, we consider Cartesian coordinate systems only.
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Definition 1‐5 (Graphs of functions)

A graph of a function is the set G  {( x, y )   2 | x  D  y  f ( x)}

Examples:
1 1 
a) f ( x)  with x   b) f ( x)  with x 
x x
y y
1 4

0 ,5 2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 x

1 
Fig. 1‐7: Graphs of f ( x)  with x   and x  
x
1.3.1 Calculus with functions
The calculation rules for functions are defined accordingly to the calculation rules for real numbers.
Definition 1‐6 (Calculation rules for functions)
Let the functions f und g be defined in D f , resp. D g , and let c   . Then one defines:
a) h  f  g is defined by: h( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)  x  D f  Dg
b) h  f  g is defined by: h( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)  x  D f  Dg
c) h  f  g is defined by: h( x)  f ( x)  g ( x )  x  D f  Dg
f f ( x)
d) h  is defined by: h( x )   x  D f  Dg , if g ( x)  0
g g ( x)
e) h  c  f is defined by: h( x)  c  f ( x)  x Df

Definition 1‐7 (Composite functions)

Assume functions f : D f  R f  C f and g : Dg  Cg with R f  Dg . Then the function h : D f  Cg
defined by h( x)  g ( f ( x)) is called the composition or composite function g of f .
Notation: h  g  f
Remarks:
 A composition h  g  f is obtained by substituting f into g (as the variable of g). I.e., the functions f
and g are successively applied. g is called the outer function and f the inner function.
 In order for h(x) to be a well-defined function (according to Def. 1-4) R f must be a subset of Dg , i.e.
R f  Dg . This may require to restrict the domain of f.
 181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Examples:
1
(1) f ( x)  3x  4; D f   g ( x)  ; Dg   \ 0 .
x
1
a) h( x)  g  f ( x)  g ( f ( x))  ; Dh   \ 4 3  D f
3x  4
3
b) h ( x )  f  g ( x )  f ( g ( x ))   4; Dh   \ 0  Dg
x
1
(2) f ( x)  3x; D f   g ( x)  ; Dg   \ 2
x2
1
a) h( x)  g  f ( x)  g ( f ( x))  ; Dh   \ 2 3  D f
3x  2
3
b) h ( x )  f  g ( x )  f ( g ( x ))  ; Dh   \ 2  Dg .
x2
The graphs of the composite functions h  g  f and h  f  g are found by successively evaluating the
graphs of f and g.

1
Fig. 1‐8 Graphs of f ( x)  3 x  4 and g ( x)  .
x

1
h1 ( x ) 
3x  4

3
h2 ( x )  4
x

Fig. 1‐9: Graphs of

1 3
h1 ( x)  g  f ( x)  and h2 ( x)  f  g ( x)   4
3x  4 x
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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1.4 Properties of Functions

Definition 1‐8 (Monotonicity)
A function f with D   is called:
 monotonically increasing, if  x1 , x2  D : x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 strictly monotonically increasing, if  x1 , x2  D : x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 monotonically decreasing, if  x1 , x2  D : x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 strictly monotonically decreasing, if  x1 , x2  D : x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .

1 y y
1 f ( x)  e  x
f ( x)  x 3

0
0,5
-1 0 1 x

0
-1
x
0 0,5 1 1,5

Fig. 1‐10: Graphs of a strictly monotonically increasing, resp. strictly monotonically decreasing function
Remarks:
 Most monotonic functions are strictly monotonic. An exception are step functions.
 A function may strictly monotonically increase in an interval and strictly monotonically decrease in
another interval. The monotonicity of a function is given by the sign of its derivative in an interval.
Definition 1‐9 (Symmetry)

A function f with D   is called

 even, if  x  D : f (  x )  f ( x ) .
 odd, if  x  D : f (  x )   f ( x )

Fig. 1‐11: Graphs of functions with axial symmetry and point symmetry, resp.
 181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Remarks:
 Graphs of even functions are symmetric with respect to the y-axis (“axial symmetry”); graphs of odd
functions are symmetric with respect to the origin (“point symmetry”).
 Graphs of functions can also be symmetric with respect to parallels to the y-axis or with respect to any
point in the coordinate system. We do not use this here. In general, functions have no symmetry.
 Finding a symmetry of a function is helpful for sketching the graph.
 Polynomials f ( x)  x n which have only even exponents, are even functions; polynomials which have
only odd exponents, are odd functions.

Definition 1‐10 (Injectivity, Surjectivity, Bijectivity)

A function f with D   and C   is called:
 Surjective, if for any point in the codomain at least one point in the domain exists which f maps to it:
y  C  x  D : y  f ( x ) . Or equivalently: C  R (the codomain is equal to the range)
 Injective, if f maps at most a single point in the domain to any point in the codomain:
 x1 , x2  D it holds: if x1  x2 then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 Bijective, if f is injective and surjective, i.e., f is a one‐to‐one mapping of the domain to the codomain.

C=R
C=R

Surjectivity Injectivity Bijectivity

Fig. 1‐12: Surjectivity, injectivity, and bijectivity

Remarks:
 If a function is not surjective, then its codomain can be restricted to its range by the definition C  R .
The condition of surjectivity can always be fulfilled (right panel in Fig. 1-12).
 If a function is not injective, then its domain can be restricted. This is not unique. The function depicted
in the left panel of Fig. 1-12 is injective in each of the three intervals of its domain which are separated
by x2 and x3 . These are exactly the intervals where f is strictly monotonic.
 Consequence: If a function is injective in an interval of its domain D1  D , then the mapping
f : D1 
 f ( D1 )  R1 is bijective (one-to-one). R1 is the range that belongs to D1 .
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Definition 1‐11 (Invertibility)

A function f : D  C is called invertible in its domain if it is a one-to-one mapping. I.e., f is invertible if:
1) x1, x2  D it holds: if x1  x2 then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) (condition of injectivity)
2) y  C  x  D : y  f ( x ) , i.e. C  R (condition of surjectivity)

The inverse function f 1 : R  D maps any y  R to the x  D for which y  f ( x) holds.

Notation: f 1

Remarks:
1
 The definition of invertibility ensures that the inverse function f is well-defined according to defini-
tion 1-4. f ( x) needs to fulfill two conditions:
o f 1 maps any image point of f (y-value) uniquely to the preimage (x-value). This is the condition
of injectivity of f .
o Any point in the codomain of f (y-value) has a preimage in the domain D1 of f (x-value). Other-
1
wise f would not be defined at this point. This is the condition of surjectivity of f .
 Consequence: A bijective function (one-to-one mapping) f : D1 
 f ( D1 )  R1 is invertible with the
inverse function f : R1 
 D1 .
1

1 1
 Because the inverse function f maps the range of f back to the domain of f the domain of f is
is equal to the domain of f : D f 1  R f and R f 1  D f .
1
equal to the range of f and the range of f
( D f may be a subinterval of the maximal domain of f .)
1
 From the definition of inverse functions it follows: f  f  f 1  f  id or. f ( f 1 ( x))  f 1 ( f ( x))  x
 Every strictly monotonic function is invertible (because it is injective). This property cannot be re-
versed: an invertible function needs not be strictly monotonic.
Calculation of inverse functions
For many (but not all) invertible functions the inverse function can be calculated. The equation y  f ( x )
is solved for x which results in the equation x  f 1 ( y ) . The preimage of this function is denoted by y and
the image by x. By interchanging (formally) the variables x and y we obtain the inverse function in the
conventional form y  f 1 ( x) .
Remarks:
 If the variables x and y of the inverse function are not interchanged, then the functions y  f ( x ) und
x  f 1 ( y ) have the same graph in the coordinate system.
 The graph of the inverse function y  f 1 ( x) (after interchanging x and y) is obtained by mirroring the
graph of y  f ( x ) at the angle bisector y  x .
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Example:
y
y  f (x)  3x  4; Df  Rf   4

y4 y 4 3
 x    f 1 ( y ) x4
3 3 3 f 1 ( x)  y  2
Interchange x and y: 3
x4 x 4 1
y  f 1 ( x)    ;
3 3 3 0
D f 1  R f  ; R f 1  D f   -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x
-1

-2
y  f ( x)  3x  4
-3

-4
x4
Fig. 1‐13: Graphs of f ( x)  3x  4 and its inverse function f 1 ( x) 
3
Example:
4 y
y  f ( x)  x ; D f  R f   0 ;
 x  y 2  f 1 ( y )
3
Interchange x and y:
y  x2 yx
y  f 1 ( x )  x 2 ;
2
D f 1  R f   0 ; R f 1  D f   0
Only the right branch of the parabola
1
belongs to f ( x)  x .
2 1 y x

0
0 1 2 3 x

Fig. 1‐14: Graphs of f ( x)  x and its inverse function f 1 ( x)  x2

1.5 Polynomials
Definition 1‐12 (Polynomials)
Functions f :    defined by
n
f ( x)   ai xi  an xn  an1xn1    a1x1  a0 with n   0 , and a0 , a1 ,  an   , an  0
i 0
are called polynomials of degree n. The real numbers a0 , a1 ,  a n ( an  0 ) are the polynomial coeffi-
cients. The highest exponent n determines the polynomial´s degree.

1.5.1 Quadratic functions

2
f ( x)   ai xi  a2 x2  a1x  a0 or y  f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
i 0
The graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas that are open to the top if a  0 and open to the bottom
if a  0 . The graphs of y  f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c are parabolas which are shifted in the coordinate system.
A quadratic function is transformed from general form to standard form by completing the square:
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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 b c
y  f ( x)  a  x 2  x 
 a a y
 y  f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c
c  b   b  
2 2
 2 b
 a x  x    
 a a  2a   2a  
 
 b 
2
c b2   b 
2
b2
 a x     2   a x    c 
 2 a  a 4a   2a  4a
 
S
We obtain: y  f ( x)  a   x  xv   yv
2

4ac  b 2
 b b2 
with the vertex ( xv , yv )    ;c . 4a
 2a 4a 

x
b

2a
Fig. 1‐15: Vertex of the parabola f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c

1.5.2 Higher order polynomials

Theorem 1‐3 (Factorizing polynomials I)
If f ( x ) is a polynomial of degree n and x1 is a zero of the polynomial, then f ( x ) can be factorized:
f ( x)  ( x  x1)  g ( x)  x   where g ( x ) is a polynomial of degree n‐1.
Remarks:
 ( x  x1 ) is called linear factor
 If f ( x ) has a second zero x2 , then a second linear factor ( x  x2 ) can be split off:
f ( x)  ( x  x1)  g ( x)  ( x  x1)  ( x  x2 )  h( x) where h( x) is a polynomial of degree n‐2.
Example:
f ( x)  x3  4x2  3x has the zero x1  0 . We bracket x: f ( x)  x( x2  4x  3) . Remaining zeros:
2
p  p
x2,3       q  2  4  3  2  1
2 2
The factorized polynomial reads: f ( x )  x  ( x  1)  ( x  3) .
If a polynomial has several zeros, then successively applying theorem 1-3 leads to
Theorem 1‐4 (Factorizing polynomials II)
If f ( x ) is a polynomial of degree n and {x1,, x k }; k  n are zeros of the polynomial, then f ( x ) can be
factorized:
f ( x)  ( x  x1 )  ( x  x2 )   ( x  x k )  g ( x)  x   where g ( x) is a polynomial of degree n  k .
In particular, if k  n , then:
n n
f ( x )   ai x i  an x n  an 1 x n 1    a1 x1  a0  an  ( x  xi )  an ( x  x1 )  ( x  x2 )   ( x  x n )  x  
i 0 i 1

Remark: If a zero has the multiplicity m k , then the corresponding linear factor is ( x  xk )
mk
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
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Proof:
For simplicity, the proof of theorem 1-3 is given only for the special case of polynomials up to third order.
f ( x)  a3 x3  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0  ( x  x1 ) g ( x)  ( x  x1 )(b2 x 2  b1 x  b0 ) 
a3 x3  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0  b2 x3  (b1  b2 x1 ) x 2  (b0  b1 x1 ) x  b0 x1
The coefficients of the monomials with equal exponents on both sides of the equation need to coincide in
order for the equation to hold. Equating the coefficients results in the list:
a3  b2
a2  b1  b2 x1
a1  b0  b1 x1
a0  b0 x1
Solving successively for b2 , b1 , b0 yields:
b2  a3
b1  a2  b2 x1  a2  a3 x1
b0  a1  b1 x1  a1  (a2  a3 x1 ) x1  a1  a2 x1  a3 x12
b0 , b1 , b2 are uniquely determined by a1 , a2 , a3 and x1 . The last equation imposes the condition:
a0  b0 x1  0  a0  (a1  a2 x1  a3 x12 ) x1  0  a0  a1 x1  a2 x12  a3 x13  f ( x1 )  0
This condition is fulfilled if and only if x1 is a zero of f ( x ) .

1.5.2.1 Factorizing polynomials by a polynomial division

If a zero of a polynomial f ( x) is known, then dividing the polynomial by the linear factor ( x  x1 ) results
in the remainder polynomial g ( x ) . This is called a polynomial division. It is simpler than using the formu-
las above to calculate the coefficients of g ( x ) . The process is most easily shown for examples.
Example:
Factorize f ( x)  2 x  x  30 x  27 . f ( x) has the zeros x1  3 and x2  1 .
3 2

Polynomial division:
(2x 3 - x2 - 30x - 27) : (x + 3) = 2x2 - 7x - 9
-(2x 3 + 6x2 )
- 7x2 - 30x - 27
-(-7x2 - 21x)
- 9x - 27
-(-9x - 27)
0

It follows: f ( x)  2 x  x  30 x  27  ( x  3)(2 x  7 x  9) . Second polynomial division:

3 2 2

(2x2 - 7x - 9) : (x + 1) = 2x - 9
-(2x2 + 2x)
- 9x - 9
-(-9x - 9)
0

We obtain: f ( x)  2 x  x  30 x  27  ( x  3)( x  1)(2 x  9)  2( x  3)( x  1)( x  4,5) .

3 2

A polynomial division terminates without remainder if and only if x1 is a zeros of f ( x) .

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 21 of 33

Fig. 1‐16: Graph of f ( x)  2 x3  x 2  30 x  27

Example:
Factorize f ( x)  0,5 x3  1,5 x 2  3x  4 . f ( x) has the zero x1   2 .
Polynomial division:
(0,5 x 3  1,5 x 2  3 x  4) : ( x  2)  0,5 x 2  2,5 x  2
 (0,5 x3  x 2 )
 2,5 x 2  3 x  4
 ( 2,5 x 2  5 x )
2x  4
(2 x  4)
0
 f ( x)  ( x  2)(0,5 x 2  2,5 x  2)  0,5( x  2)( x 2  5 x  4)
Zeros of the remainder polynomial: x  5x  4  0
2

 x2/3  2,5  2,52  4  2,5  1,5

 x2  2,5  1,5  4 ; x3  2,5  1,5  1
We obtain (bracket 0,5): f ( x )  0,5  ( x  2)  ( x  4)  ( x  1)

y
Fig. 1‐17: Graph of f ( x)  0,5 x3  1,5 x 2  3x  4 10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
X
-10

f ( x)  0,5 x3  1,5 x 2  3x  4
-20

-30

-40
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 22 of 33

1.6 Rational Functions

Definition 1‐13 (Rational functions)
A rational function f ( x ) is defined as the quotient of two polynomials g ( x) und h( x) :
m

g ( x)
 ai xi a m x m  am 1 x m 1    a1 x  a0
i 0
f ( x)    where am  0 , bn  0
h( x ) n
b n x n  bn 1 x n 1    b1 x  b0
 bi x i

i 0

Domain: D   \ Zh , where Z h is the set of zeros of h( x) . Two cases are distinguished:

m  n : proper rational function
m  n : improper rational function

Examples:
1) Proper rational functions
1 The degree of the polynomial in the de-
f ( x)  n D   \ {0}
x n
nominator is higher than the degree of the
4x polynomial in the numerator.
f ( x)  D   \ {1;1}
x 1 4

2) Improper rational functions

x2  1 The degree of the polynomial in the nu-
f ( x)  D
x 12 merator is higher or equal than the degree
of the polynomial in the denominator.
4 x4  2 x2  5
f ( x)  D   \ Z h   \ {1; 2}
x 2  3x  2

1.6.1 Zeros, removable discontinuities, and poles

g ( x)
A rational function f ( x )  has a zero x1 if g ( x1 )  0 and h( x1 )  0 .
h( x)

x 2  1 g ( x)
Example: f ( x )   . Zeros of numerator: Z g  {1, 1}
x 2  1 h( x)
h(1)  0 ; h( 1)  0  Z f  Z g  {1; 1}

g ( x)
A rational function f ( x )  has a removable discontinuity x1 if g ( x1 )  0 and h ( x1 )  0 .
h( x)

x2  4
Example: f ( x)  ; D   \ 2
x2
Zeros numerator: Z g  {2, 2} ;
Zeros denominator: Z h  {2} .
x2  4
x1  2 is a removable discontinuity and x2  2 is a zero of f ( x)  .
x2
The discontinuity is removed by canceling a linear factor in numerator and denominator. Computational-
ly this can be done by a polynomial division:
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 23 of 33

( x 2  4) : ( x  2)  x  2 x2  4
5 y f ( x) 
 ( x 2  2 x) x2
 2x  4
4
 (2 x  4)
0
3
x 4 2
x2  4
f ( x)   x  2 with D   . f ( x) 
x2 x2 2
The gap in the domain at x  2 is closed
by the definition f (2) : 4 . 1

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

-1
x2  4
Fig. 1‐18: Graph of f ( x)   x2
x2
1.6.1.1 Removing discontinuities (gaps in the domain)
g ( x)
If the numerator and denominator of f ( x )  have the same zero x1 , then the same linear factor can
h( x)
be split off from g ( x ) and h( x) . The linear factor cancels:
g ( x) ( x  x1 ) g ( x) g ( x)
f ( x)    . ( g ( x) and h ( x) are the remainder polynomials.)
h( x ) ( x  x1 )h ( x) h ( x)
f ( x ) is converted into a simpler form and the discontinuity x1 (gap in the domain) is removed (if x1 is a
simple zero). Computationally this type of discontinuity can be removed by a polynomial division.

Definition 1‐14 (Poles)

1. If a function f ( x ) increases or decreases without any bound as x approaches a point x1 then x1
is called a pole of f ( x ) .
g ( x)
2. A rational function f ( x )  has a pole x1 if g ( x1 )  0 and h( x1 )  0
h( x)

Remarks:
 In a neighborhood of a pole at x1 the graph of f ( x ) asymptotically approaches a parallel line to the
y-axis which intersects the x-axis at x1 . This is called a vertical asymptote.
 A pole at x1 has a change of sign if:
x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   and x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   or
x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   and x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)  
A pole has a change of sign if x1 is a simple zero of h( x) .
1 1
Examples of poles with a change of sign: f ( x )  , f ( x)   .
x x
 A pole at x1 has no change of sign if:
x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   and x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   or
x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)   and x  x1  x  x1  f ( x)  
A pole has no change of sign if x1 is a double zero of h( x) .
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 24 of 33

1 1
Examples of poles with no change of sign: f ( x )  2
, f ( x)   2 .
x x
 In order to find the sign of a pole we determine the sign of f ( x ) on both sides of x1 . The sign of the
numerator g ( x ) does not change in a neighborhood of the pole because g ( x1 )  0 . The sign of the de-
nominator h( x) changes if x1 is a simple zero and does not change if x1 is a double zero.

x  1 g ( x)
Example: f ( x )   D   \ 2
x  2 h( x )
Zeros numerator: Z g  {1} Zeros denominator: Z h  {2}

We find the zero Z f  {1} and the pole Pf  {2} . Sign of pole:
x  2  x  2  f ( x)  
(Numerator is negative; denominator changes sign)
x  2  x  2  f ( x)  
x 1
f ( x)  has a pole at x2  2 with a change of sign and a zero at x1  1 .
x2
1
f (0)   (helps to sketch the graph)
2

x 1 x 1
Fig. 1‐19: Graphs of f ( x)  and f ( x)  with vertical and horizontal asymptotes
x2 ( x  2)2
x 1
D   \ 2
g ( x)
Example: f ( x )  
( x  2) 2 h( x )
Zeros numerator: Z g  {1} Zeros denominator: Z h  {2} (double zero)

We find the zero Z f  {1} and the pole Pf  {2} . Sign of pole:
x  2  x  2  f ( x )  
(Numerator is positive; denominator does not change sign)
x  2  x  2  f ( x )  
x 1
f ( x)  has a pole at x2  2 without change of sign and a zero at x1  1 .
( x  2) 2
1
f (0)  (helps to sketch the graph)
4
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 25 of 33

Summary: Zeros, removable discontinuities, and poles

g ( x)
x1 is a zero of f ( x )  if: g ( x1 )  0 and h ( x1 )  0 .
h( x)
x1 is a removable discontinuity of f ( x ) if: g ( x1 )  0 and h ( x1 )  0 . The discontinuity can be removed by
cancelation of a linear factor in numerator and denominator
(computationally by a polynomial division).
x1 is a pole of f ( x ) if: g ( x1 )  0 and h( x1 )  0 . The pole has a change of sign if x1 is
a simple zero of h( x) ; the pole has no change of sign if x1 is a
double zero of h( x) . The sign of a pole needs be determined.

1.6.2 Asymptotic behavior of rational functions

The behavior of a function as x   is called (in general) the asymptotic behavior. The asymptotic be-
havior of proper and improper rational functions is different.
m

gm ( x) i0
ai xi
f ( x)   n
hn ( x)
bi xi
i 0
A rational functions is called proper if m  n :
The modulus of hn ( x) increases faster than the modulus of g m ( x) . as x   . Hence, f ( x) approaches
the x-axis as x   . f ( x ) is said to have the asymptote y A  0 .

A rational functions is called improper if m  n :

First case: m  n : The modulus of g m ( x) increases faster than the modulus of hn ( x) as x   . Hence,
f ( x) increases or decreases without any bound as x   . The asymptotic behavior is the same as that
of polynomials.
a
Second case: m  n : f ( x ) approaches the parallel line to the x-axis y  m as x   . f ( x ) is said to
bm
am
have the asymptote y A  .
bm
g m ( x) a m
This property follows from the limit: lim  and is shown in section 2.2.1.
x  hm ( x) b m
x 1
Example: f ( x)  ; D   \ 2 (Fig. 1‐19).
x2
f ( x ) is an improper rational function. Numerator and denominator have the same degree. Asymptote:
a 1
yA  m   1
bm 1
x 1
Example: f ( x)  ; D   \ 2 .(Fig. 1‐19). f ( x ) is a proper rational function. Asymptote:
( x  2)2
yA  0 .
Summary: Asymptotic behavior of rational functions
g m ( x)
f ( x)  mn mn mn
hn ( x)
Parallel line to x -axis: f ( x ) increases or decreases
Asymptote x -axis: y A  0 am without any bound as x   ,
yA 
bm same behavior as polynomials.
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 26 of 33

1.7 Power Functions

Definition 1‐15 (Power functions)

Power functions are of type f ( x)  x q with q  .

Remark:
A more general definition includes powers q  . This requires the concept of (infinite) power series and
is introduced in section 2.3.2.
The simplest power functions are monomials: f ( x)  x n ; n   . The cases of even n ( n  2k , k   ) and
odd n ( n  2k  1, k   0 ) can be distinguished.
First case:
The functions f ( x)  x 2k 1 are invertible in  because they are strictly monotonically increasing. The
inverse functions are root functions:
f 1 ( x)  2k 1 x D f 1  R f  ; R f 1  D f  

Mind: Odd roots can be extracted from a negative number, e.g.: 3

8  2  (2)3  8 .
Second case:
The functions f ( x)  x 2 k are strictly monotonically increasing in  0 and therefore are invertible in  0 .
The inverse functions are also roots functions:
f 1 ( x)  2k x D f 1  R f   0 ; R f 1  D f   0

The functions f ( x)  x 2 k are strictly monotonically decreasing in  0 and are invertible in  0 :

f 1 ( x )   2 k x D f 1  R f   0 ; R f 1  D f   0
1
Mind: The graph of f ( x) is obtained by mirroring the graph of f ( x ) at the angle bisector y  x .

3 y 1,5 y
n=8 n=4
2,5 1 n=1

2
n=2 0,5 n=3
1,5 n=5
0
1 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 x
-0,5
0,5

0 -1

-1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 x

-0,5 -1,5

Fig. 1‐20: Graphs of the power functions f ( x)  x n

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 27 of 33

n2
n3

n4

n8

n9

n5

Fig. 1‐21: Graphs of the root functions f ( x)  n x

Definition 1‐16 (Negative integral exponents)
1
For D   \ 0 and m   one defines f ( x )  x  m :
xm
f ( x)   x p with p   \{0} are rational functions. They contain the special cases:
 p   : Monomials; D  
 p \ 0 : Hyperbolic functions; D   \{0} . x  0 is a pole.
 p odd: f ( x ) has point symmetry and is invertible in D .
 p even: f ( x ) has axial symmetry and is invertible in D   0 and D   0 .

p  4 p  3

p  1

p  2

Fig. 1‐22: Graphs of the hyperbolic functions f ( x)  x p with p   \  0

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 28 of 33

Definition 1‐17 (Rational exponents I)

m
m
Let D   and q  with m  ; n   . Then one defines: f ( x)  x q  x n : n x m


n
Combining the definitions of rational exponents and of negative integral exponents lead us to the defini-
m m m
1 1 
tion of negative roots: x n  x n m
n m  :  n x m  x  n  x n
x n m
x
Definition 1‐18 (Rational exponents II)
m
Let D    and q  with m  ; n   \{0} . Then one defines:
n
m m
 1 m
f ( x)  x q  x n : n x m where x n : n m
q is called rational exponent
x n

Examples of power functions:

Root functions:
1 1
f ( x)  x 2k
 2k
x ; D   ; k  
0 f ( x)  x 2 k 1
 2 k 1 x ; D  ; k   0
Hyperbolic functions:
1 1
f ( x )  x 2 k  ; D   \ {0}; k   f ( x )  x  (2 k 1)  2 k 1
; D   \{0}; k   0
x2k x
Inverse functions of hyperbolic functions (these are also hyperbolic functions):
1 1
 1  1
f ( x)  x 2k
 2k ; D   ; k   f ( x)  x 2 k 1
 2 k 1
; D   \{0}; k   0
x x
Remark: Power functions can have poles. But in general, they are no rational functions.
The calculation rules for rational exponents are a straightforward generalization of the calculation rules
for positive integral exponents.
Theorem 1‐5 (Calculation rules for rational exponents)

Let q1 , q2   . Then it holds for all x, x1 , x2    :

a) ( x1  x2 )q1  x1 1  x21
q q

b) x q1  q2  x 1  x
q q2

q
x1
c) x q1 q2  q
2 x

 
q2
d) x q1  x q1 q2

Examples:
1 3 2 3 5 1 3

1. x  x  x  x  x  x  x x  x  x  x
2 4 4 4 4 2 4 3 4 2 3 4 5 4 2 4

1 2
6 7 1 3
x 3
x 6
x2 x2 1 1  
2. 3
 9
  6  6   x 6
 x 3 2
6
x9 x9 x 7 6 7
x
x2 x6
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 29 of 33

m1 m2
To proof the theorem we write the rational exponents q1  and q2  with a common denominator:
n1 n2
m1n2 m2 n1
q1  and q2  . The calculation is then analogous to the examples.
n1n2 n2 n1

1.8 Trigonometric Functions

1.8.1 Sine, Cosine, Tangent, and Cotangent functions
Trigonometric functions are periodic functions. They are used to model periodic motions, e.g. oscillations.
Trigonometric functions are defined as the ratio of the length of the sides of a right-angled triangle:

c
a a,b ... opposite side, resp. adjacent side
c ... hypotenuse

b
Fig. 1‐23: Definition of the Sine, Cosine, Tangent, and Cotangent functions
opposite side a adjacent side b
sin    cos   
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c
opposite side a a c sin  adjacent side b b c cos 
tan      cot     
adjacent side b b c cos  opposite side a a c sin 

The unit circle is defined by the condition: y 2  x 2  1 . For points (x, y)

on the unit circle the following relations hold and can be generalized y
to angles  90 :
y  sin 
x  cos 
y
 tan  sin 
x 
x
 cot  cos x

y
r=1

Fig. 1‐24: Sine and cosine functions in the unit circle

Angles  can be specified in degree or radian measure.

The radian measure is the arc length x on the unit circle
that belongs to  . Variables of trigonometric functions
are often specified in radian measure. The transformation
from degree measure to radian measure is given by:
 180
x     x
r=1

180  x

Fig. 1‐25: The radian measure x of an angle 

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 30 of 33

Summary: Properties of sine and cosine functions ( k   )

y  sin( x ) y  cos( x )
Domain  
Range [ 1;1] [ 1;1]
Period p  2 p  2
Symmetry Point symmetry f ( x)   f ( x) Axial symmetry f ( x)  f ( x)

Zeros xk  k   xk   k 
2

Local Maxima xk   k  2 xk  k  2
2
3
Local Minima xk    k  2 xk    k  2
2

y
y  cos x
y  sin x
1

    3 2 5 3
-270

0   x
600
2 2 2 2

-1

Fig. 1‐26: Graphs of sine and‐ and cosine functions

Summary: Properties of tangent and cotangent functions ( k   )

sin( x) cos( x )
y  tan( x)  y  cot( x) 
cos( x ) sin( x)

Domain  \ {xk   k }  \ {xk  k   }
2
Range  
Period p  p 
Symmetry Point symmetry f ( x)   f ( x) Point symmetry f ( x)   f ( x)

Zeros xk  k   xk   k 
2

Poles xk   k  xk  k  
2
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 31 of 33

cot x
5 tan x
tan 5

4 4

3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1
0 /2  3/2 0 
90 
180 
270
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4
-4
-5
-5

Fig. 1‐27: Graphs of tangent and‐ and cotangent functions

1.8.1.1 Trigonometric identities

1. By shifting the sine function to the left by  / 2 one obtains the cosine function:
 
cos( x )  sin  x  
 2
2. Accordingly, by shifting the cosine function to the right by  / 2 one obtains the sine function:
 
sin( x )  cos  x  
 2
3. From the definition of the sine and cosine functions it immediately follows that:
(sin x)2  (cos x)2  sin 2 x  cos2 x  1
4. Important compound-angle identities:
a) sin( x1  x2 )  sin x1  cos x2  cos x1  sin x2
b) cos( x1  x2 )  cos x1  cos x2  sin x1  sin x2
5. Special cases of the compound-angle identities for x1  x2 :

a) sin(2 x )  2  sin x  cos x

b) cos(2 x)  cos x  sin x
2 2

1
c) sin 2 x  1  cos(2 x) 
2
1
d) cos 2 x  1  cos(2 x) 
2
1.8.2 Harmonic oscillations
Harmonic (not damped) oscillations are modeled by sine functions of general type y  a  sin(b  x  c) .
This is the composition (Section 1.3.1) of a sine-function with a linear function. What is the meaning of
the parameters a, b, and c?
1. The parameter a scales (stretches/ compresses) y  sin( x ) along the y-axis. The range changes from
R  [ 1;1] to R  [  a; a ] . The parameter a is called the amplitude of the sine function.
Example: y  2sin( x) range: R  [2;2]
181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 32 of 33

y y  2  sin x
2

1 y  sin x

2 3
0
-270  0  x
600

-1

-2

Fig. 1‐28: Graphs of y  sin( x ) and y  2  sin( x)

2. h( x)  sin(b  x ) is the composition h  g  f with g ( x )  sin( x ) and f ( x )  b  x . The period of
y  sin( x) is p  2 . We find the period of the composite function as:
  2 
y  sin(b  x)  sin(b  x  2 )  sin  b  x     sin  b( x  p) 
  b 
2
By comparing the two terms we obtain: p  , the period of the composite function.
b
b  1  p  2 . The composite function is compressed along the x-axis. Example: y  sin(2  x )
b  1  p  2 . The composite function is stretched along the x-axis. Example: y  sin(0.5  x )
y y  sin x y  sin( 2  x)
1

    3 2 5 3
-270

0   x
600
2 2 2 2

-1

Fig. 1‐29: Graphs of y  sin( x ) and y  sin(2 x )

3. The parameter c in y  sin( x  c ) shifts the composite function along the x-axis.
Zeros of y  sin( x  c ) : sin( x  c)  0  x  c  k  xk  k  c; k  .
All zeros are shifted to the left by c. The first zero ( k  0 ) is shifted from 0 to c . Hence, the composite
function y  sin( x  c ) is shifted by x0  c . If c  0 , then the graph is shifted to the left, if c  0 , then
the graph is shifted to the right. The parameter c is called the phase of the sine function.
Example: y  sin( x   2)  cos( x) is obtained by shifting y  sin( x ) to the left by  2.
y  sin x y  sin( x   2)
1

    3 2 5 3
-270   
2 2 2 2

-1

Fig. 1‐30: Graphs of y  sin( x ) and y  sin( x   2)

181100a Mathematics for Engineers Prof. S. Güttler
Equations and Functions Page 33 of 33

4. h( x )  a  sin(b  x  c ) is the composition h  g  f with g ( x )  a  sin( x ) and f ( x)  b  x  c . Period

and phase of y  h( x) are calculated as above:
  c    c    c 2 
y  a  sin(b  x  c)  a  sin  b  x     a  sin  b  x    2   a  sin  b  x   
  b    b    b b 
  c  2
 a  sin  b  x   p    p 
  b  b
  c   c k c
Zeros: sin  b  x     0  b  x    k  xk   ; k 
  b   b b b
First zero ( k  0 ): x0   c b
  c 
The composite function y  a  sin(b  x  c)  a  sin  b  x    has the:
  b 
Range: R  [  a; a ] (amplitude: a)
y y  a  sin(b  x  c)
2
Period: p  a1
b
c
Phase (shift along x-axis): x0  
b

Fig. 1‐31: Graph of y  a  sin(b  x  c)

x
-100 x0 700

- -1
a p  2 / b.

5. y  a  sin(b  x  c )  d . The parameter d shifts the sine function along the y-axis. The range changes to
R  [ d  a ; d  a ] . The phase x0   c b does not coincide with the first zero of the sine-function any-
more (with no zero in general).
Example: Find the range, period, and phase of y  2  sin(0,5  x  0,5 ) and sketch the graph.
y  2  sin  0,5  x  0,5   2  sin  0,5( x   )   2  sin  0,5( x   )  2   2  sin  0,5( x    4 ) 
 2  sin  0,5( x    p)   p  4
Zeros: sin  0,5  x      0  0,5  x     k  xk  k  2   ; k  
First zero: x0  
The composite function y  2  sin(0,5  x  0,5 ) has the:
Range: R  [2;2]
2 2
Period: p  4   y
b 0,5
2
y  2  sin(0,5  x  0,5 )
Phase (shift along x-axis):
y  sin x
c 0,5 1
x0      
b 0,5 0
-270  0  2 3 600
x
-1

-2

Fig. 1‐32: Graphs of y  sin( x ) and y  2  sin(0,5  x  0,5 )