STABILITY

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 1

Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a
steady state of flight without any help from the pilot,
after being disturbed by an external force.

An aircraft must:
• maintain a uniform flight condition.
• recover from disturbing influences.
• minimize the workload of the pilot.
• Proper response to the controls.

Stability is of two types:

1. static
2. dynamic.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 2

Static Stability
The type of static stability an aircraft possesses is
defined by its initial tendency, following the
removal of some disturbing force.
• Positive static stability (or static stability) exists if
an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium
and has the tendency to return to equilibrium.

• Neutral static stability exists if an aircraft is

subject to a disturbance and has neither the tendency
to return nor the tendency to continue in the
displacement direction.
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 3
• Negative static stability (or static instability)
exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue in the
direction of disturbance.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 4

Aeroplane Reference Axes

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 5

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 6
 Longitudinal stability is about the lateral axis
(pitching).
 Lateral stability is about the longitudinal axis
(rolling)
 Directional stability is about the normal axis
(yawing)
Lateral and directional stability tend to interact
(coupled motion)
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 7
• An aircraft will exhibit static longitudinal
stability if it tends to return towards the trim angle
of attack when displaced by a gust OR a control
input.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 8

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 9
1. The AC is a stationary point located at the 25%
chord only when the airflow is subsonic. It is the
point at which lift acts.
2. The pitching moment about the AC is negative
(nosedown)
3. The negative (nose-down) pitching moment about
the AC does not change with changes in angle of
attack.
4. Change is lift is considered because of change in
angle of attack.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 10

The pitching moment about the AC remains constant
as the angle of attack is increased because the
magnitude of the lift force increases but acts through
a smaller arm due to the CP moving forward.
A wing alone is unstable
A vertical gust will momentarily increase the angle
of attack and increase lift (ΔL), which, when
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 11
multiplied by arm ‘x’, will generate a positive (nose-
up) pitching moment about the CG. This will tend to
increase the angle of attack further, an unstable
pitching moment. The wing on its own would rotate
nose-up about the CG, The tailplane is positioned to
generate a stabilizing pitching moment about the
aircraft CG. The same vertical gust will increase the
angle of attack of the tailplane and increase tailplane
lift (ΔLt), which, when multiplied by arm ‘y’, will
generate a negative (nose-down) pitching moment
about the aircraft CG.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 12

If the nose-down (negative) tail moment is greater
than the nose-up (positive) wing moment, the
aircraft will have static longitudinal stability

If the tail moment is greater than the wing moment,

the sum of the moments will not be zero and the
resultant nose-down moment will give an angular
acceleration about the CG. The nosedown angular
acceleration about the CG will return the aircraft
towards its original position of equilibrium.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 13

The greater the tail moment relative to the wing
moment, the greater the rate of acceleration towards
the original equilibrium position. (Too much angular
acceleration is not good).
A more forward CG position increases static
longitudinal stability.

Neutral Point
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 14
The position of the CG when the sum of the changes
in the tail moment and wing moment caused by the
gust is zero is known as the neutral point.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 15

Static Margin

The distance the CG is forward of the neutral point

will give a measure of the static longitudinal stability;
this distance is called the static margin.
The greater the static margin, the greater the static
longitudinal stability.
A certain amount of static longitudinal stability is
always required, so the aft CG limit will be
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 16
positioned some distance forward of the neutral
point. The distance between the neutral point and the
aft CG limit gives the required minimum static
stability margin.
An aircraft is said to be trimmed (in trim) if all
moments in pitch, roll, and yaw are equal to zero.
The establishment of trim (equilibrium)
Controllability:
An aircraft is said to be trimmed (in trim) if all
moments in pitch, roll, and yaw are equal to zero.
Controllability- The ability of the aircraft to
respond to control surface displacement and achieve
the desired condition of flight. A high degree of
stability gives reduced controllability.
AFT CG FWD CG
Stability dec. Stability inc
Controllability inc Controllability dec
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 17
Stick force dec Stick forces inc
Key points

1. Positive static longitudinal stability is indicated by a negative slope of CM versus CL . The degree

of static longitudinal stability is indicated by the slope of the curve.

2. The net pitching moment about the lateral axis is due to the contribution of each of the

component surfaces acting in their appropriate flow fields.

3. In most cases, the contribution of the fuselage and nacelles is destabilizing.

Noticeable changes in static stability can occur at high CL (low speed) if:

a)

the aeroplane has sweepback,

b)

there is a large contribution of ‘power effect’, or

c)

there are significant changes in downwash at the horizontal tail,

4. The horizontal tail usually provides the greatest stabilizing influence of all the components of

the aeroplane.

5. Downwash decreases static longitudinal stability.

6. If the thrust line is below the CG, a thrust increase will produce a positive or nose-up moment

and the effect is destabilizing.

7. High lift devices tend to increase downwash at the tail and reduce the dynamic pressure at

the tail, both of which are destabilizing.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 18

8. An increase in TAS, for a given pitching velocity, decreases aerodynamic damping.

9. The aeroplane with positive manoeuvring stability should demonstrate a steady increase in

stick force with increase in load factor or “g”.

10. The stick force gradient must not be excessively high or the aeroplane will be difficult and

tiring to manoeuvre. Also, the stick force gradient must not be too low or the aeroplane may

be overstressed inadvertently when light control forces exist.

11. When the aeroplane has high static stability, the manoeuvring stability will be high and a high

stick force gradient will result. The forward CG limit could be set to prevent an excessively high

manoeuvring stick force gradient. As the CG moves aft, the stick force gradient decreases with

decreasing manoeuvring stability and the lower limit of stick force gradient may be reached.

12. At high altitudes, the high TAS reduces the change in tail angle of attack for a given pitching

velocity and reduces the pitch damping. Thus, a decrease in manoeuvring stick force stability

can be expected with increased altitude.

13. A flying control system may employ centring springs, down springs or bob weights to provide

satisfactory control forces throughout the speed, CG and altitude range of an aircraft.

14. While static stability is concerned with the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to

equilibrium, dynamic stability is defined by the resulting motion with time.

15. An aircraft will demonstrate positive dynamic stability if the amplitude of motion decreases

with time. When natural aerodynamic damping cannot be obtained, artificial damping must be

provided to give the necessary positive dynamic stability.

16. The longitudinal dynamic stability of an aeroplane generally consists of two basic modes of

oscillation:

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 19

a)

long period (phugoid)

b)

short period

17. The phugoid oscillation occurs with nearly constant angle of attack.

18. The period of oscillation is so great, the pilot is easily able to counteract long period oscillation.

19. Short period oscillation involves significant changes in angle of attack.

20. Short period oscillation is not easily controlled by the pilot.

21. The problems of dynamic stability can become acute at high altitude because of reduced

aerodynamic damping.

22. To overcome the directional instability in the fuselage it is possible to incorporate into the

overall design dorsal or ventral fins.

23. The fin is the major source of directional stability for the aeroplane.

24. A T - tail makes the fin more effective by acting as an “end plate”.

25. Because the dorsal fin stalls at a very much higher angle of attack, it takes over the stabilizing

role of the fin at large angles of sideslip.

26. Sweepback produces a directional stabilizing effect, which increases with increase in CL .

27. Ventral fins increase directional stability at high angles of attack. Landing clearance

28. requirements may limit their size, require them to be retractable, or require two smaller

ventral fins to be fitted instead of one large one.

29. Generally, good handling qualities are obtained with a relatively light, or weak positive, lateral

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 20

stability.

30. The principal surface contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the wing. The

effect of geometric dihedral is a powerful contribution to lateral stability.

31. A low wing position gives an unstable contribution to static lateral stability.

32. A high wing location gives a stable contribution to static lateral stability.

33. The magnitude of “dihedral effect” contributed by the vertical position of the wing is large

and may require a noticeable dihedral angle for the low wing configuration. A high wing

position, on the other hand, usually requires no geometric dihedral at all.

34. The swept-back wing contributes a positive “dihedral effect”.

35. An aircraft with a swept-back wing requires less geometric dihedral than a straight wing.

36. The fin contribution to purely lateral static stability, is usually very small.

37. Excessive “dihedral effect” can lead to “Dutch roll,” difficult rudder coordination in rolling

manoeuvres, or place extreme demands for lateral control power during crosswind take-off

and landing.

38. Deploying partial span flaps gives a reduced dihedral effect.

39. A swept-back wing requires much less geometric dihedral than a straight wing. If a

requirement also exists for the wing to be mounted on top of the fuselage, an additional

“dihedral effect” is present. A high mounted and swept-back wing would give excessive

“dihedral effect”, so anhedral is used to reduce “dihedral effect” to the required level.

40. When an aeroplane is placed in a sideslip, the lateral and directional response will be coupled,

i.e. sideslip will simultaneously produce a rolling and a yawing moment.

41. Spiral divergence will exist when static directional stability is very large when compared to the

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 21

“dihedral effect”.

42. The rate of divergence in the spiral motion is usually so gradual that the pilot can control the

tendency without difficulty.

43. Dutch roll will occur when the “dihedral effect” is large when compared to static directional

stability.

44. Aircraft which Dutch roll are fitted with a Yaw Damper. This automatically displaces the

rudder proportional to the rate of yaw to damp-out the oscillations.

45. If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, it is recommended that the ailerons be used by the pilot to

damp-out Dutch roll.

46. If the pilot uses the rudder, pilot induced oscillation (PIO) will result and the Dutch roll may

very quickly become divergent, leading to loss of control.

47. When the swept wing aeroplane is at low CL the “dihedral effect” is small and the spiral

tendency may be apparent. When the swept wing aeroplane is at high CL the “dihedral effect”

is increased and the Dutch Roll oscillatory tendency is increased.

48. When pilot induced oscillation is encountered, the most effective solution is an immediate

release of the controls. Any attempt to forcibly damp the oscillation simply continues the

excitation and amplifies the oscillation.

49. Higher TAS common to high altitude flight reduces the angle of attack changes and reduces

aerodynamic damping.

50. Mach Tuck is caused by loss of lift in front of the CG and reduced downwash at the tail due to

the formation of a shock wave on a swept-back wing at high Mach numbers.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 22

51. The Mach trim system will adjust longitudinal trim to maintain the required stick force

gradient and operates only at high Mach numbers.

Graphic Presentation of Static Longitudinal

Stability

The static stability of the aeroplane is depicted by

the slope of the curve of CM versus CL.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 23

Ordinarily, the static longitudinal stability of a
conventional aeroplane configuration does not
vary with lift coefficient.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 24

The slope of CM versus CL does not change with
CL . However, if the aeroplane has sweepback,
1. there is a large contribution of “power effect” on
stability,
2. there are significant changes in downwash at the
horizontal tail,
3. noticeable changes in static stability can occur at
high lift coefficients (low speed).
In such case Increasing CL gives a slight decrease in
the negative slope hence a decrease in stability
occurs. With continued increase in CL , the slope
becomes zero and neutral stability exists. Eventually,
the slope becomes positive and the aeroplane
becomes unstable or “pitch-up” results.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 25

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 26
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 27
Contribution of the Component Surfaces
FACTORS AFFECTING LONGITUDNAL
STABILITY:
1. DOWNWASH
2. LONGITUDNAL DIHEDRAL
3. POWER EFFECT FROM THE ENGINE
4. CG POSITION
5. EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES(FLAPS)

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 28

1. DOWNWASH

1. Increasing Downwash decreases the

AOA at tailplane causing nose up
pitching moment.
2. Increasing downwash decreases
longitudinal stability.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 29

Longitudinal Dihedral :

1. This is the difference between tailplane and wing incidence.

The effectiveness of the tailplane is dependent upon:

• Downwash from the wing.
• Dynamic pressure at the tailplane.
• Longitudinal dihedral.
 For longitudinal static stability the tailplane
incidence is smaller.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 30

 This will generate a greater percentage increase in
tailplane lift than wing lift for a given vertical gust.

Downwash decreases static longitudinal stability.

The aerodynamic centre is defined as the point on
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) where the
wing pitching moment coefficient does not vary
with lift coefficient.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 31

All changes in lift the pitching moment created will
be a direct function of the relative location of the AC
and CG.
 The degree of positive camber of the wing has
no effect on longitudinal stability.
 The contribution of the fuselage and nacelles is
destabilizing

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 32

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 33
POWER EFFECT OF THE ENGINE:
Power effects will be most significant when the
Aeroplane operates at high power and low
airspeeds such as during approach and while
taking off.
1. A PROPELLER LOCATED AHEAD OF THE
CG CONTRIBUTES A DESTABILIZING
EFFECT.
2. THRUST LINE ABOVE CG: STABILISING
3. THRUST LINE BELOW CG:
DESTABILISING

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 34

1. The combined direct and indirect power effects
contribute to a general reduction of static
stability at high power, high CL and low
dynamic pressure.
2. It is generally true that any aeroplane will
experience the lowest level of static longitudinal
stability under these conditions.
3. Because of the greater magnitude of both direct
and indirect power effects, the propeller
powered aeroplane usually experiences a
greater effect than the jet powered aeroplane.
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 35
Effect of CG Position
1. If CG moves forward, static longitudinal
stability increases and controllability decreases
(Stick force Increases).
2. If CG moves aft, Static longitudinal stability
decreases and controllability Increases (Stick
force Decreases).
High Lift Devices
Flaps down: CP Moves rearward when flaps are
down causing a nose down pitching moment
therefore increases longitudinal stability.

EFFECT OF ELEVATOR DEFLECTION

 A change in elevator position does not alter the tail
contribution to stability

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 36

1. push force is required to increase airspeed
2. and a pull force is required to decrease airspeed.
QTY EFFECT QTY EFFECT
DOWNWASH LONG. STATIC
STABILITY
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 37
CG LONG. STATIC CONTROLLABILITY STICK FORCE
STABILITY

POSITIVE LONG. STATIC NO EFFECT

CAMBER STABILITY

TALIPLANE STABLIZING WING DESTABLIZING

PROPELLER DESTABILIZING
AHEAD OF CG

THRUST LINE STABLIZING THRUST LINE DESTABLIZING

ABOVE CG BELOW CG

FUSELAGE AND DESTABILIZING

NACELLES

FLAPS DOWN CP NOW DOWN LOGITUDINAL

STABILITY

Directional Stability
Directional Stability of an A/C is the natural
tendency to recover from a disturbance in yaw.
Also referred as “Weathercock stability”
Involves moment about “Normal axis”

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 38

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 39
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 40
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 41
Directional stability generally provided by
“THE FIN or VERTICAL STABILISER”
Rudder is for directional control
The A/C possesses Positive static directional
stability, If the turning moment produced is strong
enough to return the aircraft to its original position.

The effectiveness of the tail fin depends upon

1. The sideslip angle
2. The size and efficiency of the aerofoil profile
used
3. The length of the moment from the CG
An A/C must have a positive directional stability.
If three mention factors are not able to produce a
positive directional stability in an airplane then
Dorsal and Ventral fin are used.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 42

 Contribution of the Aeroplane Components.
Fuselage
The fuselage is destabilizing, If this aerodynamic
centre is ahead of aircraft centre of gravity, as is
usually the case, the effect is destabilizing
Fin
The fin (vertical stabilizer) is the major source of
directional stability for the aeroplane. In a sideslip
the fin will experience a change in angle of attack.
The change in lift (side force) on the fin creates a
yawing moment about the centre of gravity which
tends to yaw the aeroplane into the relative airflow.
The magnitude of the fin contribution to static
directional stability depends on both the change in
fin lift and the fin moment arm.
Clearly, the fin moment arm is a powerful factor.
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 43
Dorsal and Ventral Fins
A dorsal fin is a small aerofoil, of very low aspect
ratio, mounted on top of the fuselage near the rear.
A ventral fin is mounted below. If the aircraft is
yawed to the right, the dorsal and ventral fins will
create a side force to the right. The line of action of
this force is well aft of the aircraft CG, giving a
yawing moment to the left (a stabilizing effect).
However, at small angles of yaw they are
ineffective.
Wings
Contribution of the wing to static directional
stability is usually small.
Sweepback produces a stabilizing effect depending
upon the amount of sweepback. The result of this

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 44

discrepancy in drag on the two sides of the wing is
a yawing moment to the right.

Centre Of Gravity
Static directional stability is essentially unaffected
by the variation of CG position within the limits.
Power Effect
The air in the slip stream behind a propeller spirals
around the fuselage, and this results in a sidewash at
the fin (from the left with a clockwise rotating
propeller)(Desatbilizing)
 The general effect of power is destabilizing and
the greatest contribution will occur at high
power and low dynamic pressure.

Stability around the normal axis is increased if

the keel surface behind the CG is increased.
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 45
LATERAL STABILITY
The static lateral stability of an aeroplane involves
consideration of rolling moments due to sideslip.
CONTRIBUTION OF THE AEROPLANE COMPONENTS

Wings are major contributing factor

WING POSITION
Low Wing Position -{UNSTABLE}
High wing position- {TOO MUCH STABILITY}

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 46

LOW WING POSITION

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 47

Low wings are negative lateral static stability i.e,
Unstable
WING OUT OF THE WIND WING INTO THE WIND
Inc Effective AOA Dec Effective AOA
More LIFT Less LIFT

Difference in lift will increase rolling moment,

Hence providing unstable contribution. (Negative
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 48
lateral static stability) To make it positive lateral
stable, DIHEDRAL are used.
DIHEDRAL: Upward inclination of the wing from
the horizontal.

WING OUT OF THE WIND WING INTO THE WIND

Dec. Effective AOA Inc. Effective AOA

Less Lift More Lift
Dihedral gives positive lateral static stability.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 49

1. If the relative wind comes from the side, the wing
into the wind is subjected to an increase in AOA and
develops an increase in lift.
2. The wing away from the wind is subjected to a
decrease in angle of attack and develops a decrease
in lift.
3. The changes in lift gives a rolling moment tending
to raise the into wind wing.
4. Hence geometric dihedral contributes a stable roll
also known as ‘Dihedral Effect’.
5. POSITIVE LATERAL STABILITY IS ALSO
KNOWN AS DIHEDRAL EFFECT

HIGH WING POSITION

WING OUT OF THE WIND WING INTO THE WIND

Dec. Effective AOA Inc. effective AOA

Less Lift More Lift
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 50
High mounted wings are too much stable. Positive
lateral static stability (Same as dihedral effect).
Because of too much stability by high mounted
wings ANHEDRAL was introduced to reduce
lateral stability.

ANHEDRAL WINGS: Downward inclination of

the wing from the horizontal.
Or
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 51
In A/C design when tips are lower than wing root.
SWEEPBACK WINGS: {STABLE}

LEFT WING RIGHT WING

Less effective span More effective span
Less Lift More lift
Stable contribution from swept wing
FIN {STABLE} as it provides Directional
stability.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 52

 The fin can provide a small “dihedral effect”
contribution
 Contributes to lateral stability
 Above CG

VENTRAL FIN {Destabilizing}

Acts below the CG
Does not contribute to lateral stability(insignificant)

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 53

FLAPS-{REDUCED STABILITY}

The deflection of flaps causes the inboard sections

of the wing to become relatively more effective
and these sections have a small spanwise moment
arm, Therefore, the changes in wing lift due to
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 54
sideslip occur closer inboard and the dihedral effect
is reduced.

INTERACTION BETWEEN ROLL & YAW

An A/C lateral stability comes from its wing,
because of the higher lift on the lower wing during a
sideslip which produces a correcting rolling moment.
But the difference in lift cause difference in drag and
generate yawing moment. Thus roll and Yaw are
interconnected.
The increases lift on the lower wing will generate
higher drag than drag produced by the upper wing
SECONDARY EFFECT OF YAW IS ROLL &
ROLL IS YAW

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 55

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 56
SPIRAL DIVERGENCE:
(TOO MUCH DIRECTIONAL STABILITY)
Spiral divergence will exist when static
directional stability is very large when compared
to the “dihedral effect”.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 57

Dutch Roll
(Too much lateral stability)
Dutch roll will occur when the “dihedral effect” is
large when compared to static directional
stability.

Aircraft with a tendency to Dutch roll are fitted

with a Yaw Damper.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 58

This automatically displaces the rudder
proportional to the rate of yaw to damp-out the
oscillations.
If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, it is recommended
that the ailerons be used by the pilot to damp out
Dutch roll.

QTY EFFECT QTY EFFECT

LOGITUDINAL STABILITY
DOWNWASH LONG. STATIC
STABILITY

CG LONG. STATIC CONTROLLABILITY STICK FORCE

STABILITY

POSITIVE LONG. STATIC NO EFFECT

CAMBER STABILITY

TALIPLANE STABLIZING WING DESTABLIZING

PROPELLER DESTABILIZING
AHEAD OF
CG

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 59

THRUST LINE STABLIZING THRUST LINE DESTABLIZING
ABOVE CG BELOW CG

FUSELAGE AND DESTABILIZING

NACELLES

FLAPS CP NOSE DOWN LOGITUDINAL

DOWN STABILITY

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
FUSELAGE DESTABLISING FIN /DORSAL STABLIZING
FIN/VENTRAL FIN

SWEEPBACK STABLIZING
WINGS

CG UNAFFECTED (WITHIN LIMITS)

POWER DESTABILIZING
EFFECT

LATERAL STABILITY
LOW WING UNSTABLE HIGH WINGS TOO MUCH STABLE

(DIHEDRAL EFFECT)

WING OUT OF AOA LIFT

WIND
LOW WING
WING INTO AOA LIFT
THE WIND

LATERAL WING OUT OF AOA LIFT

DIHEDRRAL
STABILITY WIND

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 60

 WING INTO AOA LIFT
THE WIND

WING OUT OF AOA LIFT

WIND
HIGH WING
WING INTO AOA LIFT
THE WIND

ANHEDRAL LATERAL
WINGS STABILITY

SWEEP BACK STABLE LATERAL

WINGS STABILITY

FIN STABLE LATERAL

STABILITY

VENTRAL FIN DESTABILIZING INSIGNIFICANT

FLAPS DOWN LATERAL

STABILITY

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 61

QUESTIONS:

1. An aeroplane which is inherently stable will:

2. a. require less effort to control.145

b. be difficult to stall.

c. notspin.

d. have a built-in tendency to return to its original state following the removal of any disturbing force.

2. After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillatesin pitch with increasing amplitude. It is:

a. statically and dynamically unstable.

b. statically stable but dynamically unstable.

c. statically unstable but dynamically stable.

d. statically and dynamically stable.

3. Longitudinalstability is given by:

a. the fin.

b. the wing dihedral.

c. the horizontal tailplane.

d. the ailerons.

4. An aircraft is constructed with dihedral to provide:

a. lateral stability about the longitudinal axis.

b. longitudinal stability about the lateral axis.

c. lateral stability about the normal axis.

d. directional stability about the normal axis.

5. Lateralstability is reduced by increasing:

a. anhedral.

b. dihedral.

c. sweepback.

d. fuselage and fin area.

6. If the wing AC is forward of the CG:

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 62

a. changes in lift produce a wing pitching moment which acts to reduce the change of lift.

b. changes in lift produce a wing pitching moment which acts to increase the change of lift.

c. changes in lift give no change in wing pitching moment.

d. when the aircraft sideslips the CG causes the nose to turn into the sideslip thus applying a restoring moment.

7. The longitudinal static stability of an aircraft:

a. is reduced by the effects of wing downwash.

b. is increased by the effects of wing downwash.

c. is not affected by wing downwash.

d. is reduced for nose-up displacements, but increased for nose-down displacements by the effects of wing downwash.

8. To ensure some degree of longitudinalstability in flight, the position of the CG:

a. must always coincide with the AC.

b. must be forward of the Neutral Point.

c. must be aft of the Neutral Point.

d. must not be forward of the aft CG limit.

9. When the CG is close to the forward limit:

a. very small forces are required on the control column to produce pitch.

b. longitudinal stability is reduced.

c. very high stick forces are required to pitch because the aircraft is very stable.

d. stick forces are the same as for an aft CG.

10. The static margin is equal to the distance between:

a. the CG and the AC.

b. the AC and the neutral point.

c. the CG and the neutral point.

d. the CG and the CG datum point.146

11. If a disturbing force causes the aircraft to roll:

a. wing dihedral will cause a rolling moment which reduces the sideslip.

b. the fin will cause a rolling moment which reduces the sideslip.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 63

c. dihedral will cause a yawing moment which reduces the sideslip.

d. dihedral will cause a nose-up pitching moment.

12. With flapslowered, lateralstability:

a. will be increased because of the effective increase of dihedral.

b. will be increased because of increased lift.

c. will be reduced because the centre of lift of each semi-span is closer to the wing root.

d. will not be affected.

13. Dihedral gives a stabilizing rolling moment by causing an increase in lift:

a. on the up-going wing when the aircraft rolls.

b. on the down-going wing when the aircraft rolls.

c. on the lower wing if the aircraft is sideslipping.

d. on the lower wing whenever the aircraft is in a banked attitude.

14. A high wing configuration with no dihedral, compared to a low wing configuration with no

dihedral, will provide:

a. greater longitudinal stability.

b. the same degree of longitudinal stability as any other configuration because dihedral gives longitudinal stability.

c. less lateral stability than a low wing configuration.

d. greater lateral stability due to the airflow pattern around the fuselage when the aircraft is sideslipping increasing the
effective angle of attack of the lower wing.

15. At a constant IAS, what effect will increasing altitude have on damping in roll?

a. It remains the same.

b. It increases because the TAS increases.

c. It decreases because the ailerons are less effective.

d. It decreases because the density decreases.

16. Sweepback of the wings will:

a. not affect lateral stability.

b. decrease lateral stability.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 64

c. increases lateral stability at high speeds only.

d. increases lateral stability at all speeds.

17. At low forward speed:

a. increased downwash from the wing will cause the elevators to be more responsive.

b. due to the increased angle of attack of the wing the air will flow faster over the wing giving improved aileron control.

c. a large sideslip angle could cause the fin to stall.

d. a swept-back wing will give an increased degree of longitudinal stability.

18. Following a lateral disturbance, an aircraft with Dutch roll instability will:

a. go into a spiral dive.

b. develop simultaneous oscillations in roll and yaw.

c. develop oscillations in pitch.

d. develop an unchecked roll.

19. To correct Dutch roll on an aircraft with no automatic protection system:

a. use roll inputs.

b. use yaw inputs.

c. move the CG.

d. reduce speed below MMO.

20. A yaw damper:

a. increases rudder effectiveness.

b. must be disengaged before making a turn.

c. augments stability.

d. increases the rate of yaw.

21. A wing which is inclined downwards from root to tip is said to have:

a. wash out.

b. taper.

c. sweep.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 65

d. anhedral.

22. The lateral axis of an aircraft is a line which:

a. passes through the wing tips.

b. passes through the centre of pressure, at right angles to the direction of the airflow.

c. passes through the quarter chord point of the wing root, at right angles to the longitudinal axis.

d. passes through the centre of gravity, parallel to a line through the wing tips.

23. Loading an aircraft so that the CG exceeds the aft limits could result in:

a. loss of longitudinal stability, and the nose to pitch up at slow speeds.

b. excessive upward force on the tail, and the nose to pitch down.

c. excessive load factor in turns.

d. high stick forces.

24 The tendency of an aircraft to suffer from Dutch roll instability can be reduced:

a. by sweeping the wings.

b. by giving the wings anhedral.

c. by reducing the size of the fin.

d. by longitudinal dihedral.

25. What determines the longitudinal static stability of an aeroplane?

a. The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag.

b. The effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder, and rudder trim tab.

c. The location of the CG with respect to the AC.

d. the size of the pitching moment which can be generated by the elevator.

26. Dihedral angle is:

a. the angle between the main plane and the longitudinal axis.

b. the angle measured between the main plane and the normal axis.

c. the angle between the quarter chord line and the horizontal datum.

d. the upward and outward inclination of the main planes to the horizontal datum.

27. Stability around the normal axis:

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 66

a. is increased if the keel surface behind the CG is increased.

b. is given by the lateral dihedral.

c. depends on the longitudinal dihedral.

d. is greater if the wing has no sweepback.

28. If the Centre of Gravity of an aircraft is found to be within limitsfor take-off:

a. the C of G will be within limits for landing.

b. the C of G for landing must be checked, allowing for fuel consumed.

c. the C of G will not change during the flight.

d. the flight crew can adjust the CG during flight to keep it within acceptable limits for landing.

29. The ailerons are deployed and returned to neutral when the aircraft has attained a small angle of bank. If the aircraft
then returns to a wings-level attitude without further control movement it is:

a. neutrally stable.

b. statically and dynamically stable.

c. statically stable, dynamically neutral.

d. statically stable.

30. The property which tends to decreases rate of displacement about any axis, but only while displacement is taking
place, is known as:

a. stability.

b. controllability.

c. aerodynamic damping.

d. manoeuvrability.

31. If an aircraft is loaded such that the stick force required to change the speed is zero:

a. the CG is on the neutral point.

b. the CG is behind the neutral point.

c. the CG is on the manoeuvre point.

d. the CG is on the forward CG limit.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 67

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

d b c a a b a b c c a c

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

c d d d c b a c d d a b

25 26 27 28 29 30 31

c d a b b c a

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 68

Dynamic Stability: with the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to equilibrium, dynamic

stability is defined by the resulting motion with time.

NON-OSCILLATORY: The non-oscillatory modes depict the time histories possible without cyclic
motion.

SUBSIDENCE

Such a motion indicates:

 Positive static stability by the

initial tendency to return to equilibrium.

 Positive dynamic stability since the amplitude decreases with time.



DIVERGENCE

The initial tendency to continue In the displacement direction is evidence of static instability

The increasing amplitude is proof of dynamic instability.

NEUTRAL
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 69
If the original disturbance creates a displacement which then remains constant, the lack of
tendency for motion and the constant amplitude indicates neutral static and neutral dynamic
stability.

The oscillatory modes

Positive static stability is demonstrated by the initial tendency to return

to equilibrium conditions. However, the resulting dynamic behaviour

may be stable, neutral, or unstable.

DAMPED OSCILLATION : STATIC STABILITY -POSITIVE

DYNAMIC STABILITY-POSITIVE

UNDAMPED OSCILLATION - STATIC STABILITY -POSITIVE

DYNAMIC STABILITY -NEUTRAL

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 70

DIVERGENT OSCILLATION : STATIC STABILITY -POSITIVE

DYNAMIC STABILITY -NEGATIVE

“IF AN AIRCRAFT IS STATICALLY UNSTABLE, IT CANNOT BE DYNAMICALLY STABLE”

The longitudinal dynamic stability of an aeroplane generally consists of two

basic modes of oscillation:-

long period oscillation (phugoid)

short period motion

Long Period Oscillation (Phugoid) (DGCA)

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 71

The phugoid or long period oscillation involves noticeable variations in:

pitch attitude, altitude and airspeed nearly constant angle of attack. (DGCA)

The period of oscillation in the phugoid is between 1 and 2 minutes.(DGCA)

long period oscillation is easily controlled by the pilot.

Short Period Oscillation

The short period oscillation involves noticeable variations in:

Angle of attack Approximately constant speed, height and pitch attitude;

Short period oscillation is not easily controlled by the pilot.

DYNAMIC STABILITY IS REDUCED AT HIGH ALTITUDE DUE TO REDUCED

AERODYNAMIC DAMPING(DGCA).

Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO)

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 72

When the normal human response lag and controlsystem lag are coupled with the aeroplane motion,
inadvertent control reactions by the pilot may furnish negative damping to the oscillatory motion,
and dynamic instability will exist.

Since short period motion is of relatively high frequency, the amplitude of the pitching oscillation
can reach dangerous proportions in an unbelievably short time. When pilot induced oscillation is
encountered, the most effective solution is an immediate release of the controls. Any attempt to
forcibly damp the oscillation simply continues the excitation and amplifies the oscillation.

Freeing the controls removes the unstable (but inadvertent) excitation and allows the aeroplane to
recover by virtue of its inherent dynamic stability.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 73

1. Stalling involves loss of height and loss of control.

2. A pilot must be able to clearly and unmistakably identify a stall.

3. A stall is caused by airflow separation.

4. Separation can occur when either the boundary layer has insufficient kinetic energy or the

adverse pressure gradient becomes too great.

5. Adverse pressure gradient increases with increase in angle of attack.

6. Alternative names for the angle of attack at which stall occurs are the stall angle and the critical angle of
attack.

7. The coefficient of lift at which a stall occurs is CLMAX.

8. A stall can occur at any airspeed or flight attitude.

9. A typical stalling angle is approximately 16°.

10. To recover from a stall the angle of attack must be decreased.

11. Maximum power is applied during stall recovery to minimize height loss.

12. On small aircraft, the rudder should be used to prevent wing drop at the stall.

13. On swept wing aircraft the ailerons should be used to prevent wing drop at the stall.

14. Recover height lost during stall recovery with moderate back pressure on the elevator control.

15. The first indications of a stall may be unresponsive flight controls, stall warning device or

aerodynamic buffet.

16. At speeds close to the stall, ailerons must be used with caution to lift a dropping wing.

17. Acceptable indications of a stall are:

(1) a nose-down pitch that can not be readily arrested.

(2) severe buffeting.

(3) pitch control reaching aft stop and no further increase in pitch attitude occurs.

18. Reference stall speed (VSR ) is a CAS defined by the aircraft manufacturer.

19. VSR may not be less than a 1g stall speed.

20. When a device that abruptly pushes the nose down at a selected angle of attack is installed,

21. VSR may not be less than 2 knots or 2 %, whichever is greater, above the speed at which the device operates.
TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 74
22. Stall warning with sufficient margin to prevent inadvertent stalling must be clear and distinctive to the pilot
in straight and turning flight.

23. Acceptable stall warning may consist of the inherent aerodynamic qualities of the aeroplane or by a device
that will give clearly distinguishable indications under expected conditions of flight.

24. Stall warning must begin at a speed exceeding the stall speed by not less than 5 knots or 5 %

25. CAS, whichever is the greater.

26. Artificial stall warning on a small aircraft is usually given by a horn or buzzer.

27. Artificial stall warning on a large aircraft is usually given by a stick shaker, in conjunction with lights and a
noisemaker.

28. An artificial stall warning device can be activated by a flapper switch, an angle of attack vane or an angle of
attack probe.

29. Most angle of attack sensors compute the rate of change of angle of attack to give earlier warning in the case
of accelerated rates of stall approach.

30. EASA required stall characteristics, up to the time the aeroplane is stalled, are: a. It must be possible to
produce and correct yaw by unreversed use of the ailerons and rudder.

b. No abnormal nose-up pitching may occur.

c. Longitudinal control force must be positive.

d. It must be possible to promptly prevent stalling and recover from a stall by normal use of the controls.

e. There should be no excessive roll between the stall and completion of recovery.

f. For turning flight stalls, the action of the aeroplane after the stall may not be so violent or extreme as to make it
difficult, with normal piloting skill, to effect prompt recovery and to regain control of the aeroplane.

31. An aerofoil section with a small leading edge radius will stall at a smaller angle of attack and

the stall will be more sudden.

32. An aerofoil section with a large thickness-chord ratio will stall at a higher angle of attack and will stall more
gently.

33. An aerofoil section with camber near the leading edge will stall at a higher angle of attack.

34. A rectangular wing planform will tend to stall at the root first.

35. A rectangular wing planform usually has ideal stall characteristics; these are:

a. aileron effectiveness at the stall.

b. nose drop at the stall.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 75
c. aerodynamic buffet at the stall.

d. absence of violent wing drop at the stall.

36. To give a wing with a tapered planform the desired stall characteristics, the following devices can be included
in the design:

a. washout (decreasing incidence from root to tip).

b. an aerofoil section with greater thickness and camber at the tip.

c. leading edge slots at the tip.

d. stall strips fitted to the wing inboard leading edge.

e. vortex generators which re-energize the boundary layer at the tip.

37. A swept-back wing has an increased tendency to tip stall due to the spanwise flow of boundary

layer from root to tip on the wing top surface. Methods of delaying tip stall on a swept wing planform are:

a. wing fences, thin metal fences which generally extend from the leading edge to the

trailing edge on the wing top surface.

b. vortilons, also thin metal fences, but smaller and are situated on the underside of the wing leading edge.

c. saw tooth leading edge, generates vortices over wing top surface at high angles of attack.

d. engine pylons of pod mounted wing engines also act as vortilons.

e. vortex generators are also used to delay tip stall on a swept wing.

38. Tip stall on a swept wing planform gives a tendency for the aircraft to pitch-up at the stall. This is due to the
CP moving forwards when the wing tips stall first.

TECHNICAL NOTES BY YOGINDER SIR 76