Chapter

A
Reproduction

AN
G
Reproduction is a necessary life process for continuation of life by
producing offsprings . N
• Do you think reproduction occurs only for continuation of life?
LA
• How does an organism grow? How does repair of worn out parts take
place? Is there any other form of reproduction involved in the process?
Organisms are capable of giving rise to offsprings by the process of
TE

reproduction. Some organisms may reproduce differently in different

situations. For example, under favourable conditions Paramoecium give
rise to more of its kind from a single parent by simply splitting into two.
This happens rapidly and several of them are formed. During unfavourable
T

conditions two Paramoecia come in contact and exchange certain materials

ER

of their bodies and produce forms that are more tolerant (conjugation).
The time required to reproduce also varies from organism to organism.
Even within the organism there could be certain environmental conditions
that would make the process of reproduction faster.
SC

Let us do an activity to find out how fast an organism might be reproducing

Acitivity-1
Formation of bacterial colony in milk
We are aware that, Lactobacillus (bacteria) is responsible for formation
of curd. Take a tea spoonful of curd and mix it thoroughly with around 60
tea spoonsful of (half of the glass) luke warm milk in a bowl. Take another
tea spoonful of curd and mix it with 60 tea spoonsful of cold milk in another

116 X Class Reproduction

bowl. Cover both the bowls with lids and note down the initial time. Keep
on observing the two bowls every hour to see whether curd has been
formed or not. Curdling indicates that, there is an increase in number of
bacteria.
Note the time taken for formation of curd in both the bowls.
• Did it take the same time to form curd in both the bowls?
• What was the time taken to form 60 times the size of the bacterial
colony? What did it indicate?
Think, how fast they are growing. During rainy season you may have

A
wondered to see how swarms of insects suddenly appear. Most insects
have life cycles spanning a few days to a few months. You will find great

AN
variations in the periods of reproduction viz. yeasts, bacteria, rat, cow,
elephant and man.
Asexual mode of reproduction

G
Let us study the different modes of reproduction involving a single
parent, without involving gametes. This type of reproduction is known as
asexual reproduction. N
Organisms can reproduce asexually in many ways. Some of them are
LA
discussed below :
Fission
Single celled organisms, such as Paramoecium and
TE

bacteria, reproduce by splitting into two or more offsprings.

This usually occurs in a symmetrical manner. They split into
two by binary fission. When more cells are formed it is called Fig-1:
multiple fission. This is often the only mode of reproduction Fission in paramoecium
T

in these organisms.
• How do you think bacteria were dividing to form curd?
ER

Budding
A growth on the body as a bud that grows to form nearly
identical copy of parent. When the bud totally grows then it
SC

separates from the parent and survives independently. Eg:

Yeast.
Fig-2: Budding in yeast
Fragmentation
Some of the organisms can grow from a single piece of
the parent organism. This can be from any part of the body.
Fragmentation occurs only in the simplest, such as some
flatworms, molds, lichens, Spirogyra etc. These may also
reproduce sexually. Fragmentation is a common mode of
reproduction in algae, fungi and many land plants. Fig-3: Fragmentation in
Spirogyra
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 Parthenogenesis
In general sexual reproduction takes place by the fusion of haploid
gametes forming a diploid zygote. Do you know, in certain cases the
organisms develop directly from unfertilized gametes.
This process occurs commonly in lower organisms such as algae and
fungi eg: Spirogyra. The process of development of young ones from
unfertilized gametes is called parthenogenesis. (In greek partheno means
virgin; genesis means production)
This strange kind of reproduction occurs in animals like some species
of ants, bees and wasps the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into female

A
and unfertilized ovum develops into male. In this process the sperms
develop by mitotic division in male where as ova develop by meiotic

AN
division (chromosomes number is reduced to half) in female (for details
see at the end of the chapter).
Parthenocarpy: Now a days we are able to develop seedless
fruits like watermelon, grapes etc. Naturally in some plants

G
like banana ovary directly develops into fruit without the
process of fertilization this phenomenon is called as
N
“Parthenocarpy”. These fruits are seedless. In many crops
like pomegranate, papaya, tomatoes etc, parthenocarpy is
LA
induced. A phyto hormone induces parthenocarpy.
Discuss with your teacher about plants and animals that
show parthenocarpy, parthenogenesis. Prepare a note on this.
Fig-4: Seedless Watermelon
TE

Regeneration
Many organisms have the ability to give rise to new
individual organisms from their body parts. That is, if the
individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, these
pieces grow into separate individuals. This is similar to
T

fragmentation.
• Regeneration is a type of fragmentation? Do you agree?
ER

Why? Why not?

• Which type of fission would produce larger colonies in
Fig-5: Regeneration in less period of time. Why?
SC

Planaria
Vegetative propagation
Reproduction may occur in plants from their vegetative parts (leaves,
stems, roots). This is called as vegetative propagation. This may be natural
or artificial.
Natural propagation
Leaves: In Bryophyllum small plants grow at the edge of leaves.
Stems: Aerial weak stems like runners and stolons, when they touch the
ground, give off adventitious roots. When the connection with the parent
Fig-6:
plant is broken, the stem portion with the adventitious roots develops
Bryophyllum into an independent plant. Some examples for propagation by stem are
by stolons, bulbs, corms, tuber, etc.
118 X Class Reproduction
Stolons - Jasmin, strawberry, Bulbs - Onion, Corms - Colacasia, Rhizome
- ginger Tuber - potato, Root - Roots of Murraya, Guava, Millingtonia
(radical buds) etc., grow as new plants.

Tuber Stolon

A
Bulb Corms Root buds in
Fig-7 Millingtonia

AN
Artificial propagation
Cutting:
Some plants can grow individually when a

G
piece of the parent plant having bud is cut off
from the existing plant. The lower part of this
N
cutting is buried in moist soil. After few days,
the cut parts having buds grow as an individual
LA
plant after developing roots. Eg: Rose, Hibiscus
Fig-8: Cutting
Layering:
A branch of the plant with at least one node is bent
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towards the ground and a part of it is covered with moist

soil leaving the tip of the branch exposed above the weak branch
ground. After a few days, new roots develop from the
part of the branch buried in the soil. The buried branch is
T

then cut off from the parent plant. The part which has
ER

developed roots grows to become a new plant. Eg:

Nerium, Jasmine.
Fig-9: Layering
Grafting:
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Two plants are joined together in such a way that two

scion
stems join and grow as a single plant. One which is
attached to soil is called stock and the cut stem of another
plant without roots is called scion. Both stock and scion
are tied with the help of a twine thread and covered by a
stock
polythene cover. Grafting is used to obtain a plant with
desirable characters. This techqnique is very useful in
propagating improved varieties of plants with various
flowers and fruits (eg: Mango, citrus, apple, rose).
Fig-10: Grafting

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 By grafting a very young scion (shoot part of a plant) can be made to
flowers and produce fruits the earliest.
If you have two varieties of same type of fruit yielding trees in your
garden. One tree has the character of giving big sized fruits but less in
number. The other one produce more number of small sized fruits.
• What mode of propagation would help you to produce the plants
with desirable characters?
• Will budding, fission and fragmentation lead to organisms that are
exact copies of their parents? Why/why not?

A
Cutting, layering and grafting are the traditional methods of

AN
artificial propagation in plants. Examples of plants produced in this
manner are Banana, Pineapple, Orange, Grape, Rose, etc.

Do you know?

G
For commercial purposes; traditional methods of
propagation are being replaced by the modern technology
N
of artificial propagation of plants involving tissue culture.
In tissue culture, few plant cells or plant tissue are placed
LA
in a growth medium with plant hormones in it and it grows
into new plants.Thousands of plants can be grown in very
short interval of time.
TE

Collect information from your school library or internet about

advantages and disadvantages of artificial vegetative propagation and discuss
it in your class room with your teacher and classmates.
T

Spore formation:
Generally we may notice whitish thread like structures and blackish
ER

powder like substance on rotten fruits, bread slices and other food
materials. When you touch it, the blackish powder sticks on your fingers.
These are the reproductive spores produced by fungi. Ex: Rhizopus. You
have already learnt about this in the chapter ‘The story of micro organisms’
SC

in class VIII.
Rhizopus produces hundreds of microscopic reproductive units called
spores. When the spore case (also called sporangium) bursts, the spores
spread into air. These air-borne spores when fall on food or soil, under
favourable conditions like damp and warm conditions, they germinate and
produce new individuals. Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor a few Bacteria and
some non-flowering plants such as ferns and mosses mostly reproduce by
this method of spore formation.

120 X Class Reproduction

 Lab Activity
To examine Rhizopus or common mold under the microscope, it is
best to grow on your own in a controlled environment. Use a soft bread
that is preservative free or a roti, fruits or vegetables such as potatoes or
oranges. A good sample of mold may require 4-10 days to form spores so
be sure to plan ahead for this project. (Please note: this should not be
done by those with allergies to mold or with severe asthma.) Sporangium

A
Spore
Hyphae

AN
Hyphae

G
Bread
Rhizopus mycelium seen under
Rhizopus growing on bread
N microscope
Fig-11
Rhizopus sporongium
LA
Leave the bread in the open air for about an hour, so it is exposed to
contaminants in the air. Place the bread in a plastic bag, sprinkle water
over it to have dampness, then seal the bag, leaving some air inside. Place
TE

the bag in a dark, warm place. A kitchen cup board close to the stove may
be one option. Or you could place it next to a window, with a bowl or lid
covering it from the light. Mold will grow best in a moist environment.
Mold would start growing in 2-3 days, but will take a week or more to
T

form spores depending upon the weather conditions.

Check the piece of bread regularly for every few days, and add some
ER

water if it is drying. Avoid opening the plastic bag as much as you can. If
you touch the bread, be sure to wash your hands thoroughly afterwards.
When sufficient mold has formed (that is, you would find whitish thread
like growth with masses of black, grey and green fine dotted structures
SC

(See Fig-11)). You may take a part of the bread or roti to school in a
matchbox. Ask your teacher to help you to make a slide and observe under
the microscope.
Aim: To prepare temporary slide of Rhizopus.
Material required: Mold sample, plain glass slide, coverslip, water,
disposable gloves.
Procedure:
1. Place a drop of water in the centre of the slide.
2. Using a toothpick, scrap very little of the mold and place it on the
drop of water.
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 3. Take the cover slip and set it at an angle to the slide so that one edge of
it touches the water drop, then carefully lower it over the drop so that
the cover slip covers the specimen without trapping air bubbles
underneath.
4. Use the corner of a tissue paper or blotting paper to blot up any excess
water at the edges of the cover slip.
5. View the slide with a compound microscope first observe under low
power.
The common bread mold consists of fine thread like projections called

A
hyphae and thin knob like structures called Sporangia (sporangium is
singular). Each sporangium contains hundreds of minute spores. When

AN
the sporangium bursts, the tiny spores are dispersed in air.
Try to give some more examples of organisms which reproduce through
spore formation.

G
Sporophyll:
Ferns also produce spores. Collect a fern leaf which is called
N
sporophyll. Observe the leaf carefully. On the lower surface of the leaf
you find clusters of dot like structures called sorii. These
LA
contain sporangia. Gently rupture sorus with a needle and
observe spores by using magnifying glass.
TE

• Do you find any similarities between Rhizopus and

fern spores and sporongia?
• What about mushrooms, how do they grow? Discuss
in your class.
Fig-12: Fern sporophyll
T
ER

Sexual reproduction
As you have studied earlier, sexual reproduction is a method of
reproduction where fusion of gametes takes place, by a process called
fertilization. Fertilization may occur either outside the body of the female
SC

organism (external fertilization) or inside the female’s body (internal

fertilization). As a matter of fact, the eggs of land animals are fertilised
inside the body of the female organism. The fertilized egg (the zygote)
start dividing and grow into the embryo.
External fertilization is observed in aquatic animals like most of the
fishes and amphibians. The female lays a vast number of eggs in water and
male animal release some millions of sperms on them. As the chance of
fertilization is controlled by nature which occurs externally, hence it is
inevitable to produce a vast number of eggs and sperms.

122 X Class Reproduction

Reproduction in placental mammals - Human beings
While talking about placental mammals especially human beings
special reproductive organs have developed in males and females to carry
out reproduction. Let us study them in detail.
Male reproductive system
Ureters
Observe the Fig-13(a) of male reproductive Urinary bladder
system and findout the parts. (1) a pair of testes, Vasdeferens
(2) vasa efferentia, (3) a pair of epididymis, (4) seminal ducts
a pair of vasa deferentia, (5) a pair of seminal

A
seminal vesicle
vesicles, (6) ejaculatory duct, (7) prostate gland, prostate gland

AN
(8) a pair of cowper’s gland, (9) urethra.
Testes : The testes are located outside the
abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. penis
In each testis highly coiled seminiferous tubules urethra

G
epididymis
are present. The sperms are produced in these
tubules by meiosis in very large numbers
(hundreds of millions). Male sex hormone
testosterone is also produced in testis.
N scrotum
testis

Fig-13(a): Male reproductive system

LA
• Think why testes are located outside the
abdominal cavity?
The scrotum helps in maintaining low temperature of the testes (2-
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2.5 C lower than the body temperature) necessary for sperm formation.
o

Vasa efferentia : The seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia. They
carry sperms into the epididymis.
Epididymis : One in each side, the vasa efferentia open into epididymis
T

which is a highly coiled tube located along the posterior side of testes.
Sperms are stored in them.
ER

Vasa deferentia : From each epididymis arises vas deferens which ascends
into the abdominal cavity looping around the ureter.
Seminal vesicles : They open into the vas deferens. They produce seminal
fluid. It is the source of energy for sperms when they are outside the body.
SC

Prostrate gland: The main function of the prostrate gland is to secrete

prostrate fluid which is one of the component of semen supplies nutrients
to the sperm.
Cowper’s gland : Secretions of these glands help to neutralise the acidity
in the walls of urethra and the free flow of the sperm cells
Ejaculatory duct : A duct from seminal vesicles joins the vas deferens and
continues as ejaculatory duct. Two ejaculatory ducts join at the centre of
urethra.
Urethra : In male it transports not only urine but also sperms. It is also
called as urino-genital duct.
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 The passage of spermetozoa :
Seminiferous tubules - vasa efferentia - epididymis - vasa deferentia -
ejaculatory duct - urethra.
Acrosome The sperm :
Head Observe the Fig-13(b). The sperm has a head which bears
Nucleus acrosome. It helps the sperm in penetrating into ovum. In the middle
Neck
Mitochondria of the head male nucleus is present. It fuses with the female nucleus.
Middle piece Head and middle piece are attached by neck. Mitochondria of middle

A
piece produce energy for the movement of the sperm. The tail propels
Tail the sperm. The fluids secreted from seminal vesicles, prostate gland

AN
and cowper’s gland collectively called seminal plasma. The seminal
plasma along with sperm is called semen.
The sending out of semen from male’s body is called ejaculation.

G
From normal fertility 60% of sperm should have normal shape and
size. And 40% of them must have vigorous motility.

Fig-13(b):
N
Men produce sperm, from the age of about 13 or 14 years, and
can go on doing so during most of their lifespan. Their power to do so
LA
Sperm cell decreases as they grow older.
Female reproductive system
TE

Observe the Fig-14. The important parts of the female reproductive

system are (1) a pair of ovaries, (2) a pair of fallopian tubes, (3) uterus,
(4) vagina. (The functional mammary glands also integrate with female
reproductive system)
Ovaries : The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity. The ova develop
T

in tiny cellular structures called follicles, which at first look like cellular
ER

bubbles in the ovary. They are called graafian follicles. As a follicle grows,
it develops a cavity filled with fluid. Each follicle contains a single ovum
which is formed after the process of cell division (meiosis- chromosomes
reduced to half). When an ovum becomes mature, the follicle ruptures at
SC

fallopian tube the surface of the ovary and the tiny ovum
is flushed out. This release of the egg or
ovum is called ovulation.
funnel Fallopian tubes : Generally the ovum
enters the widened funnel of an oviduct
ovary (fallopian tube), a tube that extends from
uterus
the neighbourhood of an ovary to the
cervix
muscular, thick-walled uterus.
vagina
Fertilization occurs as the ovum passes
Fig-14: Female reproductive system through the fallopian tubes thus
124 X Class Reproduction
beginning a new life. Usually a single sperm fertilizes a single ovum. Thus
a zygote is formed.
The zygote under goes mitotic division while travelling down in the
fallopian tubes. By the time it reaches the uterus and transforms into a
solid ball of cells.
Uterus : It is inverted pear shaped structure. The inner layer of uterus is
called endometrium. The thickness of these layers increases gradually soon
after menstruation. It will be ready to receive the embryo. If there is no

A
fertilization the endometrium disintegrates and flows out as menstrual
fluid. If there is fertilization the thickness of endometrium continues and

AN
ready to receive the embryo. It provides nourishment and
chorion
disposes of wastes of the developing embryo.
The fertilized ovum undergoes mitotic divisions, while umbilicalcord
it moves down the oviduct and finally attaches to the soft

G
amnion
tissues of the uterus. Once attached, the embryo sinks into
placenta
the soft inner uterine wall. This is called as implantation of
N
embryo. Then certain cells of the embryo develop into Fig-15: Human embryo
LA
membranous structures that help to nourish, protect, and support the
developing embryo. They are chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk sac. 1
Chorion: During the development of the embryo, tiny finger like
projections grow from the surface of the outer membrane called chorion
TE

into the soft tissues of the uterus. Gradually, small pools of rapidly moving 2
blood form around these finger like projections in the uterine wall. These
tissues of the chorion and the adjacent part of the uterine tissue make up the
placenta.
T

Placenta is a tissue formed by the cells from the embryo and the mother.
ER

It is formed at around 12 weeks of pregnancy and becomes an important 3

structure for nourishment of the embryo. Under normal conditions there
is no direct flow of blood from mother to the young. The blood systems
of the two are separated by thin membranes made up of cells that allow an
SC

exchange mainly by diffusion, of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and

waste materials. 4
Amnion: Another embryonic membrane, the amnion, grows around the
embryo itself. The cavity within the amnion becomes filled with fluid called
amniotic fluid. The embryo develops in this fluid-filled cavity, which keeps
it moist and protects it from minor mechanical injury. Yolksacs edge folding
of amnion unite at allantois and forms a long tube like structure which
Fig-16:
connects the embryo with placanta.
Developmental
Allantois: It is another membrane of the embryo. This membrane arises stages of human
from the gut of the embryo yolk sac, the edges of amnion join at the cord embryo
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5 of allontois to form long tube called umblical cord. It contains the very
important blood vessels that connect the embryo with the placenta. It plays
an important role in supplying the food materials from mother to child.
Yolk Sac: Yolk sacs encloses a fluid filled cavity. It has no specific functions
in placental mammals.
Thus the embryo develops until it is ready to be born. From the third
month of pregnancy the embryo is called foetus. Pregnancy lasts, on an
average, 9 months, or 280 days. This period is called gestation period.
6 Child birth

A
As pregnancy progresses, the foetus (of an embryo) with additional
characters grow and the uterus increases in diameter. Usually at about the

AN
ninth month the head of the foetus is turned down towards the opening of
the uterus. During birth, the head usually comes out first. Sometimes the
feet come first; this makes the delivery more difficult. We still do not
know much about the mechanism of child birth and how it is triggered.

G
7 Childbirth begins when the muscle layers of the uterus starts to
contract and relax rhythemically these actions are felt as labour pains. At
N
first, muscular activity of the uterus is just strong enough to move the
baby slowly toward the vagina, the outer canal of the female reproductive
LA
tract. Generally at this stage, the sac (amnion) around the baby breaks, and
its fluid contents are released. This is a good sign that labour is well on its
8 way. Then the contractions of the muscles become stronger and more
TE

frequent, and the baby is pushed out of the body through the vagina. Now
the baby comes in to this world.
The umbilical cord leading the baby to placenta, is tied off and cut by
the doctor. (The small piece of cord remaining attached to the baby shrivels
T

and falls off within a few days. The navel marks the place where it once
9 entered the body.) After the birth of the baby, the muscular contractions of
ER

the uterus continue until they push out the tissues

of the placenta, which are commonly called the
placenta “afterbirth.” During the end of pregnancy, a watery
yellowish lymph like fluid called ‘colostrum’
SC

amnion
amniotic fluid
accumulates in the mammary glands, which have
umbilical cord
gradually been enlarging and undergo
transformation. For the first few days after the
baby is born, the mammary glands secrete only
colostrum. It is very important to feed this to the
baby new born baby. It helps in developing the immune
system of the child. After this milk is secreted.
cervix After child birth when production of milk stops
Fig-17: Stage before birth menstural cycle will resume.

126 X Class Reproduction

 Do you know?
Need for sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction as we have studied produce organisms which are normally copies
of the single parent. Sexual reproduction would require two parents and organism thus
produced would have a combination of characters of both parents. Asexual reproduction
appears to be more efficient as only a single parent is required and no time or energy is
spent in finding a mate. But sexual reproduction helps organisms to develop characters
that would be of help to them to adapt better to their surroundings. Think of the paramoecium

A
asexual and sexual reproductions mentioned in the begining of the chapter.

AN
When compared with animals, sexual reproduction is less complex in
most flowering plants. Let us study how does it happen in them.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

G
So far we know about nearly 275,000 species of flowering plants.
With a few exceptions, several of them give rise to seeds enclosed in
N
fruits. Most of the plants you are familiar with are flowering plants. Their
characters are quite remarkable. The plant size range from trees weighing
LA
many tons to tiny water plants about the size of a rice grain. A sal tree
growing in the Himalayan mountains, a giant cactus in the Sahara desert,
an orchid plant on the branch of a jungle tree-all are flowering plants. Now
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let us examine the sexual reproduction in flowering plants.

Flower - The reproductive part
The reproductive parts of a flowering
T

plants are located in the flower. You have

already studied the different parts of the
ER

flower- sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

The reproductive parts of the flower which
possess the sex cells called stamens and
carpels.
SC

• What function do you think is served

by petals and sepals?
• Label parts of flower given in Fig-18.
• Draw the diagram of the flower that you
collect label the parts and write their
functions.
Flowers having either stamens or carpels
are called unisexual like that of bottle gourd Fig-18: Parts of a flower and
and papaya. Flowers having both the stamen label them
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 and carpel are bisexual like Datura. Stamens groups of stamen are the
male part called androecium) produce male sex cells in the pollen grain.
Carpels (female portion, called Gynoecium) produce female sex cells
in ovules inside ovaries. Carpels have three main parts, one to receive
the pollen called as stigma, one for passage of compatible male sex
Fig-18(a): cells called the style and the other part where fusion of male and female
Unisexual flower sex cells occur to form zygote, is the ovary.
(female)
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same flower

A
is called self-pollination. Ex: Pea plant. We can see this type of
pollination in plants like those of the pea family.

AN
Try to find out some other plants that are self-pollinating types.
Are there any observable characters that help you to find out whether
stamen a plant is self-pollinating type or not? The illustrations given here will

G
Fig-18(b): help you. If anthers are present below the stigma of the carpel the
Unisexual flower process of self-pollination may not occur.
(male)
stamen
N
• How does the male reproductive cells reach the female
reproductive cells in flowers of such plants?
LA
You have studied in earlier classes that how birds and insects help
plants as agents of pollination.
What happens in plants that carry the female reproductive structure
TE

carpel
or the male reproductive structure borne in separate flowers?
Fig-18(c):
Remember the flowers of bottle gourd you studied in earlier classes.
Bisexual flower
T

Do you know?
ER

Darwin in1876 showed that plants when isolated had the greatest tendency to
self-fertilize while when surrounded by varieties of the same flower, they readily
cross fertilize.
SC

Pollen grains of a flower are transferred to the stigma of a flower of

another plant of the same species, is called cross pollination.
Let us now observe the reproductive parts of flowering plants more
closely. The male reproductive part or the stamen consists of some sac
like structures at its head bearing small tiny structures called pollen. We
can easily observe them with the help of hand lens. The pollen grain reach
the female reproductive part and fertilize the egg to form a zygote.

128 X Class Reproduction

 Activity-2
Observation of pollen grain
Take a slide and put a few drops of water on it. Now take any flower
like Hibiscus, Tridax, Marigold, etc. Tap the anther over the drop of water.
You will see small dot like structures floating on water. These are pollen
grains. Observe these first under a hand lens then under a
compound microscope. pollen grain
You may also see a permanent slide of pollen grain

A
from your lab. Observe it under microscope. Make a pollen tube

AN
drawing of what you observed and compare with the given
Fig-19.
nuclei
The given diagram shows two nuclei. The pollen grain
germinates only on the stigma. Fig-19: Pollen grain

G
Structure of the ovule

N
An ovule is an egg-shaped structure attached by a stalk to the inner
side of the ovary. Depending upon the species of plant an ovary may have
LA
one, two, several, or even hundreds of ovules. At the center of each ovule
there is a microscopic embryosac filled with food and water. The
embryosac is composed of gametophytic cells.
TE

The majority of flowering plants have an

embryosac consisting of seven cells and eight nuclei.
At first it undergoes series of 3 mitotic cell divisions ovary
ovule
to form eight nucleate stage of embryosac. Among
T

gametophyte cells
these one large central cell contains two nuclei,
ER

called polar nuclei. Three cells move towards top embryo sac

end and are called antipodals. Three cells are grouped

at micropylar end (place where pollen tube enters) Fig-20: Structure of ovule
of which two cells of this are called synergids and
SC

central one is egg cell. Cells on the surface of the stigma secretes a sticky
nutrient fluid contains sugars and other substances. This will help the
pollengrain to germinate. Then it forms pollen tube. It bears two nuclei.
Soon after the tip of the pollen tube enters the embryosac, the end of the
tube ruptures and releases the two nuclei into the embryosac.
One of the two nuclei fuses with the egg to form a zygote. It is called
fertilization. By the time the egg cell has been fertilized, the two polar
nuclei combine to form a single fusion nucleus. Now the second male

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 nucleus deposited in the embryo sac by the pollen tube moves to the center
and unites with the fusion nucleus. The zygote will develop into an embryo
within the ovule. Union of the fusion nucleus with the second male nucleus
stimulates the formation of a new tissue the endosperm. In which, food
materials are stored as development of the ovule proceeds.

stigma

A
pollen tube

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style
antipodals

ovary polar nuclei

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integuments

ovule synergids
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gametophyte cells
central cell
egg cell
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embryo sac Fig-22: Female gametophyte

Fig-21: Fertilisation
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Union of one nucleus with the egg, and the second nucleus with the
fusion nucleus is called double fertilization. After double fertilization,
the ovule increases in size rapidly as a result of the formation of endosperm
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tissue by mitosis, thus the embryo develops. The embryo consists of one
or more cotyledons.
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The cotyledons develops by utilizing the food stored in endosperm.

The cotyledons of some flowering plants for example; beans, digest,
absorb, and store the foods from the endosperm as the ovule is maturing
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into a seed. As a consequence, the cotyledons become greatly enlarged

because of stored food and the endosperm disappears more or less
completely. Many other flowering plants (such as corn or castor), the
endosperm tissue continues to grow as the ovule matures into a seed.
After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo
within the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is generally converted
into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form the fruit. Meanwhile
the other floral parts may shrivel and fall off.

130 X Class Reproduction

• Which floral parts may be seen in a fruit?
The seed produced after fertilisation contains the future plant or
embryo that develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. The
process is called germination.
Activity-3
Seed germination
Soak few groundnut or bengal gram (chana) seeds

A
overnight.
Drain the excess water and cover the seeds with wet cloth.

AN
cotyledon
Leave them for a day. Keep sprinkling water at regular intervals plumule
so that they do not dry up. Open the seeds carefully and radicle
observe the parts, compare with fig-23 to identify the parts.

G
Fig-23: Seed germination

Observe the life cycle of plant as a whole in the following diagram.

N
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fertiliza
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tion

mature plant zygote

pollination
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embryo
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simple fruit
seed
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seedling germination

Fig-24: Life cycle of flowering plant

Cell division and continuation of life

Continuation of life starts from cells either those of the general body
or the sex cells (gametes).
Virchow (1821–1902) a proponent of cell theory is given the credit
for the phrase Omnis cellula e cellula, or cells arise from pre-existing
cells, indicates the importance of cell division in the creation of new cells.
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 In 1852 a German scientist, Robert Remak, published his
observations on cell division, based on his observations of embryos.
This was one of the first attempts to understand the mechanism of
cell division. He stated that binary fission of cells was the means of
reproduction of animal cells. What happens during cell division could
only be understood better when scientists came to know what is
present inside the nucleus of the cell.
Fig-25: In 1879 Walther Flemming (1843–1905) examined many kinds
of animal and plant cells and selected those that showed division.

A
Walther Flemming
He reported from his observations of such cells that there were string

AN
like structures in the nucleus which split longitudinally during cell division.
He named such a process of division as mitosis (mitos- means fine threads)
as the dividing structures resembled threads. He made a meticulous
observation and made sketches and observed that there were a sequence

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of events in the process of division. A decade later these thread like
structures were named as chromosomes (coloured bodies) as repeatedly
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in efforts to see them scientists were trying to use dyes to stain the nucleus
and found that these structures were stained most often. His most important
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discovery was chromosomes appear double in nature.
Wilhelm Roux (1850-1924) proposed that chromosomes carried a
different set of heritable elements and longitudinal splitting observed by
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Flemming, ensured the equal division of these elements. Combined with

the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel’s 1866 paper on heritable elements in
peas, these results highlighted the central role of the chromosomes in
carrying heritable material (or genetic material). In cell division the cell
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divides into two halves with equal number of chromosomes which are
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similar to parent cell and are diploid in nature.

But the chromosomes number always remained the same. Biologists
also began to wonder about this. When cells divide, the daughter cells
always have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Let
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us assume that cell division is always preceded by mitosis. In case of

human egg cells and sperm cells like other cells, must contain 46
chromosomes. But if this were so, then the union of egg nucleus and
sperm nucleus , which takes place during fertilization would produce
a total of 92 chromosomes in zygote. If it continues this would be
184, 368 and so on. But the situation is not like that.
August Weismann (1834-1914) a biologist hypothesised that
Fig-26: 1. In successive generations, individuals of the same species have the
August Weismann same number of chromosomes.
132 X Class Reproduction
2. In successive cell division the number of chromosomes always re-
main constant.
The scheme of meiotic division was confirmed in 1904 by Theodor
Boveri (1862–1915). The chemical nature of the genetic material was
determined after a series of experiments over the next fifty years,
culminating in the determination of its structure the deoxy ribonucleic
acid (DNA) in 1953 by James Watson(DNA) and Francis Crick. Scientists
proved that mitosis takes place in all body cells which retains same number
of chromosomes. Meiotic division takes place in sex cells where the

A
chromosome number is halved. Observe the Fig-27.

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bone Two kinds of cell division in the life of
muscle an individual. The chromosome
numbers 2n and n are respectively the
skin
number of chromosomes following
nerve

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mitosis (2n) and half the number (n)
mitosis gland following meiosis - the type of
division predicted by Weismann.
blood
N other cells
meiosis
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sperm sperm
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egg fertilised immature

egg reproductive cell egg

Fig-27: Cell division showing mitosis and meiosis

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Cell division in Human beings

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We know that cell as the structural and functional units of life of any
organism. In all organisms the cell divide and form new cells. The process
of cell division is same in unicellular organisms and highly evolved
multicellular organisms like human being.
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Cell division is the process that transforms a human fertilized egg

into a baby in nine months and into an adult in the next 20 years. Cell
division and function in a multicellular organism is highly regulated. It
occurs only when there is a need for it.
Cells in some organs, such as heart and brain of an individual may
divide slowly. On the other hand bone marrow cells may actively divide to
produce red blood cells, which have a short life span nearly 120 days in
the body. For example, if you cut your finger and bleed, soon a blood clot
forms to stop the bleeding. This brings in various chemicals to the site
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 that stimulate skin cells to divide and heal the wound. Cell division ceases
as the wound is completely healed. In contrast, cancer cells do not respond
to such growth regulating factors and continuously divide at the expense
of normal cells, thus ultimately killing the host. So it becomes important
to understand the processes involved in cell division. The cell cycle will
help us understand this better.

M (1 hr)
Cell cycle
G2 (3.5 hrs) The process of cell division is a very

A
M
small part of the cell cycle. The period
G2 between two cell divisions is called

AN
‘Interphase’. This is actually the period
G1 when the genetic material makes its copy
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so that it is equally distributed to the

G
daughter cells during mitosis. Interphase
can be divided into three phases.
S (10.5 hrs) N
G1 (10.5 hrs)
1) G1 phase: This is the linking period
between the completion of mitosis and
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the beginning of DNA replication (Gap 1
Fig-28: Cell cycle
phase). The cell size increase during this
period.
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2) S phase: This is the period of DNA synthesis (Synthesis phase) leading

duplication of chromosomes.
3) G2 phase: This is the time between the end of DNA replication and the
beginning of mitosis.(Gap 2 phase). Cell organelles divide and prepare
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chromosome for mitosis.

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M phase: This is cell division phase. It includes prophase, usually includes

its stages that are named as metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis.
To understand the functional relationship between these phases, Potu
Narasimha Rao and Johnson (see annexure) conducted some experiments
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using the cell fusion technique. That is combining two cells in experimental
conditions. With this cell fusion technique Johnson and Potu Rao revealed
for the first time the structure of interphase(G1, S and G2) chromosomes
that are not ordinarily visible under the microscope. They provided evidence
on progression of cells through the cell cycle in sequential unidirectional
and controlled way by a series of chemical signals that can diffuse freely
between nucleus and cytoplasm. These experiments are considered to be
a ‘mile stone’ in the cell cycle studies.

134 X Class Reproduction

 Activity-4
Observe different stages of mitotic cell division
Take permanent slides which shows different stages of mitotic cell
division from your lab kit. Observe carefully under microscope. Draw
diagrams what you observe, and compare your observations with the
following figures. (Fig-29)

A
AN
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

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Fig-29: Mitosis
The division of nucleus (Karyokinesis) followed by the division of
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Cytoplasm (Cytokinesis) finally brings about formation of two daughter
Table-1: Mitosis
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Stage Description
1. Prophase 1. Chromosomes condense and get coiled. They become visible even in
light microscope and nucleoli become smaller.
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2. Chromosomes split lengthwise to form chromatids, connected by

centromeres.
3. Nuclear membrane disappears.
4. Centrosome, containing rod-like centrioles, divide and form ends of
spindle (probably animal cells only).
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(Note: No pairing of chromosomes as in meiosis).

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2. Metaphase 1. Chromosomes move to spindle equator, spindle fibres attached to

centromeres.
1. Centromeres split, separating the chromatids.
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3. Anaphase 2. Spindle fibres attached to centromeres contract, pulling chromatids

towards poles
4. Telophase 1. Chromatids elongate, become invisible, replication at this stage to
become chromosomes.
2. Nuclear membranes form round daughter nuclei.
3. Nucleus divides into two and division of cytoplasm starts Two cells
are formed.
4. Cell membrane pinches to form daughter cells (animals) or new cell
wall material becomes laid down across spindle equator (plants)
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 cells. While observing cells in tissues undergoing division, it is not easy
to differentiate different stages of division. see table-1.
Process of meiosis
Unlike mitosis which is a continuous process for division in most
cells. Meiosis occurs only during the formation of gametes in sexual
reproduction. Meiosis has two phases. During the first phase of meiosis
the parent cell containing two sets of chromosomes (diploid) divides and
daughter cells containg one set of chromosomes (haploid) are formed.

A
The second phase of meiosis is similar to normal mitosis. Thus the four
daughter cells have just half the number of chromosomes of the parent

AN
cell. Thus meiosis is also called reduction division. You will learn more
about this in further classes.

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N
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Prophase 1 Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1 Telophase 1
Fig-30: Meiosis Daughter cells
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• What differences do you find in mitosis and meiosis? Write in a

tabular form.
• What would happen if the gamets do not have half the chromosome
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number as to their parental cell?

• How would it affect the progeny formed by sexual reproduction?
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Reproductive health
• Why did the government of India fixed the legal marriage age of
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boys (21 years) and girls (18 years)?

• Do you feel that it is a social responsibility to control birth after
having one or two children?
• What do you understand by the term ‘Healthy Society’?
• Will you encourage child marriage? Why?
As we have seen, the process of sexual maturation is gradual, and takes
place while general body growth is still going on. Therefore, some degree
of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the body or the mind
is ready for sexual acts. Further, it is not fit for having and bringing up

136 X Class Reproduction

children. How do we decide if the body or the mind is ready for this major
responsibility? All of us are under many different kinds of pressures about
these issues. There can be pressure from our friends for participating in
many activities, whether we really want or not. There can be pressure from
families to get married and start having children. There can be pressure
from government and voluntary organisations to avoid having children. In
these situations, right choices are important.
In the lesson 8th class “why do we fall ill”, we learnt that the diseases
can be transmitted from person to person in a variety of ways. Since the

A
sexual act is a very intimate connection of bodies, it is not surprising that

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many diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial
infections such as Gonorrhea and syphilis, and viral infections such as
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome).
These diseases spread by unsafe sexual contacts, using infected devices,

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Fig-31:
infected blood transfusion, from an infected mother to child. Red ribbon
Unfortunetely, Telangana state has high incidents of HIV positive cases. 1st December
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Illiteracy, poor health, unemployment, migration, non-traditional sex AIDS Day
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practise, unethical contacts and trafficking are some of the factors
contributing to the spread of HIV in the state, according to experts.
The government established Anti Retroviral Therapy (ART centres) to
supply medicine to HIV patients. Medical and health, family health
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departments AIDS control projects implementing various programmes like

ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activist), Red Ribbon Express, etc., to
create awareness in society on the risks and symptoms of AIDS.
• Invite local health worker to your school and discuss about HIV
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and its impact on society.

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• Social discrimination against AIDS patients is also a social evil.

Can you support this? Why?
If we follow the simple life styles as cited below one could avoid
many sexually transmitted diseases.
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• Avoid sex with unknown partners or multiple partners

• Even though contraceptives are available it is better follow ethical and
healthy life practices.
• In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get
complete treatment if diagnosed with disease.
Birth control methods
The sexual act always has potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy
will make major demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if

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 she is not ready for it, her health will be adversely affected. Therefore,
many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
The prevention of pregnancy arresting fertilisation is called
contraception. Any device or chemical (drug) or devices which prevents
pregnancy is called a contraceptive. The birth control methods can be of
various types and can be used by any of the partners as preferable. Physical
devices such as condoms and diaphragm (cap) are used. This prevents
reaching of sperms to ova for fertilisation. This device not only prevents
fertilisation but also transmitting some sexually transmitted diseases (STD)

A
like Gonorrhea, Syphilis and AIDS. No other method of contraception

AN
provides protection against sexually transmitted diseases. Chemicals in
the forms of pills are induced either orally or devices inserted are into
female reproductive organ vagina. Pills contain hormones which stop the
ovaries from releasing ovum into the oviducts. Now a days pills for males

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are also available. These pills kill the sperms and hence are called spermicides.

blood supply
vasdeferens
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LA
epididymis small incision
testis
cauterised tied and cut banded
copper - T vasectomy - cut ends of tubectomy - cut ends of
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vas deferens are sealed follopian tubes are sealed

Fig-32: Birth control methods

The use of intra-uterine device called copper-T, loop etc. are also very
effective in preventing pregnancy. If a woman uses a copper-T as a method
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of contraception for avoiding unwanted pregnancies, they cannot protect

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her from acquiring sexually transmitted diseases. Surgical methods of birth

control are available for males as well as females. In males a small portion
of vas deferens (sperm ducts) is removed by surgical operation and both
ends are tied properly. This method is called vasectomy. In females a small
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portion of oviducts (fallopian tube) is removed by surgical operation and

the cut ends are tied. This prevents the ovum from entering into the
oviducts. This method is called tubectomy.
Fighting against social ills
Teenage motherhood
We have studied how complicated the process of reproduction is. Child
birth is even more complicated. Understanding it and getting prepared for
it needs maturity of the mind and body. Illiteracy, Poverty, Supersitions
are the main reasons for early child marriage. Thus a girl only after 18

138 X Class Reproduction

years of age can be said to be prepared for the same. Most of the times
this age is also dangerous to the girl. According to the department of family
welfare 21% of teenage mothers die during delivery. Malnutrition is also
one of the reason for it. So girls below 18 years of age should not be
married off.
Stop female foeticide
Who knows today’s girl child may become a great scientist, a famous
doctor, a top class engineer, a dedicated administrative officer, a world
renowned economist, a wonderful teacher of an unmatched world leader

A
of tomorrow. Stop female foeticide! Save the girl child.

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Due to reckless female foeticide the male female child sex ratio is
declining at an alarming rate in some sections of our society. Our
government has already enacted laws to ban on determination of sex of
foetus. In spite of laws it’s a social responsibility of us to prevent female

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foeticide.
• Why doctors are prohibited to do sex determination through
ultrasound scanning for pregnant women? N
We know that if health is lost, everything is lost. It’s our responsibility
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to be healthy and to make others realise the importance of health. Sound
body is to sound mind. To be an ideal citizen of India we should have
knowledge of reproductive health not only to control high population
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growth but to create a healthy society.

Key words
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Progeny, cyst, fragmentation, regeneration, vegetative propagation, artificial

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propagation, parthenogenesis, cutting, layering, grafting, stock, scion, desirable

characters, tissue culture, amniotic fluid, placenta, umbilical cord, mitosis, meiosis,
chromatids, chromosome, foeticide, HIV-AIDS, vasectomy, tubectomy.
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What we have learnt

• Reproduction is necessary for perpetuation and continuation of life.
• Reproduction is of two types keeping in view of fusion of gametes- Sexual and Asexual.
• In sexual reproduction only half of each parent’s chromosomes are passed to the next generation.
• Fission, budding, fragmentation, regeneration, spore formation are the ways of asexual reproduction.
• Several plants may be grown from vegetative parts like stems, roots, leaves etc and is called
vegetative propagation.
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