1.

INTRODUCTION
Surveying to most engineers, is the process of measuring lengths, height differences and angles on site
either for the preparation of large scale plans or in order that engineering works can be located in their
correct positions on the ground. The correct term for this is engineering surveying and it falls under the
general title of land surveying [1]. Surveying is defined as the science and technology of making
measurements of relative positions of natural and man-made features on earth’s surface and the
presentation of such information either graphically or numerically. Angles and distances measured to or
from known points, to or from unknown points may be used to determine the positions of the unknown
points. Surveying has traditionally produced numerical data in the form of angles measured by theodolites
and, distances measured by tapes and chains.

With the dawn of the computer age, the traditional optical and mechanical tools of the surveying trade
were gradually supplanted by more accurate electronic and electro-optical devices. Modern surveying is
thus vastly computerized. Total station theodolites can now store and process digital measurement data
either in the field or subsequently through an interface to a computer. Data may be coded or assigned
themes in subsequent computer editing.

1.1. Background
The oldest historical records in existence today that bear directly on the subject of surveying state that
this science began in Egypt. Herodotus recorded that Sesostis (about 1400 B.C) divided the land of Egypt
into plots for the purpose of taxation. Annual floods of the Nile river swept away portions of these plots,
and surveyors where appointed to replace the boundaries. These early surveyors were called rope
stretchers. Since their measurements were made with ropes having markers at unit distance. Surveyors
(geomatic engineers) generally are involved in both field and office work. The fieldwork consists in making
observations with various types of instruments to either determine the relative locations of points or to
set out stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide buildings and construction operations. The
office work involves research and analysis in preparing for surveys; computing and processing the data
obtained from the field measurements and; preparing maps, charts, reports and other documents
according to chart specifications.

Two general classifications of surveyors are geodetic and plane. They differ principally in the assumptions
in which the computations are based, although field measurements of geodetic survey are usually
performed to a higher order of accuracy than those of the plane surveys. Surveying is one of the world’s
oldest and most important arts because, as noted previously, from the earliest times it has been necessary

1
to mark boundaries and divide land. The results of today’s surveys are used to map the earth above and
below sea level; prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea; establish properly
boundary of private and public lands; develop data banks of land use and natural resource information
which aid in managing our environment; determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields
of the earth; and charts of our moon and planets.

1.2. Disciplines in Geomatic Engineering

• Physical Geodesy – this is the study of the physical properties of the gravity fields and their
applications. In general, it is the study of the shape and size of the earth and its
properties.

• Space Geodesy – associated with measurements on the earth by the use of space based
artificial satellites.

• Cartography – defined as the art, science, and technology of making maps together with their
study as scientific documents (ICA 1973).

• Photogrammetry – defined as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information
about physical objects and the environment through processes of measuring, recording and
interpreting photographic images. These images are taken from above the earth’s surface – aerial
photographs.

• Remote Sensing – defined as the science and technology of obtaining information about objects,
area, or phenomenon through analysis of data acquired by a device not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigations.

Geographic and Land Information Systems (GIS / LIS)

1. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) – is a computer system for input, editing, storage,
maintenance, management, retrieval, analysis, synthesis and output of geographic, or
location based information (www.nsif.org.za). “A geographic information system (GIS) is an
information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic
coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for
spatially-reference data, as well [as] a set of operations for working with data . . . In a sense, a
GIS may be thought of as a higherorder map.” [3] ii. Land Information System – defined as

2
 systems holding records concerning land units in a certain area, usually consisting of a
descriptive part and a graphical part.

• Land Surveying – associated with the process of making measurements of physical features on
the earth’s surface and to record these features in form of a map or plan.
Surveying can be divided primarily into two major branches depending on the size of the area in
question and on whether the earth’s geometry is considered or not. These are: Plane

Surveying – where the earth is considered as a plane/flat surface and as such, this involves
relatively small areas and Geodetic Surveying – where the geometry (i.e. shape and size of the
earth and its properties) of the earth is taken into consideration. In this case, large areas of the
earth’s surface are involved.

There are two ways of carrying out survey operations i.e.

• Data Gathering surveys: To obtain information about horizontal positions of points and elevations
above a reference datum of the ground, length and direction of lines, positions of boundary lines,
etc. <Field to Office>

• Setting out surveys: To establish horizontal positions of point(s) and heights above a certain datum
from the data /information established on previous “field surveys”. Such surveys are applicable in
the construction industry and in engineering works. For example in construction of buildings,
bridges,sewers, etc.

1.3. Classification in Geomatic Engineering

With respect to the methods applied in gathering information on the earth, there exist classes in the
division of land surveying though there are considerable overlaps in such methods. These are:

• Cadastral surveys – Surveys carried out for the purpose of producing plans of property boundaries
for legal purposes. In Zambia, cadastral plans/ diagrams are needed for obtaining title deeds to
land.

• Topographic Surveys – Measurements of physical features to produce maps and plans. Not only
positions but also elevations above a certain datum of such features and the surface should be
measured. Such information is useful for architects and civil engineers for planning and designing
of structures e.g. buildings or roads.

3
 • Engineering Surveys – Survey work required before, during, and after any engineering works.
These surveys are needed before - for the production of large scale topographic maps as basis for
planning and design, during - for marking out on the ground the correct position and height of the
proposed structure and after – for monitoring the already built structure for possible shifts,
deformations, inclinations, etc. especially with multi-story buildings and bridges.

• Hydrographic Surveys – These surveys are sometimes classified under engineering

surveys but in simple terms are surveys carried out to establish the depth of water and the
nature of the river/ sea/ocean bed for navigation and also for construction of harbours, for
example.

• Mining Surveys - These surveys utilize the principles for control, land, geologic, and topographic
surveying to control, locate, and map underground and surface works related to mining
operations.

1.4. Units of Measurements in Geomatic Engineering

Length: There are two systems in use today, the SI and the British System, which are the metre and the
foot, respectively. In Zambia, a metre is mostly used nowadays.

• 1Foot (ft) = 0.304799472 m 0.305 m

• 1metre (m) = 3.280845583 ft 3.281 ft

• 1 Hectare = 100m x 100m = 10000 m2 (1 Hectare = 2.471 Acres)

• When Area is > 10,000 m2 express in Hectares

2
Area and Volume; For area and volume the SI units are square metre (m ) and cubic metre (m³)
respectively

Angles; There are three systems used in angular measurements, namely the Sexagesimal, the Centesimal,
and the radian systems.

• In Sexagesimal System, the measurements are degrees, minutes, seconds or decimal degrees,
i.e. 1 full circle 360° 00' 00" or 360.0000°

• In Centesimal System, the measurements are done in Grades or Gons, i.e. 1 full circle

4
 400.0000 grades or gons

• Finally the Radian System where a full circle is equivalent to 2 radian.

• In general, 360° 00' 00" 400.0000 grades 2 radian

5
 2. THEORY OF ERRORS
2.1. Sources of Errors
So far we must be clear that what is measured in the field are the angles and distances for positioning.
However, no matter how carefully executed, all measurements will contain errors. The error generally is
the difference between a given measurement and the true or exact value of the measured quantity. The
sources of such may be divided into three categories, namely:

• Natural errors caused by factors that we have no direct control of such as variable or adverse
weather conditions, refraction gravity effects, etc.

• Instrumental errors such as caused by in imperfect construction and adjustment of the

surveying instruments used. For example, the graduations on a scale may not be perfectly spaced,
or the scale may be warped. The effect of many instrumental errors can be reduced, or even
eliminated, by adopting proper surveying procedures or applying computed corrections.

• Human errors such as caused by the inability of the operator to make exact observations due to
limitations of the human sight, touch and hearing, etc. As an example, a small error occurs in the
observed value of a horizontal angle if the vertical crosshair in a total station instrument is not
aligned perfectly on the target, or if the target is the top of a rod that is being held slightly out of
plumb.

2.2. Types of Errors

Normally, one may distinguish three types of errors: Gross errors, Systematic errors and Random errors.

• Gross errors sometimes referred to as blunders or mistakes and not errors. These are caused
mainly by human error be it involuntarily or mere carelessness. Sometimes they are caused by
wrong measurement methods. Example of such errors is recording an observed direction as 50°
43' 51" instead of 50° 43' 15". Such errors can be discovered by measuring the same quantity
several times, observing both circles (right and left) in case of angles/ directions and can be
avoided by simply concentrating when making measurements.

• Systematic errors are errors that follow certain physical or mathematical patterns and if known
can always be expressed by mathematical formulations. The causes of this kind of errors can be
the measurement instruments, physical environment in which the measurements are made,
human factors and measurement routines. An example of such errors is the incorrect distance
given by a tape due to expansion since the temperature in the field is above its standard
temperature. If the field temperature can be measured and the standard known, a correction can

6
 be computed and applied to the measured distance. To avoid or minimize systematic errors, one
may (a) calibrate the instruments before fieldwork; (b) use suitable measurement routine and
procedures; (c) if possible, correct measurements afterwards.

• Random errors are errors that behave randomly and affect measurements in a nonsystematic
manner. These are errors that remain when gross errors and systematic errors are identified and
removed. They are beyond the control of the observer or operator. These errors are dealt with
when large amounts of measurements are made.

In conclusion, although it is said the “true error” cannot be determined since the “true value” of any
measurement is not known, measurement errors can be discovered in different ways: By repeating the
same measurement several times, we will normally get different results due to measurement errors, and
to check whether the obtained measurement results satisfy some geometrical or physical relations, which
may exist. For example checking whether the interior angles of a plane triangle add up to the theoretical
value of 180°, etc.

2.3. True value and Most probable Value

7
2.4. Precision and Accuracy

8
 3. DISTANCE AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

3.1. Distances
The measurement of distance is one of the fundamental operations in surveying and is carried out by
taping, optical or Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) techniques. Whichever of these is used,
the usual requirement in surveying is for horizontal distances. Distances are very important in surveying
since they determine the scale of a network. There are several methods used in the determination of
distances, the choice of which will depend on: Length of the distances involved, Number of distances
involved, Desired accuracy and precision (Engineering tolerances and legal standards withstanding),
Available equipment/ personnel/ time and Type of surveys. Distances can be measured by tape, Optical
methods or EDM (Electronic Distance
Measurement)

3.1.1. Tapes
Taping involves measuring distance by use of tapes. There are a number of types of tapes in use with
different sizes ranging from 20m, 30m, 50m or 100m. The most common types of tapes are steel, invar,
glass fiber and synthetic material. The most commonly used tapes are those made of invar due to light
weight and low coefficient of expansion. Taping comes with errors that are systematic in nature due to
the atmospheric conditions and the conditions under which tape is being used. These errors have to be
corrected for in order to have accurate measurements.

3.1.2. Optical Distance Measurement

Two disadvantages with taping are, firstly, that the measuring process takes on the ground (if the terrain
is undulating this can be very difficult) and, secondly, when a lot of linear measurements are required,
taping can be laborious and time consuming. Optical distance measurement (ODM) techniques overcome
the first problem in that they are undertaken above ground level, and overcome the second problem since
they can usually be carried out in a shorter time than that required for surface taping. The ODM technique,
which has the greatest application in engineering surveying, is stadia tacheometry. The following are the
combinations of instruments used:

3.1.3. Electronic Distance Measurement

EDM equipment has enabled the surveyor and engineer alike to measure distances (particularly over long
lines) much more easily and to a higher precision than that obtainable with taping or optical methods.
These technical advances have paved way for many changes in surveying techniques and have generally

9
improved efficiency. Applications of traversing and combined networks in control surveys covering large
areas are now possible with the same or better precision than triangulation. Detail surveying using
theodolite-mounted EDM devices gives rise to more efficient methods of producing maps as well as plans
and many modern setting-out techniques would be impossible without EDM equipment.

To use an EDM system, the instrument is set over one end of the line to be measured and some form of
reflector is set over the other end such that the line of sight between the instrument and the reflector is
unobstructed. An electromagnetic wave is transmitted from the instrument towards the reflector where
part of it is returned to the instrument. By comparing the transmitted and received waves, the instrument
is able to compute and display the required distance. Operating instructions for any particular EDM system
(there are numerous systems in existence today) will come with accompanying manual and are therefore
irrelevant to the scope of this course.

of accuracy usually go hand in hand in the production of control.

3.2. Anglular Measurements

Angles are one of the basic measurements in surveying. By angles, it is referred to both horizontal and
vertical angles. The basic instrument is the theodolite. Although there are number of varieties produced
by different manufacturers, all instruments have the same basic concepts arranged in the same geometric
relationship. Theodolites are normally classified by the precision to which they resolve the angles and vary
from say 0.1" to 1" and more. The choice of which depends on the accuracy specifications for the work to
be done. At the moment there are latest electronic theodolites which measure the angles automatically
as opposed to conventional ones. With the advent of modern electronics, it is possible to have instruments
that operate electronically. Directions are obtained through electronically or magnetically coded circles
and can be processed digitally. After entering the station and target points numbers it is possible to record
the measured values using common recording media like memory cards, and then be downloaded on to
the computer through for processing and outputting to other accessories.

3.2.1. Principle of Angle Measurement

Figure below shows two points S and T and a theodolite set up on point R. The horizontal angle at L
between S and T is angle MLN, where M and N are the vertical projections of S and T on to the horizontal
plane through L. The vertical angles to S and T from L are angle SLM (and angle of elevation) and angle
TLN (an angle of depression). In order to measure horizontal and vertical angles, the theodolite must be

10
set over point R using a plumbing device and must be levelled to bring the angle reading systems of the
theodolite into appropriate planes

Figure 1: Horizontal and Vertical angles

11
 4. PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING
Principle Of Working from Whole to Part

• It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This implies a precise
control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail surveying.
• This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations whose positions
are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of details
between the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods.

• Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the
knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main overall
frame.

• Errors which may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the control
points and can be adjusted to it.

Economy of accuracy

Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be as accurate as they need
to be. From this, a specification for the control survey may be derived and once this specification
has been achieved, there is no requirement for further work. Whereas control involves working
from ‘the whole to the part’ the specification for all survey products is achieved by working from
‘the part to the whole’. The specification for the control may be derived from estimation based
upon experience using knowledge of survey methods to be applied, the instruments to be used
and the capabilities of the personnel involved. Such a specification defines the expected quality of
the output by defining the quality of the work that goes into the survey. The accuracy of any survey
work will never be better than the control upon which it is based. You cannot set out steelwork to
5 mm if the control is only good to 2 cm.

Consistency

Any ‘product’ is only as good as the most poorly executed part of it. It matters not whether that
‘product’ is a washing machine or open heart surgery, a weakness or inconsistency in the
endeavour could cause a catastrophic failure. The same may apply in survey, especially with
control. For example, say the majority of control on a construction site is established to a certain
designed precision. Later one or two further control points are less well established, but all the
control is assumed to be of the same quality. When holding-down bolts for a steelwork fabrication
are set out from the erroneous control it may require a good nudge from a JCB to make the later
stages of the steelwork fit.

12
 5. METHODS OF ESTABLISHING CONTROLS IN SURVEYING
5.1. Horizontal Methods

Traversing

A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and
whose lengths and directions have been determined from observations. In traditional
surveying by ground methods, traversing, the act of marking the lines, that is, establishing
traverse stations and making the necessary observations is one of the most basic and widely
practiced means of determining the relative locations of points. The points defining the ends
of the traverse lines are called the traverse stations.

Traverse survey is a method of establishing control points, their positions being determined
by measuring the distances between the traverse stations that serve as control points and
the angles subtended at the various stations by their adjacent stations.

Figure 3.5.1 Closed Traverse

Triangulation

Triangulation originates from the Latin word tres angulus (tres - three; angulus - angle). It is
a method of surveying in which the position of a new point is determined from the
mathematical solution of the triangle where one of the vertices is the new point (unknown)

13
and other two points of known position. Figure below shows survey points P1 and P2 as
known points while P3 is a new point whose coordinates need to be determined.
A triangulation network consists of a series of interconnected triangles with at least one
triangle being measured. This base line length is called the base line. The angles of the
triangles are precisely measured using theodolite. The angles provide for the shape of the
triangle. The vertices of the triangle are known as triangulation points (TP) or stations. Since
the solution of each triangle depends on the length and azimuth of the preceding triangle,
errors tend to accumulate as the network progresses. The errors in azimuth are controlled by
use of Laplace stations. The errors in scale are controlled by measuring base lines at
appropriate intervals.

Resection

A three-point resection is a method of determining the coordinates of a

point (P) from direction (or angle) observations taken from that point to
three points (A, B, C) that have known coordinates. Historically, Snellius
found a solution around 1615. Applications include surveys where no
distances are available or possible, where marks with known
coordinates can be seen and it is desired to set up not over a survey
mark, on industrial or construction sites where marks on the ground get
destroyed or lost but coordinated wall marks remain, and in a coordinated cadaster.

Intersection

Intersections are a method of finding the coordinates of a point from the directions or distances to it from
two or more known points. In this course, we consider two observations from two points to determine 2D
coordinates. The directions to the point can be specified either by angles (α) or by bearings (β).

14
5.2. Vertical Methods

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of
points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in producing
necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construction. Leveling results are used
to (1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities
having grade lines that best conform to existing topography; (2) lay out construction projects
according to planned elevations; (3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials; (4)
investigate drainage characteristics of an area; (5) develop maps showing general ground
configurations; and (6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

5.2.1. Definition of terms

Basic terms in leveling are defined in this section, some of which are illustrated
in Figure 3.6.1

Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

15
Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A
body of still water is the closest example of a level surface. Within local areas, level surfaces
at different heights are considered concentric. Level surfaces are also known as equipotential
surfaces since, for a particular surface, the potential of gravity is equal at every point on the
surface.

Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.

Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying,
it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to

the local vertical.

Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that
is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a reference
datum since points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.

Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or
object.

Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.

Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide
over a 19year period.

Tidal datum. The vertical datum used in coastal areas for establishing property boundaries
of lands bordering waters subject to tides. A tidal datum also provides the basis for locating
fishing and oil drilling rights in tidal waters, and the limits of swamp and overflowed lands.
Various definitions have been used in different areas for a tidal datum, but the one most
employed is the mean high water (MHW) line. Others applied include mean higher high
water (MHHW), mean low water

(MLW) and mean lower low water (MLLW). Interpretations of a tidal datum, and the methods
by which they are determined, have been, and continue to be, the subject of numerous court
cases.

16
Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point
whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed.

Leveling. The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.

Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established

throughout an area, also termed basic control or level control. The basic vertical control for
the United States was derived from first- and second order leveling. Less precise third order
leveling has been used to fill gaps between second-order benchmarks, as well as for many
other specific projects.

5.2.3. Methods of Height Determination

a. Differential Leveling

The differential leveling is a method of determining height difference by using a level and a
vertical staff. Over short distances this method is easy and yields accurate results. However,
practical applications have shown that this method is tedious and tiresome when
observations are made on irregular terrain, thus yielding errors. Preventive measures must
be taken to eliminate or reduce the instrumental errors and the ambient conditions.

In this method, differential techniques are applied. Determination of Orthometric heights of

new points is through reduced level which can be found by either height of collimation or
Rise and Fall methods. Observations must begin from a known elevation known as the
benchmark. The surveyor first reads the staff at the benchmark (Back sight) and then the
Foresight. This procedure can be illustrated in the following diagram:

17
In differential leveling high accuracy is required. This can be achieved through assessment of
the quality of levelling which could be done by calculating the misclosure for a line of levels.
This is determined by comparing the reduced level of the closing benchmark with the level
obtained for it by calculation from the staff readings.

The allowable misclosure for a line of levels is given by:

Where, ε is the allowable error, m is a constant and n is the number of instrument positions
used. The value most often used for m is 5mm.

3.6.3. Differential Leveling Booking and Reduction

Before discussing the booking and methods of reducing levels, the following terms associated

with differential levelling must be understood.

Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level, the elevation
of the line of sight is the height of instrument. (H.I. = hA + SA ).

Back sight (B.S.): It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting up the level usually to
determine the height of instrument. It is usually made to some form of a benchmark (B.M.)
or to the points whose elevations have already been determined. When the instrument
position must be changed, the first sight taken in the next section is also a back sight.

Fore sight (F.S.): It is the last reading from an instrument position on to a staff held at a point.
It is thus the last reading taken within a section of levels before shifting the instrument to the
next section, and the last reading taken over the whole series of levels.

Change point (C.P.) or turning point: A change point or turning point is the point where both
the fore sight and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A change point is required
before moving the level from one section to another section. By taking the fore sight, the
elevation of the change point is determined and by taking the back sight the height of
instrument is determined. The change points relate to the various sections by making fore
sight and back sight at the same point.

18
Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term ‘intermediate sight’ covers all sightings and consequent
staff readings made between back sight and fore sight within each section. Thus,
intermediate sight station is neither the change point nor the last point.

Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations where back sight and fore sight are
taken from the instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is known as balancing of
sights. Balancing of sights minimizes the effect of instrumental and other errors.

Reduced level (R.L.): Reduced level of a point is its height or depth above or below the
assumed datum. It is the elevation of the point.

Rise and fall: The difference in level between two consecutive points indicates a rise or a fall
between the two points.

For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two systems, namely the height of
instrument or height of collimation method and rise and fall method. The columns for
booking the readings in a level book are the same for both the methods but for reducing the
levels, the number of additional columns depends upon the method of reducing the levels.
Note that except for the change point, each staff reading is written on a separate line so that
each staff position has its uniquely reduced level. This remains true at the change point since
the staff does not move and the back sight from a forward instrument station is taken at the
same staff position where the fore sight has been taken from the backward instrument
station.

a. Height of Instrument/Collimation Method

In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of
instrument (H.I.) for each section highlighted by different shades, is determined by adding
the elevation of the point to the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains
unchanged for all the staff readings taken within that section and therefore, the levels of all
the points lying in that section are reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings,
i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that section.

19
 b. Rise and Fall Method

In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within
each section. Adding or subtracting the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the
backward station obtains the level for a forward station. In Table 3.2, r and f indicate the rise
and the fall, respectively, assumed between the consecutive points.

The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the computations. The
following rules are used in the two methods of reduction of levels.

(a) For the height of instrument method

(i) Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

(ii) Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L.

20
 (b) For the rise and fall method

Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Example 1

The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level book page and

reduce the levels by the Height of Instrument/Height of Collimation and Rise & Fall method.

0.578 B.M. (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and

0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.

Solution.

The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change point, 2.005
is fore sight reading and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the first and
fifth readings are intermediate sight-readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a change
point, 3.679 is fore sight reading, 0.612 is back sight reading, and 1.888, 1.181 are
intermediate sight readings. The last reading 1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate
sight-readings. All the readings have been entered in their respective columns in the following
table and the levels have been reduced by height of instrument method. In the following
computations, the values of B.S., I.S., H.I., etc., for a particular station have been indicated by
its number or name.

21
Example 2

The following consecutive readings were taken with a level on continuously sloping ground
at a common interval of 20 m. The last station has an elevation of 155.272 m. Rule out a page
of level book and enter the readings. Calculate

(i) The reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method, and

(ii) the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.

0.420, 1.115, 2.265, 2.900, 3.615, 0.535, 1.470, 2.815, 3.505, 4.445, 0.605, 1.925, 2.885.

Solution:

Since the readings have been taken along a line on a continuously sloping ground, any sudden
large change in the reading such as in the sixth reading compared to the fifth reading and in
the eleventh reading compared to the tenth reading, indicates the change in the instrument
position. Therefore, the sixth and eleventh readings are the back sights and fifth and tenth
readings are the fore sights. The first and the last readings are the back sight and fore sight,
respectively, and all remaining readings are intermediate sights.

The last point being of known elevation, the computation of the levels is to be done from last
point to the first point. The falls are added to and the rises are subtracted from the known
elevations. The computation of levels is explained below and the results have been presented
in the following table.

22
Example 3

A page of level book is reproduced below in which some readings marked as (×), are missing.
Complete the page with all arithmetic checks.

23
 b. Trigonometric

The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring (1) the
inclined or horizontal distance between them and (2) the zenith angle or the altitude angle
to one point from the other. Thus, in Figure 3.6.1, if slope distance S and zenith angle z or
altitude angle between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation difference between C and
D, is

Figure 3.6.1: Trigonometric Heighting

Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is

The difference in elevation between points A and B in Figure 3.6.1 is given by

Where hi is the height of the instrument above point A and r the reading on the rod held at
B when zenith angle ȥ or altitude angle α is read.

24
6. AREA AND VOLUME COMPUTATION

25
26
AREA FROM CROSS-SECTIONS

27
28
29
30
31
 Freehaul, Overhaul, and Mass Haul Diagram:

Normally, cost of excavation includes; cost of transporting of material (unwanted

soil) from either cut or fill for a maximum distance called the freehaul distance
(F.H.D.), but transporting of material for a distance grater than freehaul is called
overhaul distance (O.H.D.).

Definitions:

Overhaul: Is the number of cubic meters (yards) of overhauled material multiplied

by the overhaul distance, this distance is measured between the center of gravity of
cut and fill (i.e. m3*station or yd3*mile).
- Haul = volume of earthwork * distance moved
- Limit of Economic Haul (L.E.H.) =
Freehaul Distance (F.H.D.) + Economic Overhaul Distance(Limit) (O.H.D.)
- Economic Overhaul Distance = Cost of Borrow / Cost of Overhaul

- Freehaul: Distance with which there is a fixed price for excavating, hauling,
and dumping regardless of the distance moved.

- Mass Haul Diagram:

It is a diagram provides a suitable means for studying haul and overhaul to
compute the total payment. It’s x-axis represents the distance in stations, while the
yaxis represents the cumulative volume (the algebraic sum of excavations and
embankment between any selected points) after correction due to soil condition.

- Shrinkage or swell factor: It is well known that one cubic meter of excavation
on amount will not occupies exactly 1 m3 of space in the fill, so adjusting is
required. This can be done by using the shrinkage or swell factor.
- Borrow: It is the location away from the Right of Way (R.O.W.) and it is
chosen by the Engineer. The borrow pits soil should be comply with the followed
specification (preferably out of R.O.W.).
Note: there is a problem in urban areas because of borrow cost.
- Waste: It is the unwanted excavation material which should be disposed out
of R.O.W.

Characteristics of Mass Curve:

32
 1- Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where excavating
exceeds fill, whereas falling sections indicate where fill exceeds excavation.
2- Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & Fills, while flat slopes indicate areas
fro small amount of earthwork.
3- The difference in ordinates between any two points indicate net excess
of excavation over embankment or vise versa.
4- Any horizontal line dawn to intersect two points within the same curve
indicates a balance of excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities
between the two points.
5- Points of zero slope represent points where roadway goes from cut to
fill or from fill to cut.
6- The highest or the lowest points of the mass haul diagram represents
the crossing points between the grade line (roadway level) and natural ground
level.

Calculation of total cost of earthworks:

1- Cost of freehaul = cost of freehaul per m3 * Volume of freehaul.
2- Cost of borrow = cost of borrow per m3 * Volume of borrow.
3- Cost of waste = cost of waste per m3 * Volume of waste.
4- Cost of overhaul = [cost of freehaul per m3 * volume of overhaul] +
[cost of freehaul per m3.station * volume of overhaul * {average hauling
distancefree haul distance}].

Example: Given the following end areas for cut & fill, complete the earthwork
calculation using a shrinkage of 10%. Then draw the M.H.D. and the longitudinal
profile of the earthworks & find the following:
a) Limit of Economic Haul (L.E.H.).
b) Freehaul volume (F.H.V.).
c) Overhaul volume (O.H.V.).
d) Waste volume.
e) Borrow volume.
f) Total cost of the earthworks. Given that:
- Cost of overhaul = 30 ID/m3.station.
- Cost of borrow = 120 ID/m3.
- Cost of freehaul = 70 ID/m3.
- Freehaul Distance (F.H.D.) = 200m = 2 stations.

33
Solution:
Areas (m2) Volumes (m3) Excess of
(m3) Cumulative
Station Corrected 3 Station
Cut Fill Cut+ Fill- Cut+ Fill- Volume(m )
Fill -
0 10 - 0 0
- 1100 -- -- 1100 --
1 12 - -- -- -- +1100 1
- 1300 -- -- 1300 --
2 14 - -- -- -- +2400 2
1500 1500 --
3 16 10 250 275 +3900 3
1500 1500 1430
4 14 16 1300 1430 +5400 4
350 75 1650
5 - 14 1500 1650 +5475 5
- -- -- 1430
6 - 12 -- 1300 1430 -- +4045 6
- -- -- 1100
7 - 8 -- 1000 1100 -- +2395 7
--
8 12 - 300 200 220 80 -- +965 8
-
9 16 1400 -- -- 1400 -135 9

10 -55 10

11 +1345 11
Notes:
 1100 = [(10+12)/2]*100 (by using average area method).
 350 = [(14+0)/2]*[100/2]
 275 = 250 * (1.10) (Correction by shrinkage factor).
 75 = 350 - 275
 80 = 300 - 220

- Economic overhaul limit (L) = (cost of borrow/cost of overhaul) = (120/30) = 4

stations.
- Therefore, Limit of Economic Haul (L.E.H.) = Free haul distance + Economic
overhaul limit = 2 + 4 = 6 stations.

34
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00
Station
-1000

35