Submitted by: Group 2

Prabesh Bhujel (PAS080MSRTE010)

Prakriti Maharjan (PAS080MSRTE011)
Sabin KC (PAS080MSRTE013)
Shiv Lakhan Yadav (PAS080MSRTE018)
2. What is site investigation/site Exploration? What is site investigation Report? What it
includes? Process for conducting the site investigation report?
Ans: - Site investigation, also known as site exploration, is the process of gathering and
evaluating data regarding the physical, chemical and environmental characteristics of a
construction site. This assessment is essential for understanding the subsurface conditions, which
aids in selecting the best design for foundations, structures and other underground components of
a project. It generally includes both fieldwork and laboratory testing to collect information about
the soil, rocks, groundwater and other subsurface conditions.
A site investigation report is a detailed document that summarizes the results of a site
investigation and offers recommendations for design and construction. The report typically
covers data on rock formations, soil characteristics, groundwater levels and other subsurface
conditions and may also identify potential risks or challenges affecting the project’s design,
construction and stability.
Site investigation report includes:
a. Title page
The title page contains essential information, such as the project name, location, the date
of the report and details of the consulting firm or professional who conducted the
investigation.
b. Table of contents
This section provides an organized listing of the report’s sections and subsections,
allowing readers to easily navigate through the document.
c. Executive Summary
The executive summary provides a brief overview of the key findings, conclusions and
recommendations from the investigation. It summarizes the critical aspects of the site
conditions, risks and potential impacts on the project. This section is often aimed at
decision- makers who need a quick overview.
d. Introduction
The introduction explains the purpose and scope of the site investigation, describing why
it was conducted and the objectives behind the study. It may also provide an overview of
the methodologies used in gathering the data.
e. Project Description
This section provides a detailed description of the proposed project, including its type,
scope and planned construction activities. It helps contextualize the investigation by
 outlining the goals of the construction and how the site conditions could affect those
plans.
f. Geologic Conditions and Seismicity
The report outlines the geologic makeup of the site, including soil types, rock formations
and their distribution. This section may also cover seismic considerations such as
earthquake risk, fault lines and ground stability which are crucial for assessing the safety
and suitability of the site for construction.
g. Field Investigations
This section details the fieldwork conducted during the site investigation, such as soil
sampling, drilling, geophysical surveys, and other on-site testing methods. It includes
descriptions of the investigation locations and the equipment used, along with any
observations made during the field visits.
h. Laboratory Analyses
After samples are collected in the field, they are sent to a laboratory for further testing.
This section provides the results of laboratory tests, such as soil compaction, moisture
content, permeability, and strength. These tests help determine the material properties of
the soil and rocks on the site.
i. Discussion
The discussion interprets the data collected in the field and laboratory, highlighting the
key findings and their implications for the project. It may discuss any challenges or issues
observed, such as soil instability, groundwater presence, or environmental concerns. It
also provides an analysis of how the site conditions may impact construction, design, or
the overall feasibility of the project.
j. Analysis and Calculations
In this section, the report includes detailed calculations and analysis based on the
collected data. This could involve determining bearing capacities, slope stability,
groundwater flow, alternate alignment or other engineering factors that influence design
decisions. It translates raw data into practical information for the engineering team.
k. Recommendations
The recommendations section provides actionable suggestions based on the findings of
the site investigation. This may include recommendations for all rock slope stability, rock
mass classification of underground structures, necessary soil treatments, drainage
systems, or other engineering solutions to address any site-specific challenges. This
section helps guide the design and construction teams in making informed decisions for
the project's success.
Preparing site investigation report includes below processes:
i. Preliminary Desk Study:
Before visiting the site, review available maps, past reports, and historical data about the
area. This helps in gaining an understanding of the site's general features and aids in
selecting the appropriate investigation methods. A site reconnaissance visit may be
conducted to assess accessibility, identify potential hazards, and take initial observations.
 ii. Planning the Investigation:
Establish the goals of the site investigation, considering the specific requirements of the
project (e.g., foundation design, environmental impact). Choose the most suitable
investigation techniques, such as boreholes, test pits, or geophysical surveys. Plan the
locations and number of boreholes or sampling points according to the size and nature of
the site and investigation.
iii. Fieldwork:
• Borehole Drilling/Test Pits: Drill boreholes or dig test pits to gather soil or rock samples.
• Geophysical Surveys: If necessary, perform geophysical surveys like seismic or
resistivity testing to explore deeper subsurface layers without drilling.
• Groundwater Monitoring: Measure groundwater levels and behavior, as well as assess the
soil’s ability to hold water.
iv. Laboratory Testing:
Send the core recovered from each drillhole to a laboratory for in-depth analysis. These
tests provide information on properties such as density, porosity, rock strength, Elasticity
modulus, Poisson’s ratio and tensile strength.
v. Data Analysis:
Examine the data from both field and laboratory tests. This involves interpreting rock
properties, evaluating geotechnical behavior, and drawing conclusions about the site
conditions. Geotechnical engineers will assess the bearing capacity, potential settlement,
and groundwater behavior, offering recommendations based on their findings.
vi. Report Preparation:
Compile all findings, methods, interpretations, and recommendations into a site
investigation report. The report should be clear, thorough, and tailored to the specific
needs of the project.
7.Why geophysical investigation is important? Use of geophysical investigation for
underground design? Type of geophysical investigation and its selection criteria?
Ans: - Geophysical investigation is a technique used to study the subsurface conditions of a site
without the need for extensive digging. It uses various non-invasive methods to measure physical
properties of the ground, such as electrical resistivity, seismic waves, magnetic susceptibility,
and gravity. These methods help identify and map geological features like soil and rock types,
structural formations, groundwater presence, and potential risks such as faults, cavities, or
contamination.
Key reasons why geophysical investigations are valuable:
i. Non-invasive nature:
Unlike intrusive techniques like drilling, geophysical surveys scan large areas without
causing significant disruption to the surface, making them particularly suitable for
sensitive environments.
 ii. Detailed subsurface imaging:
By analyzing physical property variations, such as electrical resistivity, magnetic
susceptibility, gravity, and seismic waves, geophysical methods create detailed
subsurface images that reveal hidden geological features.
iii. Cost-effective preliminary assessment:
Geophysical surveys can serve as a preliminary investigation, helping to identify
potential problem areas before opting for more costly intrusive methods like drilling.
iv. Wide range of applications:
Geophysical techniques are used across various fields, including:
a. Civil engineering: Assessing bedrock depth, locating faults, and evaluating soil
stability for construction projects.
b. Environmental monitoring: Detecting contaminant plumes and mapping pollution
sources.
c. Mineral exploration: Locating ore bodies and identifying mineral deposits.
d. Hydrogeology: Mapping groundwater aquifers and determining water table levels.
Geophysical investigations are essential for underground design in various ways:
1. Foundation Design: Helps assess the subsurface strata to ensure the foundation's design is
appropriate for the soil and rock conditions.
2. Tunnel and Shaft Design: Evaluates rock formations, fault zones, and groundwater
conditions, which are essential for the safe design of tunnels, underground utilities, and
mines.
3. Determining Water Table Levels: Important for evaluating groundwater flow, water table
depth, and the risk of flooding or erosion during construction.
4. Identification of Geological Hazards: Identifies fault zones, voids, and other unstable
features that might pose risks to the structure’s integrity.
5. Seismic Site Characterization: Geophysical methods, like seismic testing, are used to
assess the soil's ability to resist earthquake forces, vital for seismic hazard mapping and
earthquake-resistant design.
There are various types of geophysical methods used:
1. Seismic Methods
Seismic methods are widely used in geophysical investigations to assess subsurface conditions
by measuring how seismic waves travel through the Earth. There are two main types of seismic
methods commonly used in geophysical investigations:
 a. Seismic Refraction:
This technique is based on the principle that seismic waves travel at different speeds through
different materials. Seismic waves are generated at the surface, and their arrival times at different
geophones (sensors) placed along the ground surface are recorded. By analyzing the time, it
takes for the waves to reach the sensors, geophysicists can determine the depth and type of
subsurface layers, such as bedrock, and identify changes in material properties. Seismic
refraction is commonly used to map bedrock depth, locate faults, assess soil stiffness, and
evaluate groundwater levels.
b. Seismic Reflection:
Seismic reflection is a more advanced seismic method that involves the measurement of seismic
waves reflected from subsurface layers. Seismic waves are sent into the ground, and the time it
takes for the waves to return after reflecting off different layers is measured. By interpreting the
reflected waves, geophysicists can create detailed profiles of the subsurface structure, including
the location of faults, sediment layers, and other geological features. Seismic reflection is widely
used in resource exploration (e.g., oil and gas, minerals), environmental studies, and large-scale
engineering projects such as tunnel design or mapping geological formations.
2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT):
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) is a geophysical method used to investigate subsurface
conditions by measuring the electrical resistivity of the ground at various depths. A series of
electrodes are placed along the ground surface in a linear array. The number and spacing of the
electrodes depend on the size of the area being studied and the depth of investigation required.
An electrical current is passed through the ground between two of the electrodes, while the
potential difference (voltage) is measured between other pairs of electrodes. The current travels
through the ground and is influenced by the resistivity of the materials it passes through. The
resistivity data is collected by systematically switching the current and voltage electrodes to
measure the potential differences across the survey area. This process is repeated for different
electrode configurations and depths. The collected resistivity measurements are used to create a
subsurface resistivity profile, which can be visualized as a 2D or 3D image of the subsurface.
3. Multichannel Analysis of surface wave (MASW):

Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) works by generating surface waves, typically
Rayleigh waves, that travel through the ground. These waves are created using a seismic source,
such as a hammer strike or a small explosive charge, and their propagation is monitored using a
series of geophones placed along the surface. As the surface waves travel, the geophones record
the wave's arrival times and amplitudes at various locations. This data is then analyzed to
determine the velocity of the waves, which varies based on the stiffness and shear strength of the
subsurface materials. Using this information, an inversion process creates a 2D or 3D profile of
the subsurface, revealing the shear wave velocity distribution and allowing geophysicists to
assess the properties of the soil and rock layers beneath the surface.

4. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

 5. Magnetic Methods
6. Gravity Methods
7. Electromagnetic Induction Methods
Different geophysical method and their selection criteria are:
S.N. Description Selection Criteria
1. Seismic Refraction Ideal for assessing bedrock depth, fault
locations, and soil types. Best for medium
to deep subsurface studies.
2. Seismic Reflection Suitable for mapping deep geological
formations, faults, and layered bedrock.
Typically used for large-scale
investigations.
3. Electrical Resistivity Tomography Best for mapping groundwater and
determining soil composition. Works well
for shallow to medium-depth surveys.
4. Ground Penetrating Radar Ideal for shallow investigations (up to 20-30
meters) and locating buried structures or
utilities. Effective in low-conductivity areas.
5. Multichannel Analysis of Surface waves Effective for determining shear wave
(MASW) velocity, mapping soil stiffness, and
assessing liquefaction potential. Best for
geotechnical site investigation and seismic
studies.
6. Gravimetric Survey Useful for detecting large-scale geological
features such as fault zones or deep mineral
deposits.
14. What is the scope of engineering geology in civil engineering? What factors need to be
note during the site investigation?
Ans: - Engineering geology is vital in civil engineering as it provides essential information about
the geological conditions of a site, which guides the design and construction of various
infrastructure projects. Its scope in civil engineering includes the following areas:
1. Site Investigation and Assessment:
Engineering geology is involved in assessing soil, rock, groundwater, and other geological
features to evaluate how they might affect construction. It helps in identifying potential hazards
such as landslides, earthquakes, or sinkholes.

2. Foundation Design:

Geology helps in determining the most suitable foundation types based on the soil's bearing
capacity, settlement characteristics, and groundwater conditions. This ensures stable and secure
foundations for the structures.
 3. Slope Stability Evaluation:
Engineers assess the stability of slopes and embankments to prevent landslides or soil erosion,
particularly for infrastructure like roads, highways, and dams.
4. Seismic Analysis
Geological data about fault lines and seismic activity is critical for designing buildings and
structures that can resist earthquakes, ensuring safety and compliance with seismic standards.
5. Tunnel and Underground Design:
For tunnel or underground projects, geological analysis is crucial in assessing rock and soil
conditions, groundwater flow, and potential geological hazards, ensuring safety and proper
design.
6. Risk Assessment and Mitigation:
Geologists identify and evaluate natural hazards such as flooding, subsidence, or volcanic
activity, providing recommendations for mitigating these risks during construction and beyond.
Important Factors to Consider During Site Investigation:
1. Rock Characteristics and Strength:
Analyze the types of bedrock and subsurface rocks, considering their strength, fractures, and
weathering. This helps determine the depth of foundations and excavation needs.
2. Groundwater Conditions:
Evaluate the depth of the water table, seasonal variations, and groundwater flow patterns to
address drainage needs and prevent water-related issues in the foundation and soil.
3. Geological Hazards:
Identify potential hazards, including landslides, faults, sinkholes, or flooding risks, which could
compromise the site’s stability and the safety of future structures.
4. Seismic Considerations:
Assess the site’s seismic activity, fault proximity, and ground conditions, which influence how
structures will respond to earthquakes, ensuring seismic resilience in the design.
5. Topography and Surface Features:
Document surface features like slopes, drainage patterns, and vegetation, as these affect water
runoff, soil stability, and the ease of construction on the site.
6. Environmental Factors:
Examine the environmental impact of construction, considering potential effects on ecosystems,
water resources, and air quality.
 7. Existing Infrastructure and Utilities:
Identify any underground utilities or structures, such as pipes, cables, or foundations, which may
interfere with construction or require careful planning.
8. Historical Data and Past Projects:
Review any previous investigations, site reports, or construction history to gain insights into
the site’s behavior, potential issues, and relevant challenges for the current project.