How Black Boxes Work

By: Kevin Bonsor & Nathan Chandler | Updated: Feb 27, 2024

Divers in Indonesia finally recovered one of the flight data recorders from the Lion Air
jet that crashed into the Java Sea on Oct. 29, 2018, with 189 people aboard.
According to reports from AP, the flight data recorder should help investigators get
some answers about what caused the two-month-old Boeing 737 MAX 8 to crash
just after takeoff. The voice recorder should also provide the cockpit crew's voices,
engine sounds, instrumentation warnings and other audio recording during the flight.

There are usually many unanswered questions when a plane goes down. That's why
investigators turn to the airplane's flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice
recorder (CVR), also known as "black boxes," for answers. Following any airplane
accident in the U.S., safety investigators from the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) immediately begin searching for the aircraft's black boxes.

Answers, unfortunately, don't always come fast though. It took investigators nearly
two years to find the black box from Air France Flight 447, 447 which crashed on
June 1, 2009, into the South Atlantic. The box had not only survived impact, but also
being submerged under nearly 13,000 feet of salty, corrosive seawater. In the end,
the data proved that pilot error had contributed to a stall that eventually caused the
crash.

These recording devices, which cost between $10,000 and $15,000 each, reveal
details of the events immediately preceding the accident. In this article, we will look
at the two types of black boxes, how they survive crashes, and how they are retrieved
and analyzed.
Black Boxes Begin
The widespread use of aviation recorders didn't begin until the post-
World War II era. Since then, the recording medium of black boxes has
evolved in order to log much more information about an aircraft's
operation.

Older black boxes used magnetic tape, a technology that was first
introduced in the 1960s. Magnetic tape works like any tape recorder.
The Mylar tape is pulled across an electromagnetic head, which leaves a
bit of data on the tape. These days, black boxes use solid-state memory
boards, which came along in the 1990s.

Solid-state recorders are considered much more reliable than their

magnetic-tape counterparts. Solid state uses stacked arrays of memory
chips, so they don't have moving parts. With no moving parts, there are
fewer maintenance issues and a decreased chance of something
breaking during a crash.

Data from both the CVR and FDR is stored on stacked memory boards
inside the crash-survivable memory unit (CSMU). The memory boards
have enough digital storage space to accommodate two hours of audio
data for CVRs and 25 hours of flight data for FDRs.

Airplanes are equipped with sensors that gather data

such as acceleration, airspeed, altitude, flap settings,
outside temperature, engine performance, and cabin
temperature and pressure. Magnetic-tape recorders can
track about 100 parameters, while solid-state recorders
can track a lot more.

For instance, in the Boeing 787, the units can log a whopping 146,000
parameters, resulting in several terabytes of data for every single flight.
That incredible load of data is a double-edge sword; it's great for
monitoring the aircraft, but it can overwhelm engineers and maintenance
personnel. To manage all of that data, they need sophisticated data
management software.

Whether the system is an older version or fully modern, all of the data
collected by the airplane's sensors is sent to the flight-data acquisition
unit (FDAU) at the front of the aircraft. This device often is found in the
electronic equipment bay under the cockpit. The flight-data acquisition
unit is the middle manager of the entire data-recording process. It takes
the information from the sensors and sends it on to the black boxes.

Both black boxes are powered by one of two power generators that draw
their power from the plane's engines. One generator is a 28-volt DC
power source, and the other is a 115-volt, 400-hertz (Hz) AC power
source.

Cockpit Voice Recorders

In almost every commercial aircraft, there are several microphones built
into the cockpit that listen to flight crew conversation. These
microphones also track any ambient noise in the cockpit, such as
switches being thrown or any knocks or thuds. There may be up to four
microphones in the plane's cockpit, each connected to the cockpit voice
recorder (CVR).

Microphones send audio to the CVR, which digitizes and stores the
signals. In the cockpit, there is also a device called the associated
control unit, which provides pre-amplification for audio going to the
CVR. The four microphones are place in the pilot's headset, co-pilot's
headset, headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew
member) and near the center of the cockpit, to pick up audio alerts and
other sounds.

Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of sound. They use
a continuous loop of tape that completes a cycle every 30 minutes. As
new material is recorded, the oldest material is replaced. CVRs that use
solid-state storage can record two hours of audio. Similar to the
magnetic-tape recorders, solid-state recorders also record over old
material.

Flight Data Recorders

The flight data recorder (FDR) is designed to record the operating data
from the plane's systems. There are sensors wired from various areas
on the plane to the flight-data acquisition unit, which is wired to the FDR.
So whenever the pilot flips a switch or twiddles a knob, the FDR records
each action.

In the U.S., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that

commercial airlines record a minimum of 11 to 29 parameters,
depending on the size of the aircraft. Magnetic-tape recorders have the
potential to record up to 100 parameters. Solid-state FDRs can record
hundreds or even thousands more.

On July 17, 1997, the FAA issued a Code of Federal Regulations that
requires the recording of at least 88 parameters on aircraft
2002. Here are a few of the
manufactured after Aug. 19,
parameters recorded by most FDRs:

• Time
• Pressure altitude
• Airspeed
• Vertical acceleration
• Magnetic heading
• Control-column position
• Rudder-pedal position
• Control-wheel position
• Horizontal stabilizer
• Fuel flow
Solid-state recorders can track more parameters than magnetic tape
because they allow for a faster data flow. Solid-state FDRs can store up
to 25 hours of flight data. Each additional parameter recorded by the
FDR gives investigators one more clue about the cause of an accident.
Built to Survive

Airplane crashes are violent affairs. In many such accidents, the only
devices that survive are the crash-survivable memory units (CSMUs) of
the flight data recorders and cockpit voice recorders. Typically, the rest
of the recorders' chassis and inner components are mangled. The CSMU
is a large cylinder that bolts onto the flat portion of the recorder. This
device is engineered to withstand extreme heat, jarring crashes and tons
of pressure. In older magnetic-tape recorders, the CSMU is inside a
rectangular box.

Using three layers of materials, the CSMU in a solid-state black box

insulates and protects the stack of memory boards that store the
digitized data.

Here's a closer look at the materials that provide a barrier for the
memory boards, starting at the innermost barrier and working our way
outward:

• Aluminum housing: There's a thin layer of aluminum around the stack of

memory cards.
• High-temperature insulation: This dry-silica material is 1 inch (2.54
centimeters) thick and provides high-temperature thermal protection. This is
what keeps the memory boards safe during post-accident fires.
• Stainless-steel shell: -- The high-temperature insulation material is contained
within a stainless-steel cast shell that is about 0.25 inches (0.64 centimeters)
thick. Titanium can be used to create this outer armor as well.
These hardened housings are incredibly important. Without adequate
protection, all of the flight data would be destroyed. So to make sure that
data stays safe, engineers attack their black boxes with full fury to see if
their products can withstand extreme abuse.

To ensure the quality and survivability of black boxes, manufacturers

thoroughly test the CSMUs. Remember, only the CSMU has to survive a
crash — if accident investigators have that, they can retrieve the
information they need. In order to test the unit, engineers load sample
data onto the memory boards inside the CSMU. This pattern is reviewed
on readout to determine if any of the data has been damaged by crash
impact, fires or pressure.

There are several tests that make up the crash-survival sequence:

• Crash impact: Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air cannon to create an
impact of 3,400 Gs (1 G is the force of Earth's gravity, which determines how
much something weighs). At 3,400 Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum
honeycomb target at a force equal to 3,400 times its weight. This impact
force is equal to or in excess of what a recorder might experience in an actual
crash.
• Pin drop: To test the unit's penetration resistance, researchers drop a 500-
pound (227-kilogram) weight with a 0.25-inch (0.64-centimeter) steel pin
protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from a height of 10 feet (3
meters). This pin, with 500 pounds behind it, impacts the CSMU cylinder's
most vulnerable axis.
• Static crush: For five minutes, researchers apply 5,000 pounds per square-
inch (psi) of crush force to each of the unit's six major axis points.
• Fire test: Researchers place the unit into a propane-source fireball, cooking it
using three burners. The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit
(1,100 Celsius) for one hour. The FAA requires that all solid-state recorders be
able to survive at least one hour at this temperature.
• Deep-sea submersion: The CSMU is placed into a pressurized tank of salt
water for 24 hours.
• Salt-water submersion: The CSMU must survive in a salt water tank for 30
days.
• Fluid immersion: Various CSMU components are placed into a variety of
aviation fluids, including jet fuel, lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals.
During the fire test, the memory interface cable that attaches the
memory boards to the circuit board is burned away. After the unit cools
down, researchers take it apart and pull the memory module out. They
restack the memory boards, install a new memory interface cable and
attach the unit to a readout system to verify that all of the preloaded
data is accounted for.

Black boxes are usually sold directly to and installed by the airplane
manufacturers. Both black boxes are installed in the tail of the plane —
putting them in the back of the aircraft increases their chances of
survival. The precise location of the recorders depends on the individual
plane. Sometimes they are located in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft
cargo hold or in the tail cone that covers the rear of the aircraft.

After a Crash

Although they are called "black boxes," aviation recorders are actually
painted bright orange. This distinct color, along with the strips of
reflective tape attached to the recorders' exteriors, help investigators
locate the black boxes following an accident. These are especially
helpful when a plane lands in the water. There are two possible origins
of the term black box: Some believe it's because early recorders were
painted black, while others think it refers to the charring that occurs in
post-accident fires.

In addition to the paint and reflective tape, black boxes are equipped
with an underwater locator beacon (ULB). If you look at the picture of a
black box, you will almost always see a small, cylindrical object attached
to one end of the device. While it doubles as a carrying handle, this
cylinder is actually a beacon.

If a plane crashes into the water, the beacon sends out an ultrasonic
pulse that cannot be heard by human ears but is readily detectable by
sonar and acoustical locating equipment. There is a submergence
sensor on the side of the beacon that looks like a bull's-eye. When water
touches this sensor, the beacon is activated.

The beacon sends out pulses at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) and can transmit
sound as deep as 14,000 feet (4,267 meters). Once the beacon begins
pinging, it pings once per second for 30 days. This beacon is powered by
a battery that has a shelf life of six years. In rare instances, the beacon
may get snapped off during a high-impact collision.

In the U.S. when investigators locate a black box, it's transported to the
computer labs at the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).
Special care is taken in transporting these devices in order to avoid any
further damage to the recording medium. In cases of water accidents,
recorders are placed in a cooler of water to keep them from drying out.

Retrieving Information

After finding the black boxes, investigators take the recorders to a lab
where they can download the data from the recorders and attempt to
recreate the events of the accident. This process can take weeks or
months to complete. In the United States, black box manufacturers
supply the National Transportation Safety Board with the readout
systems and software needed to do a full analysis of the recorders'
stored data.

If the FDR is not damaged, investigators can simply play it back on the
recorder by connecting it to a readout system. With solid-state
recorders, investigators can extract stored data in a matter of minutes
through USB or Ethernet ports. Very often, recorders retrieved from
wreckage are dented or burned. In these cases, the memory boards are
removed, cleaned up and have a new memory interface cable installed.
Then the memory board is connected to a working recorder. This
recorder has special software to facilitate the retrieval of data without
the possibility of overwriting any of it.

A team of experts is usually brought in to interpret the recordings stored

on a CVR. This group typically includes representatives from the airline
and airplane manufacturer, an NTSB transportation-safety specialist and
an NTSB air-safety investigator. This group may also include a language
specialist from the FBI and, if needed, an interpreter. This board
attempts to interpret 30 minutes of words and sounds recorded by the
CVR. This can be a painstaking process and may take weeks to
complete.

Both the FDR and CVR are invaluable tools for any aircraft investigation.
These are often the lone survivors of airplane accidents, and as such
provide important clues to the cause that would be impossible to obtain
any other way. As technology evolves, black boxes will continue to play a
tremendous role in accident investigations.

The Future of Black Boxes There are all sorts of potential improvements
on the horizon for black box technology. Most obviously, current
systems don't record any video of cockpit activity. For years, the
National Transportation Safety Board has been trying in vain to
implement video capabilities into black box systems, but many pilots
steadfastly refuse to allow video, saying such systems violate their
privacy and that current data capture is sufficient for accident
investigators.

The NTSB continues to insist that there's no such thing as having too
much information when investigating plane crashes. At present, video
recording is still on hold.

But the technology is more than ready. Airbus, for example, installs a
Vision 1000 system in all of its helicopters. The Vision 1000 camera is
mounted behind the pilot's head, where it records video of the pilot's
actions and the cockpit area, as well as the view beyond the windshield,
at four frames per second. It weighs about a half a pound and needs
only power and a GPS connection for activation.

Video isn't the only improvement that's found resistance from the status
quo. Since 2002, some legislators have pushed for the Save Aviation and
Flight Enhancement Act, which would require not one, but two flight
recorders, including one that automatically ejects itself from the plane
during an incident. Such self-ejecting recorders are easier to locate are
less likely to suffer catastrophic damage. So far, though, the law has not
passed Congress.

Black boxes aren't just for planes. They're now integrated into many
types of vehicles. You may even have one in your car, though you don't
know about it. About 90 percent of new cars have event data recorders
(EDRs) that track the same kind of data as airplane black boxes. The
EDR is ostensibly designed to maintain and monitor the car's safety
system, but accident investigators can and do use EDR data to better
understand wrecks ... and sometimes, to assign blame after an accident.

When it comes to black boxes mounted to airplanes, it's entirely possible

that they'll go by the wayside. Instead of recording to a box, airplanes
may soon simply stream all of their essential data directly to a ground-
based station. These systems already exist. For example,
AeroMechanical Services' FlyhtStream air-to-ground system sends flight
data to a home base via satellite.

Such systems eliminate the desperate search for a box that may have
been destroyed in a crash, and may be more dependable, too. For the
moment, though, black boxes are still very much a necessity each and
every day as thousands of planes take to the skies, flying millions of
people all over the world.