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Framing School Violence
and Bullying in Young
Adult Manga
Fictional Perspectives on a
Pedagogical Problem
Drew Emanuel Berkowitz
Framing School Violence and Bullying
in Young Adult Manga
 Drew Emanuel Berkowitz

Framing School
Violence and Bullying
in Young Adult Manga
Fictional Perspectives on a Pedagogical Problem
Drew Emanuel Berkowitz
Independent Scholar
Middletown, NY, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-58120-6    ISBN 978-3-030-58121-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58121-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Pattern © Melisa Hasan

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to the victims, victims’ families, and survivors
of the 2019 Kyoto Animation Studio 1 arson attack.
 Contents

1 School as a Setting in Young Adult Manga (History

and Context)  1

2 Socio-cultural Investigations of Manga’s Messages

(and Their Relevance for Educators) 19

3 Depictions of School Violence and Bullying in Young

Adult Manga 31

4 Normalization of (and Responses to) Violence

and Bullying by Educators in Young Adult Manga 49

5 School Violence and Bullying in Romantic

(LGBTQ-­Inclusive) Young Adult Manga 73

6 How Might Violent Manga Reflect What Young

Adults Expect from Teachers and Classmates?103

Appendix119

Index123

vii
 CHAPTER 1

School as a Setting in Young Adult Manga

(History and Context)

Young adult fiction often asks its readers to imagine what happens when
ordinary young adults find themselves facing extraordinary circumstances.
Some of these stories’ teenage protagonists are suddenly and unexpectedly
spirited away to far-off, extraordinary places, such as fairytale landscapes,
extraterrestrial vistas, and dystopian futures. Other works depict the ways
in which extraordinary problems can suddenly and unexpectedly intrude
upon their protagonists’ everyday lives. However, within the subset of
young adult literature known as “manga”, many protagonists face prob-
lems that are presented as neither sudden nor unexpected: problems with
classroom violence and school bullying that have sadly become increas-
ingly unextraordinary aspects of the lives of both the stories’ young adult
characters and the stories’ young adult readers.
When prompted to consider how the issues of classroom violence and
school bullying are depicted within young adult manga, one title that
might immediately spring to a manga aficionado’s mind would be A Silent
Voice (2015), a seven-volume series of manga novels written by Japanese
author Yoshitoki Ō ima. At the beginning of the first volume of A Silent
Voice, high school senior Shoya Ishida is completing final preparations to
take his own life. He has cancelled his cell phone contract, quit his job,
and saved up enough money to pay back what he feels he owes his mother
for raising him. Now, the only thing left to do is to find and apologize to
Shoko Nishimiya, a deaf girl whom he mercilessly bullied in sixth grade.

© The Author(s) 2020 1

D. E. Berkowitz, Framing School Violence and Bullying in Young
Adult Manga, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58121-3_1
2 D. E. BERKOWITZ

In the six years since Shoya and Shoko last saw each other, Shoya has
been subjected to relentless bullying and ostracization from his school
classmates. They threw the contents of his locker in the garbage, wrote
“you should jump off a building” on his desk, and beat him up on the way
home from school. Shoya has accepted all of his classmates’ abuse, and has
come to believe that he deserves it, chiefly because of what he did to Shoko.
When Shoko Nishimiya was in sixth grade, Shoya Ishida was her bully.
Shoya bullied Shoko because she was deaf, but also because he was bored
and wanted attention from his classmates, who laughed whenever he made
fun of her disability. Shoya and Shoko’s teacher knew about Shoya’s bul-
lying and initially tried to get him to stop, but soon more and more stu-
dents began to follow Shoya’s lead and bully Shoko themselves. Shoya and
Shoko’s teacher quickly lost control of the situation.
After Shoya began stealing and destroying Shoko’s hearing aids, the
school administration became involved. Their teacher—desperate to mini-
mize and downplay his own culpability—encouraged Shoya’s friends to
place the blame solely on Shoya’s shoulders, making it seem as though the
teacher was only negligent about interceding in a single student’s behav-
ior, rather than the behavior of his entire class. Soon, Shoya’s classmates
would quickly begin to bully and torment their former friend and
ringleader.
Shoya perceived Shoko as the source of his troubles. He would eventu-
ally confront the girl, leading to a brutal exchange of blows between the
two children, Shoko’s expeditious transfer to another school, and Shoya’s
quick realization that Shoko had been staying late after school every day
to erase the horrible things that his classmates had been writing on his
school desk. At the end of the story’s first volume, Shoya finds Shoko,
intending to apologize to her, leaving a clear question in readers’ minds:
should Shoko forgive Shoya?
For Shoko, of course, the answer to this question had never been in
doubt. Not only had she always been in love with Shoya, but—due to her
own lifelong problems with crippling depression—she had always felt as
though she was only bullied because she did not try hard enough to com-
municate with her classmates and make friends. Later in the story, after
Shoya’s attempts to prevent Shoko from making her own suicide attempt
land him in a coma, Shoko dreams about how much better her life could
have been, if only she had been able to hear. Following a volume-long
exploration of what Shoko’s life is like while Shoya is in a coma, many of
 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 3

A Silent Voice’s young adult readers will certainly be rooting for Shoya to
wake up and give Shoko her well-deserved happy ending.
Now, as far as young adult romance novel protagonists go, one would
be hard-pressed to claim that Shoya constitutes the most upstanding gen-
tleman that the genre has to offer its adolescent readers. Yet, neither is he
a villainous cad, nor a cautionary tale to warn young women about what
not to look for in a romantic partner. Instead, A Silent Voice makes careful
efforts to never truly portray Shoya as either completely sympathetic or
completely despicable. The story continually reminds readers of Shoya’s
six years of suffering at the hands of his bullies, but it just as frequently
reminds readers of the glee and callousness that he exhibited while he was
bullying Shoko. In this way, A Silent Voice’s depictions of Shoya are deeply
complicated, as are its overall depictions of bullying and violence within
the contexts of K-12 school environments.
By the time A Silent Voice’s first volume draws to a close—and Shoya
and Shoko finally meet each other for the first time in six years—young
adult readers may come away with a much more complicated impression
of what it means to be a bully than can be found in many other novels
written for their demographic. However, within the context of Japanese
young adult literature, A Silent Voice is far from unique in the complexity
with which it depicts the topics of school violence and bullying. Rather, it
is just one of the many Japanese young adult graphic novels to tackle these
subjects in ways that strongly resonate with the medium’s adolescent
readers.
A Silent Voice was written and published in Japanese and then translated
and distributed for foreign markets. Like most contemporary Japanese
graphic novel titles, A Silent Voice is commonly referred to as manga, a
term that—much in the same way as Japanese animation is often labeled as
anime—is used in Japan to denote all comics and graphic novels, and
used outside of Japan to explicitly refer to comics and graphic novels of
Japanese origin. A Silent Voice was originally written for the Japanese
twelve- to eighteen-year-old male shōnen demographic. However, like
many shōnen romance titles, it was rebranded as a general young adult
romance series for foreign markets in which romance titles were not typi-
cally geared towards young adult male demographics.
A Silent Voice has been lauded with critical acclaim, both in Japan,
where it won Asahi Shimbun’s Tezuka Osamu “New Creator” Cultural
Prize (Hodgkins 2015), and internationally, where it was named by the
American Library Association on their 2017 list of Great Graphic Novels
4 D. E. BERKOWITZ

for Teens (ALA 2017) and nominated for a 2016 Will Eisner Comic
Industry Award (Bunge 2016). Its film adaptation—released in 2016 by
Kyoto Animation—proved to be similarly popular. Commercially, it
opened to domestic audiences at #2 (behind Your Name, the highest-­
grossing Japanese film of all time), before eventually grossing $33 million
on international release. Critically, it received both the 2016 Japanese
Movie Critics Award for Best Animation Feature Film and the 2017
Japanese Academy Award for Excellent Animation.
Yet, although A Silent Voice was an unqualified success at virtually every
metric, at the time of its publication it would have been far from the most
internationally well-known young adult manga title to focus on issues of
classroom bullying or violence. That particular honor would have gone to
A Silent Voice’s fellow 2016 Will Eisner Comic Industry Award nominee,
Yūsei Matsui’s twenty-one-volume action comedy manga Assassination
Classroom (2014). Like many other internationally renowned action
manga titles such as Dragon Ball, Naruto, and One Piece, Assassination
Classroom was first published as a serialized work within Japan’s best-­
selling and longest-running manga anthology magazine, Weekly Shōnen
Jump, before being collected into a blockbuster young adult graphic
novel series.
Assassination Classroom is a kid-friendly comedy series with a decidedly
dark premise. Its story focuses on a group of troubled students at a fic-
tional Japanese middle school. Once star pupils, all of these students have
since become disappointments to their teachers and parents. Now, they
are regularly ostracized by their instructors, bullied by their peers, and
repeatedly told by school administrators that they are failures. After having
been physically isolated from the rest of the student body, and sent to
complete the remainder of their junior high school days in a ramshackle
old building at the top of a nearby mountain, the students had all but
given up hope for a fulfilling school life. This all changes with the sudden
arrival of a strange new teacher, a seemingly invincible extraterrestrial
monster who claims to have just destroyed the Moon.
Assassination Classroom’s Koro-Sensei (a pun on the Japanese words for
“unkillable” and “teacher”) is a canary yellow octopus who can move at
speeds in excess of Mach 20 and has very particular views on pedagogy.
Koro-Sensei states that he plans to blow up the entire planet following the
students’ middle school graduation ceremony, but is otherwise a perfectly
jovial teacher, whose mannerisms closely resemble those of Robin Williams’
character from the film Dead Poets Society. Although initially wary, the
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 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 5

students quickly warm up to their strange new instructor when they real-
ize that he deeply cares about his students, until a secret agent—posing as
their physical education teacher—informs them that the government will
give 10 billion yen to any student who can kill Koro-Sensei before the end
of the school year.
Assassination Classroom’s comedic, off-kilter tone strongly resonated
with young adult audiences. Critically, Assassination Classroom would
receive numerous accolades, including the highly coveted number one
spot on the annual manga industry guidebook This Manga Is Amazing!’s
2014 list of “Top 20 Manga for Male Readers”. Commercially, the series
had 20 million graphic novels in circulation by 2016, as well as a wide
range of adaptations and spinoffs, including four feature films. Much of
the franchise’s critical and commercial success can be attributed to its cen-
tral narrative’s heavy focus on “dark, difficult topics, such as bullying, sui-
cide, and parental abuse” (Silverman 2017). Just like A Silent Voice—as
well as a number of other young adult manga graphic novel titles discussed
throughout this book—Assassination Classroom is a work that takes full
advantage of its medium’s “long-form structure and emphasis on emo-
tion” (May 2015) in order to explore issues like classroom bullying and
school violence on a deeper and more multifaceted level than is typical of
non-manga graphic novel works. In spite of its colorful and comedic trap-
pings, it is a story that “showcases the harm that a toxic school environ-
ment can have on a child” (Silverman 2018).

Manga
In spite of their warm critical and commercial reception, young adult
manga graphic novels such as Assassination Classroom and A Silent Voice
are in many ways potentially challenging to read, analyze, and discuss. The
principle issue with these works is content: manga is first and foremost the
product of Japanese culture, and many countries’ norms about what is or
is not appropriate to depict within young adult literature are often incom-
patible with the literary conventions of Japanese media. Certainly, many
countries’ parents and educators would have many problems with works
like Assassination Classroom that depict students who repeatedly attempt
to kill their teachers, but even putting aside works with deliberately pro-
vocative premises, there is no denying that manga graphic novels are, on a
whole, more contentiously themed than those published by many non-­
Japanese young adult graphic novel publishers such as Scholastic.
6 D. E. BERKOWITZ

Some young adult readers—along with their parents, guardians, and

educators—will therefore find some manga works difficult due to their
frequently disturbing depictions of violence and bullying within K-12
educational contexts. In the example of A Silent Voice, some will find it
impossible to overlook the fact that the franchise is often marketed by
publishers and discussed by fans as a love story, due to the fact that the
“love” in question involves a teenage girl and her former abuser. Yet, oth-
ers might have difficulty not in reading or discussing the work itself, but
rather in understanding the medium of literature that A Silent Voice repre-
sents. After all, what does it mean to say that A Silent Voice is a young adult
manga graphic novel?
At their most basic level, graphic novels are a subcategory of the broad
spectrum of artistic works that American graphic novel pioneer Will Eisner
described as a “cross-breeding of illustration and prose” in a consistent
and characteristic literary manner (Eisner 1985, p. 2). Eisner employed
the umbrella term sequential art to delineate the ways that works such as
newspaper comic strips, American graphic novels, and French bandes dessi-
nées rely on certain semiotic conventions in order to communicate ele-
ments such as the passage of time to their readers. Under Eisner’s
conception of sequential art, works such as comic books and graphic nov-
els are not just art but also literature, tapping into a shared underlying
vocabulary that prompts readers to interpret not simply image as text, but
also text as image. Eisner’s work would heavily influence the field of media
scholarship that would later come to be known by the names comics stud-
ies, sequential art studies, and graphic narrative studies.
In Japan, the term manga is used to describe a wide range of the medi-
ums studied by these scholars: not just Japanese graphic novels, but also
Japanese four-panel yonkoma comic strips, American superhero comic
books, American newspaper comic strips, and French bandes dessinées.
Outside of Japan, however, the term “manga” is used by both fans and
scholars to denote all works of sequential art produced by Japanese comics
creators. Similarly, the phrase “manga graphic novels” is colloquially
employed by non-Japanese publishers to describe all Japanese works that
they market and sell in graphic novel form to international readers.
Over the past few decades, Western comics creators and scholars have
engaged in debate about just what, precisely, constitutes a graphic novel.
Some question whether the term should only be used to denote stand-­
alone works that eschew serialization and focus on serious themes rather
than frivolity (Baetens and Frey 2015). Others contend that the term has
 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 7

become largely devoid of meaning, and has merely devolved into a cynical
marketing term embraced by American comic book publishers who, in the
words of New York Times bestselling graphic novel author Alan Moore,
“stick six issues of whatever [...] they happened to be publishing lately
under a glossy cover and call it The She-Hulk Graphic Novel”
(Kavanagh 2000).
On a theoretical level, it is certainly interesting to ponder whether
works like A Silent Voice and Assassination Classroom are truly “graphic
novels”, or are merely packaged that way by publishers who consider
“comic book” to be a less marketable nomenclature. From a practical per-
spective, however, the overwhelming majority of internationally released
young adult manga titles have been presented to readers in the form of
graphic novels and graphic novel compilation volumes. Similarly, when
internationally published works make it onto the best-seller lists in non-­
Japanese countries such as the United States, they are typically listed as
graphic novel works.
Often, these works were originally published in serialized form, typi-
cally in Japanese weekly or monthly comic anthologies. For example,
Assassination Classroom was originally published in Shueisha’s Weekly
Shōnen Jump, while A Silent Voice was originally published in Kodansha’s
Weekly Shōnen Magazine. The term shōnen that appears in the names of
both of these magazines refers to the intended age and gender demo-
graphics of their serialized titles’ young adult readers. Magazines that cater
to the shōnen demographic are primarily intended for teen and preteen
boys, and magazines that cater to the shōjo demographic are primarily
intended for teen and preteen girls. Similarly, seinen periodicals are directly
targeted towards young men over the age of eighteen, and josei periodicals
are directly targeted towards young adult women over the age of eighteen.
For this reason, many, if not most, Japanese manga anthologies contain
a wider variety of works than typically appear in other countries’ more
genre-focused comics publications, such as the flagship superhero comic
titles of American publishers Marvel Comics and DC Comics. After these
serialized works are collected into graphic novels, they often retain the
same demographic signifiers and expectations of their likely readers’ ages
and genders. These works are then translated and released into foreign
markets, many of whose existing comics-reading demographics do not
easily match up with those found in Japan.
For example, A Silent Voice was licensed in the United States, France,
Argentina, Mexico, Spain, Italy, Russia, Brazil, and Taiwan, many of which
8 D. E. BERKOWITZ

are countries that do not actively market romance novels to twelve- to

eighteen-year-old boys. Yet, it was originally serialized as just one of sev-
eral romance-oriented Weekly Shōnen Magazine titles, running concur-
rently with the serialized versions of Again!! (a twelve-volume graphic
novel series about a disaffected high school senior, who travels back in
time to his first day of school and subsequently decides to become a cheer-
leader) and Yamada-kun and the Seven Witches (a twenty-eight-volume
graphic novel series about a delinquent who discovers that he can gain a
variety of superpowers by kissing various female classmates). It also ran
alongside a number of action and adventure titles, such as The Seven
Deadly Sins (a forty-one-volume graphic novel series about a band of
super-powered, yet ill-behaved, Arthurian knights, who have been falsely
accused of crimes against their kingdom) and Fairy Tail (a sixty-three-­
volume graphic novel series about a guild of rowdy, eccentric wizards,
many of whom are searching for the now-missing dragons who adopted
them as children). Despite originally being serialized in the same publica-
tion, many of these titles would not traditionally be considered to cater to
the same demographics in countries such as the United States.
International publishers of Japanese manga graphic novels seem to have
resolved the issue of demographics by marketing these titles not to young
adult fans of action/adventure, romance, comedy, etc., but rather to
young adult fans of Japanese media itself. After attempting in the late
twentieth century to aggressively localize Japanese works into other mar-
kets—such as flipping the orientation of Japanese manga panels so that
they could be read from left-to-right rather than right-to-left, or changing
the names of Sailor Moon’s protagonist and her love interest from “Usagi”
and “Mamoru” to “Serena” and “Darien” in the US English dub of the
manga’s anime adaptation—publishers came to realize in the mid-1990s
that the Japanese origins of manga and anime were an intrinsic part of
their appeal for young adult audiences. Manga would soon acquire a vora-
cious market of young adult readers, who almost appeared to care far less
about a work’s genre than whether the work was “‘authentically’ Japanese”
(Brienza 2015, p. 15).
By the beginning of the twenty-first century, demand for Japanese
anime and manga had transformed manga into a worldwide phenomenon,
and sales of manga graphic novels accounted for over one quarter of the
billion-dollar North American graphic novel market (Sherman 2019),
40% of the market in France (Alverson 2014), and 70% of the market in
Germany (Fishbein 2007). In spite of an overall downward international
 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 9

trend in physical media sales, the “overall manga ecosystem” of adapta-

tions and merchandise has continued to thrive, with domestic sales valued
in excess of US$28 billion (Yamada and Shinohara 2019) and Chinese
sales reportedly reaching US$38 billion (Wang 2016). Yet, in spite of their
strong international appeal, manga works have historically been explicitly
tailored to appeal primarily to Japanese readers. Furthermore, the consis-
tently expressed desire among both domestic and international audiences
for anime and manga works to retain their distinct culturally-situated per-
spectives (Sevakis 2017) may suggest that the Japanese manga industry
has no incentive to stray outside its existing socio-cultural comfort zone.
This leads to the inevitable question: when Japanese manga graphic novels
present international audiences with narratives that heavily focus on situa-
tions of violence and bullying within K-12 school contexts, just how far do
these school contexts differ from their adolescent readers’ own lived
experiences?

Japanese Schools in Manga

Regardless of the culture or medium in which they are produced, most
entertainment media works have a tendency to depict school life in overly
romanticized or idealized forms. For instance, United States and Canadian
television dramas set in schools tend to emphasize the time students spend
socializing over the time students spend learning. On a more superficial
level, casting directors often choose to fill televised classrooms with actors
in their 20s and even 30s, effectively modeling unrealistic depictions of
teenage appearance and behavior for impressionable teenage viewers.
Although this lack of accuracy to truly lived adolescent experience is
certainly not a culturally-specific issue, the problem is exacerbated within
Japanese media due to the cultural phenomenon of seishun: a tendency for
Japanese adults to look back on their school days as “a fleeting, beautiful
time in which the foundation of one’s life takes root, and things start to
sprout” (Sevakis 2016). This potent combination of nostalgia and ideal-
ization is so pervasive within Japanese media that the high school class-
room could be said to be the default setting for Japanese young adult
manga graphic novels. K-12 contexts are heavily represented within young
adult manga works of every conceivable genre, from romance and science
fiction to cyberpunk and detective stories. These stories’ schools often
reflect the realities of day-to-day life for students enrolled in K-12 Japanese
educational institutions.
10 D. E. BERKOWITZ

The pedagogy of the Japanese education system is most frequently

characterized within popular culture as a synthesis of early-twentieth-­
century European values towards aspirations and conformity. The influ-
ence of these two factors can be seen in almost every institutional
convention: for instance, the adoption of French and British military uni-
forms as the standard for school dress codes is thought to have been first
implemented as a way to symbolize “the hopes and dreams” of early-
twentieth-­century Japanese parents who had grown up in a generation
that was not guaranteed to receive compulsory education (Sevakis 2015).
Colloquially, the Japanese educational philosophy is best exemplified by a
well-known quote, apocryphally delivered on horseback by the University
of Massachusetts Amherst President William S. Clark to Japanese students:
“Boys, be ambitious. Be ambitious not for money, not for selfish aggran-
dizement, not for the evanescent thing which men call fame. Be ambitious
for the attainment of all that a man can be” (Czerwien 2011; Faulders
2000; New England Historical Society 2019). In the twenty-first century,
these Western influences have become firmly ingrained in an education
system that has evolved to meet the needs of Japanese society, resulting in
a form of student life that is noticeably similar to, but also at times jar-
ringly different from, the everyday experiences of adolescents in other
countries.
Japanese compulsory education places a heavy emphasis on fostering
etiquette and equality, via an approach that is often criticized as promoting
the excessive enforcement of conformity and the over-rigidity of adoles-
cent behavior (Okamoto 2001; Sevakis 2015). It also focuses on students’
emotional and spiritual development, to such an extent that the Japanese
term for education—kyoiku—refers almost explicitly to the development
of a student’s character. Kyoiku is generally considered more important
than the acquisition of knowledge and skills, which the Japanese education
system often refers to as “training”. By focusing on spiritual develop-
ment—or kokoro—as well as etiquette, manners, and discipline, Japanese
schools occupy a socio-cultural role that is remarkably similar to that of
religious institutions in other countries (Okamoto 2001). This is espe-
cially important within the context of upper secondary education, which is
not compulsory in Japan.
Much like in Thailand and Mexico, Japanese students attend primary
school for six years, followed by three compulsory years of lower second-
ary school and three non-compulsory years of upper secondary school.
Elementary and lower secondary schools are typically public institutions,
 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 11

with enrollment in private schools being increasingly common among

upper secondary school students. During their final year of lower second-
ary school—equivalent to ninth grade in K-12 and P-12 systems—stu-
dents must take entrance exams in order to secure admission to both
public and private upper secondary school institutions. Upper secondary
schools and universities often administer their own particular entrance
exams. Thus, rather than studying for standardized tests such as the US’
SAT prior to deciding upon one’s prospective top choice universities,
Japanese students must first determine the trajectories of their own per-
sonal academic lives and then study for the specific tests given by their
institutions of choice.
Upon successful admission to an upper secondary school, a Japanese
adolescent will typically experience a much more institutionally regi-
mented lifestyle than may be typical for students in other countries. After
the end of what would traditionally be considered the school day, students
who wish to engage in extracurricular activities will be expected to join a
specific extracurricular club for their entire three years of high school.
They will be expected to contribute to the upkeep and maintenance of the
school by participating in many tasks that would be considered the pur-
view of custodial staff in American public schools, such as cleaning the
classroom floors and school windows. Outside of school grounds, stu-
dents are expected to maintain a certain standard of behavior, as their
school standing is considered to be intrinsically tied to their out-of-school
conduct. Since schools are considered responsible for a student’s moral
and civic development, it is not parents who typically receive the first call
from a police officer about their child’s disorderly behavior or delinquency,
but rather that child’s designated homeroom teacher (Okamoto 2001).
In spite of what may seem like insurmountable differences between the
daily lives of Japanese students and adolescents in many other countries, in
practice there do not appear to be many cultural barriers to international
readers’ enjoyment of manga that features Japanese student life. Young
adult manga graphic novel fans from non-Japanese countries seem to have
no issues identifying with or relating to the problems that plague manga’s
fictional Japanese adolescent characters. After all, many of the toils and
troubles that plague teenagers are universal and timeless. However, par-
ents and teachers who are interested in exploring how their children and
students relate manga works to their own lives must remain aware of the
culturally-specific contexts of these stories, and how those contexts inform
12 D. E. BERKOWITZ

the ways that Japanese authors define, depict, and discuss problems such
as classroom violence and bullying.

Problems
For many graphic novel scholars and publishers, the cross-cultural nature
of manga graphic novels reflects a central tenet of graphic novel publish-
ers’ contemporary marketing strategies: to provide “multi-cultural stories
by diverse creators for an ever-broadening audience” (Rouse 2020). In
many countries, the target demographics for graphic novels have steadily
become younger, more culturally diverse, and more interested in stories
that tackle difficult social issues such as bullying, racism, and divorce
(Smith 2019). For instance, the US comic book and graphic novel pub-
lishing industry—which has spent decades struggling to meet the needs of
its steadily aging consumer base—has been bolstered by the continued
success of Scholastic’s graphic novel division, whose multimillion copy
first print runs of new titles by young adult graphic novel superstars Raina
Telgemeier and Dav Pilkey contributed to 2018’s 11.7% increase in
graphic novel sales (Middaugh 2019; Salkowitz 2019). The following
year, US graphic novel sales increased once again, this time by over 16%
(MacDonald 2020). The majority of this growth has been attributed to
juvenile and young adult readers: although 2018 saw a 7.1% drop in sales
of adult-oriented graphic novels, this was easily made up for by a 56.2%
increase in sales of titles geared towards children and adolescents
(Middaugh 2019).
However, during a time when some educators and librarians have been
taking steps to capitalize on the increasing popularity of graphic novel lit-
erature (Carter 2007; Schwarz 2010), other educators’ enthusiasm
towards graphic novels—and in particular, novels of Japanese origin—has
been dampened by several prominent portrayals of young adult manga
within news media. For instance, Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata’s
supernatural young adult manga series Death Note—a recipient of several
young adult literature honors, including the Washington Young Adult
Review Group’s 2008 Evergreen Teen Book Award nomination (Caldwell
2008)—has repeatedly become connected in popular discourse with a
wave of school disciplinary actions involving students attempting to emu-
late the series’ murderous protagonist. Since 2007, at least a dozen stu-
dents across the United States were suspended, removed from school, or
arrested by police because of their possession of “Death Note” notebooks
 1 SCHOOL AS A SETTING IN YOUNG ADULT MANGA… 13

detailing the future violent deaths of classmates (Loo 2016). Although

perhaps sensationalistic, news reports such as these have caused educators
who were previously unfamiliar with Japanese manga graphic novels to
become increasingly concerned about the manner in which these works
depict school-related conflicts.
Yet, where some parents and educators see potential red flags, others
see the opportunity to open new pathways for pedagogical exploration. As
part of an ongoing movement to include discussions of popular culture
works in K-12 classrooms (Alvermann and Hagood 2000), many scholars
have advocated for the inclusion of entertainment media that students
already enjoy in order to make classroom lessons more relatable to stu-
dents’ everyday experiences (Hobbs 2010; Klosterman et al. 2012). Many
of these educators do not shy away from media depictions of problematic
topics: for instance, several health educators have proposed supplementing
existing health education curricula with television programs that depict
sexually transmitted diseases and sexual prophylactics, despite this sort of
content being frequently decried as inappropriate for teen and preteen
viewers (Pinkleton et al. 2008; Scull et al. 2014). In the past decade, sev-
eral educators have turned to graphic novels as a lens through which they
and their students can discuss complicated social issues such as power
dynamics, affirmative consent, and sexual violence (D’Angelo 2010;
Moorhouse and Brooks 2020). In this way, sensationalized young adult
media depictions of problematic topics such as classroom bullying and
violence can serve as a springboard for pedagogically fruitful explorations
of the issues and problems that young adults throughout the world find
most pertinent to their own adolescent lives.

Overview
This book provides a detailed exploration of young adult manga titles set
within K-12 academic contexts, drawn from the findings of a socio-­cultural
media frame analysis research study of how young adult manga graphic
novels frame and convey messages about bullying and violence between
K-12 students. The study investigates what the prevalence and nature of
these accounts might indicate about young adults’ pre-existing views and
beliefs about occurrences of violence and bullying within their own school
environments. Much can be gained from an analysis of the ways in which
young adult manga graphic novel titles tend to define, depict, and discuss
instances of in-school violence and bullying, as well as the ways in which
14 D. E. BERKOWITZ

fictional parents, teachers, and school administrators are typically charac-

terized by their responses to these troubling situations.
Chapter 2 describes the study’s goals and objectives. This discussion
includes an explanation of the study’s place within its broader field of
research, the particular pedagogical challenges that the study was designed
to address, and the socio-cultural lens through which the study’s data set
was analyzed and interpreted. Chapter 2 also describes the processes and
purposes of socio-cultural frame analysis and explains why it was chosen as
this study’s media research paradigm. The chapter concludes with a
description of the study’s methodology, including an explanation of how
the data set’s manga titles were chosen to be representative samples of
what contemporary young adult manga fans are currently reading.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 examine what the study uncovered about the ways
that bullying and violence are defined, depicted, and discussed within
young adult manga graphic novels. Chapter 3 focuses on the ways in
which the data set’s manga titles repeatedly described acts of bullying and
violence, including an analysis of how this bullying and violence was often
framed in terms of “perpetrators” and “intervention”. The chapter also
examines the extent to which particular issues related to in-school violence
had a tendency to be either highlighted or ignored by manga authors. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of the ways in which these patterns
may guide the pre-existing violence and bullying prevention practices of
in-service educators.
Chapter 4 focuses on the ways in which the data set’s manga titles had
a tendency to normalize violence and bullying within K-12 school set-
tings. The chapter provides an overview of manga titles set within schools
whose teachers and administrators were shown to tolerate, encourage, and
even expect their students to engage in patterns of violence and bullying.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of the ways in which parents,
teachers, and administrators might benefit from reflecting on the ways that
adult responses and faculty interventions in interpersonal classroom con-
flicts were framed throughout the data set.
Chapter 5 focuses on the ways in which the data set’s manga titles had
a tendency to frame violence and bullying within LGBTQ-inclusive
romantic contexts and situations. This chapter examines patterns of abuse
between pairs of students that were presented—either explicitly or implic-
itly—as love interests or romantic partners. The chapter also contains a
discussion of the ways in which manga works framed and modeled stu-
dents’ knowledge of, and responses to, their classmates’ in-school abusive
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Other documents randomly have
different content
Budchaz, Treaty of.
A treaty between Poland and Turkey, signed in 1670, by which Poland
surrendered the Ukraine, and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 20,000
ducats.

Bulgarian Atrocities.
A rising of the Mohammedan inhabitants of Bulgaria, assisted by the
Bashi-Bazouks, or Turkish Irregulars, against the Christians in 1876.
Thousands of Christians were massacred, and horrible cruelties perpetrated,
though it is held by some authorities that the stories told were grossly
exaggerated. Turkey refused redress, and Russia consequently declared war
in the following year.

Bulls, Papal.
See Adrian, Ausculta Fili, Clericis Laicos, Cum ex Apostolatus, Decet
Romanum, Demarcation, Deposition, Dominus ac Redemptor, Exsurge
Domine. Golden, Greater, In Coena Domini, In Eminenti, Ineffabilis Deus,
Inter Gravissimas, Lesser, Regimen Militantis, Unam Sanctam, Unigenitus,
Vox in Excelso.

Bundesrath.
The assembly of representatives of the twenty-two states forming the
North German Confederation.

Bundschuh.
A peasant revolt in Germany in 1502.

Burgage.
The tenure by which burgesses of towns held their lands. It was similar
to socage.

Burgfrieden.
 A confederation of the cities of the Rhine, formed for commercial
purposes, circ. 1255.

Burgher Senate.
A council of six members, established at the Cape in 1796, after the
capture of that Colony by the English. Its duties were to advise the
Governor in matters of internal administration. It was abolished in 1828.

Burgos, Laws of.

A code of laws regulating the employment of Indian labour in the
Spanish-American Colonies, promulgated at Burgos in 1572.

Burgundians.
See Armagnacs.

Burlaw.
See Jedburgh Justice.

Burning of Frendraught.
A feud between the Crichtons of Frendraught and the Gordons of Huntly
having been temporarily adjusted, the Gordons escorted the Crichtons
home. The Gordon party, including Lord Aboyne, Huntly’s heir, were
entertained for the night by the Crichtons, and during the night the tower in
which they were sleeping was burnt to the ground. The fire was believed to
be incendiary, but the crime was not brought home to the Crichtons.

Burnt Candlemas.
The name given to the march of Edward III into Scotland in 1355. He
burnt every building, and laid waste the country for a distance of twenty
miles from the coast.

Burr’s Conspiracy.
 A plot initiated by Aaron Burr and Harman Blennerhassett in 1805, to
free Mexico from Spanish rule, and unite it into an independent empire with
some of the Western American States. Burr was arrested and tried for
treason in Kentucky, and again in Virginia in 1807, but was on both
occasions acquitted.

Burschenschaft.
A club of German students who had fought in the Napoleonic wars,
founded at Jena in 1815. It was suspected of revolutionary tendencies, and
was dissolved by the Prussian Government in 1819.

Butcher, The.
The Duke of Cumberland was so called by the Scots, on account of his
cruelties after the battle of Culloden in 1746.

Bye Plot.
A conspiracy in 1603, under the leadership of George Brooke and
Markham, to unite the Roman Catholics and Puritans in an attempt to
secure toleration for the extremists of both classes. Their idea was to seize
James I, and hold him to ransom. At the same period a plot to overthrow
Cecil was entered into by Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Cobham, the Duke of
Northumberland and others, known as the Main Plot. These plots were
betrayed to Cecil by the Jesuits, one of whom named Watson had been
concerned in them, and the ringleaders were arrested. Watson and another
were executed, Raleigh imprisoned, and the others pardoned.

Bywoners.
Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State who had no land of their
own, and lived by working on the farms of others, or sometimes as small
tenant farmers.
C

Ça Ira.
A revolutionary song, highly popular in Paris, composed in 1789 for the
Fête de la Fédération.

Caaba.
The sacred shrine of Mecca, the holy place of the whole Moslem world.
A Mohammedan who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca is known as a
Hadji.

Cabal.
The Ministry which succeeded to power when Charles II dismissed
Clarendon in 1667. Its members were Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham,
Ashley (afterwards Lord Shaftesbury), and Lauderdale, the initials of these
names forming the word “Cabal.”

Cabal, American.
A low intrigue in the American Congress in 1777, directed against
Washington. Those concerned in it were mostly representatives of the
Northern States, and its object was the advancement of Lee. It is also
known as Conway’s cabal, from the name of its leader.

Cabanagem.
The rebels who overran the Amazon Valley and other parts of Brazil, in
1833 to 1836, after the abdication of Pedro I. The name means cottagers.

Cabinet Noir.
 A department of the French Post Office, established in the reign of Louis
XIV, for the surveillance of the correspondence of suspected persons.
Napoleon III availed himself of its services freely, and it was only abolished
in 1886.

Cabochiens.
The guild of butchers in Paris, so called from Caboche, one of their
leaders. They were bitter opponents of the Armagnacs, and were guilty of
terrible atrocities on the persons of their political foes. The corporation was
dissolved in 1416.

Cacos.
A political party in Guatemala in 1820, who favoured complete
separation from Spain, and the establishment of a republic. The word means
pickpockets.

Cadan, Treaty of.

A treaty between the leading German Princes, signed in 1534, by which
Ferdinand of Austria acknowledged Ulrich, Duke of Würtemberg, with the
proviso that Würtemberg was to be considered an arrière-fief of the Empire,
dependent on Austria. The League of Schmalkald acknowledged Ferdinand
as King of the Romans, but stipulated that in future that dignity should only
be conferred by the unanimous vote of the electors.

Caen, Treaty of.

A treaty between William Rufus and Robert of Normandy, signed in
1091, by which Robert renounced all claim to England, and recognized
William’s feudal rights over certain Norman Seigneuries, among others
those of Cherbourg, Fécamp, and Mont St. Michel.

Cahiers de Doléances.
The instructions given to the Deputies of the States-General, as to the
grievances to be laid before the King in 1789. The principal demands were:
equality in punishments; suppression of the sale of public offices;
suppression of seignorial judicial powers, of the Gabelle, the corvée and the
militia ballot; religious toleration, and amelioration of the condition of the
parish clergy.

Caisse de Poissy.
A species of bank, established at Poissy, near Paris, under municipal
control, to secure the proper provisioning of the Paris market. It proceeded
by way of loan to the butchers, charging interest on the advances and a
percentage on all meat purchased, and as none could enter the markets
without a certificate of the payment of this fee, it had absolute control of the
trade. It was abolished in 1791, re-established in 1810, under the control of
the Prefect of the Seine, and finally abolished in 1858.

Calatrava, Knights of.

A Spanish order of religious chivalry, established by Papal Bull in 1164.
The rules of the order were similar to those of the Benedictines, the knights
being bound, among other vows, to perpetual celibacy. The object of the
order was the expulsion of the Mussulman power from Spain.

Calendar Act.
An Act passed in 1751 substituting the Gregorian for the Julian
Calendar. With the exception of Sweden and Russia, England was the last
country to adopt the new style.

Calixtines.
The more moderate of the two sections into which the Hussite sect was
divided after the death of Jerome of Prague. The more fanatical section was
that of John Zisca, known as the Taborites.

Calvin, Institutes of.

The profession of the Calvinistic doctrine, issued by Calvin, 1535.

Camarilla.
 The name given to the favourites and admirers of Ferdinand VII of
Spain, after his restoration in 1814. They were in reality the rulers of Spain,
distributing justice and office throughout the kingdom to the highest bidder.

Cambray, League of.

An alliance between Louis XII and the Emperor Maximilian, formed in
1508, for the partition of the Venetian provinces between the contracting
parties. The Venetian armies were forced to retreat before the allies, but the
partition was never carried into effect, and the league was dissolved by the
Treaty of Noyon in 1516.

Cambray, Treaty of.

A treaty between Charles V and Francis I, signed in 1529, confirming the
main provisions of the Treaty of Madrid (1526), which had been found
unacceptable by the French notables. This treaty is generally known as the
Paix des Dames.

Camel-driver of Mecca.
A nickname of Mohammed.

Cameronians.
An extreme section of the Covenanters who followed Richard Cameron
in 1679. They were afterwards (1689) formed into a regiment, and served
against the Jacobites in the Highlands in that year. The regiment later
became the Twenty-sixth Regiment of the Line, and is now known as the
Cameronians (Scottish Rifles).

Camissards.
The Protestants of the Cevennes, who rose in rebellion in 1702. The
revolt was suppressed in 1704.

Camorra.
 A secret society in Naples, which for many years terrorized the kingdom.
An attempt was made by Francis II of Naples to suppress the society, and
many of its members were deported, but the remainder joined the
Garibaldians and were largely instrumental in the expulsion of the
Bourbons in 1867.

Campo Formio, Treaty of.

A treaty between France and Austria, following Napoleon’s successful
campaign in Northern Italy, signed in 1797. France secured possession of
the Belgian provinces, the left bank of the Rhine, and the Ionian Islands,
and recognized the Cisalpine Republic, formed out of the territories
conquered from Austria, Venice and the Pope. Austria resigned the city of
Venice, and her eastern provinces, Dalmatia, Friuli and Istria.

Canada Act.
An Act passed in 1774, giving a constitution to Canada.

Canada, Confederation of.

An Act was passed in 1867, for the purpose of confederating the two
provinces of Canada with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and providing
a federal constitution. Provision was also made for the admission into the
Dominion of such other of the North American Colonies as might desire to
come in. Under this clause Manitoba joined the confederation in 1870,
British Columbia and Vancouver’s Island in 1871, and Prince Edward’s
Island in 1873. The Hudson’s Bay Territory having been acquired in 1869,
the whole of the British possessions in North America are now included in
the Dominion, with the exception of Newfoundland.

Canadian Fisheries Question.

A long-standing dispute between Canada and the United States, dating
from the treaty of peace of 1783, when American fishermen were given
fishing rights on the coast of Canada. The Americans claimed that this right
was inalienable, England that it was forfeited during the second war. In
1818 a modus vivendi was arrived at by which the Americans were allowed
to fish outside the three mile limit, but friction still continued till 1871,
when a treaty was signed at Washington giving the two countries reciprocal
rights. Canada maintained that the right to fish off the American coast was
of little value to her, and in 1877 a commission was appointed, which met at
Halifax, to assess the damage she had sustained. The award of the
commission was that Canada and Newfoundland should receive five and a
half million dollars as compensation.

Canons of 1604.
The new canons, issued by Convocation in 1604, contained regulations
for the conduct of public worship. They excommunicated all who attacked
the Prayer Book, the Thirty-nine Articles, or the Supremacy of the Crown,
as also those who seceded from the Church. They were, however, held by
the Courts at Westminster to be binding only on the clergy.

Canons of 1640.
A series of seventeen canons, supplementary to the canons of 1604,
issued by Convocation, and confirmed by the King, under the Great Seal.
Parliament subsequently passed a measure giving them full canonical
validity, but not the force of an Act of Parliament.

Canossa.
The castle of Matilda of Tuscany, where Gregory VII was staying when
the Emperor Henry IV made a pilgrimage to Italy, in 1077, to make his
submission to the Pope, who had excommunicated him. He was treated in
the most humiliating fashion by Gregory, who left him for three days in the
snow in the courtyard of the Castle before consenting to receive him. It is to
this incident that Bismarck referred in the famous phrase, “Nach Canossa
gehen wir nicht” (We are not going to Canossa), uttered in the Reichstag in
1872, during the Kulturkampf.

Canossa Bill.
A bill introduced into the Prussian Landstag in 1880, making great
concessions to the Catholic clergy, but maintaining the supremacy of the
State over the Church.

Capitularies.
The edicts of the early French Kings were so called.

Capitulations.
Arrangements by which foreigners are subject to the jurisdiction of their
own consuls, and not to the tribunals of the country in which they are
residing. These are generally in force in Mohammedan and other non-
Christian states, where Western ideas of justice are non-existent.

Caporal Violet.
Napoleon was so called by his adherents in France, during his exile in
Elba in 1814-15.

Cappel, Treaty of.

A treaty between the five Catholic Cantons of Switzerland, and Zurich
and Berne, following the defeat of the two latter States at Cappel, and the
death of Zwingli, in 1531. Zurich and Berne consented to tolerate
Catholicism in their dominions.

Carbonari.
A Sicilian secret society, utilized by the Bourbons of Naples against
Murat. The name was afterwards adopted by the ultra-royalist secret
societies in France, which conspired against Louis XVIII in 1822.

Carlisle, Statute of.

A statute of 1307, enacting that no Papal instruments should be
permitted in England.

Carlists.
The supporters of Don Carlos and his branch of the Bourbon family, as
claimants to the Spanish throne. Don Carlos was the younger brother of
Ferdinand VII, and under the constitution of 1812 should have inherited the
throne, as the female succession was excluded. In 1832, however,
Ferdinand, who had already, by a decree which he subsequently withdrew,
readmitted the principle of female succession, finally settled the crown on
his daughter Isabella, who succeeded in the same year, with her mother,
Christina, as regent. Don Carlos was exiled, but various risings have since
taken place in support of his claims, chiefly in the Biscayan provinces,
including the first Carlist War, which lasted till 1840.

Carlowitz, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1699, by which Turkey finally surrendered the various
provinces of the Ottoman Empire conquered by the Allies during the wars
of the preceding forty years. Austria retained Transylvania, Sclavonia and
Hungary; Poland took Podolia and part of the Ukraine; Russia, her
conquests on the Black Sea, and Venice, the Morea.

Carlsbad, Congress of.

A congress of Austria, Prussia, and other German States, held in 1819, to
consider measures for dealing with the growth of democratic movement in
Germany. It issued the Carlsbad Decrees.

Carlsbad Decrees.
A series of proposals submitted to the German Diet by the Congress of
Carlsbad, and accepted by the Diet. They included the establishment of a
strict censorship of the press, and the suppression of the Burschenschaft.

Carmagnole.
The favourite song of the Paris mob, during the Reign of Terror (1792-
3.)

Carmelites.
A religious order, originally formed by associating the hermits living on
the slopes of Mount Carmel about 1156. They were recognized as a
monastic order by Honorius III, in 1224. They were driven out of Palestine
by the Saracens in 1238, and were made a mendicant order by Innocent IV.
in 1247.

Carolina, Proprietaries of.

The original landowners of Carolina, to whom the Colony was granted
by Charles II in 1643. They were eight in number, among whom were
Clarendon, Monk and Lord Craven. Their authority was practically
absolute, Charles exacting a bare allegiance to the English crown.

Caroline Islands Arbitration.

In 1885 Germany endeavoured to establish a protectorate over the
Caroline Islands, which Spain claimed to have been under her dominion
since the seventeenth century. Germany disputed this claim and occupied
Yap. Matters became very serious, and the two countries were on the verge
of war. It was, however, finally agreed to submit the question to the Pope,
who gave his award in favour of Spain, as to the sovereignty, but allowed to
Germany free trading and colonizing rights.

Caroline Ordinance.
A codification of the criminal laws of Germany, issued by the Diet of
Ratisbon, in the name of Charles V, in 1532.

Carpet-baggers.
Northerners who came into the Southern States after the Civil War, many
of them with the object of getting returned for Congress by the aid of the
negro vote. The name was intended to convey the idea that they had no
stake or interest in the country, beyond the baggage they carried with them.

Cartel System.
A system prevailing in Germany and Austria, by which a ring of sugar
manufacturers, aided by heavy import duties, combine to obtain very high
prices for all sugar consumed at home. They utilize the large profits thus
secured to ship the surplus sugar below cost price, thus securing for
themselves all unprotected markets.
Cartellpartie.
A party in the German Reichstag, formed in 1888, by a coalition of the
Conservatives and the old National Liberals, and pledged to support
Bismarck.

Carthage of the North.

Lübeck was so called when the head of the Hanseatic League.

Carthusians.
A monastic order, with very severe rules, founded by St. Bruno, during
the papacy of Urban II in 1086. The order was recognized by Alexander III
in 1176. Their most famous convent is that of La Grande Chartreuse, near
Grenoble. The Charterhouse, in London, was formerly one of their
monasteries.

Carucage.
A tax imposed by the early English Kings on every carucate or hundred
acres of land. It was first levied by Richard I in 1198, when the tax
amounted to five shillings on the carucate.

Cas Royaux.
All cases in which the sovereign and his interests were concerned were
so called in France. By the “Etablissements” of Louis IX, all such cases
were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of feudal courts, and could be decided
only by the Royal Bailiffs, or by the Parlement.

Casenbrotspel.
See Bread and Cheese War.

Casket Letters.
A series of letters and sonnets, purporting to be written by Mary Queen
of Scots to Bothwell, and left behind by him when he fled from Edinburgh
in 1567. If genuine, these letters undoubtedly prove Mary to have been
privy to the murder of Darnley.

Cassini Convention.
A secret treaty between Russia and China, supposed to have been signed
in 1896, by which Russia secured certain definite rights over Manchuria.
She has since made several attempts to replace this agreement by a public
treaty, but has been prevented by the opposition of the Powers. Russia’s
present position in Manchuria, therefore, is correct so far as China is
concerned, but has not been acknowledged by the other Powers.

Castle Council.
A council established in Dublin by Lord Wentworth in 1633.

Catamaran Expedition.
An unsuccessful attempt on the part of the British to burn Napoleon’s
flotilla in Boulogne harbour in 1804.

Câteau Cambrésis, Treaty of.

A treaty between Henry II of France and the Emperor, Charles V. Both
parties agreed to return the conquests made by them during the war of the
previous eight years, and bound themselves to maintain the Catholic faith
throughout their dominions.

Catégories de La Bourdonnaye.
A list of Imperialists whose proscription he advocated, drawn up by La
Bourdonnaye, in 1815. They were divided into three categories.

Catherine, Conspiracy of.

A conspiracy entered into by Catherine II of Russia, with the Orloffs and
Princess Dashkoff, to remove her husband, Peter III, and ascend the throne
as his successor. She succeeded in getting herself recognized by the nobles
as Catherine II, and in 1762 the conspirators, headed by one of the Orloffs,
strangled Peter III at a house near Peterhof.

Catholic Association.
An association formed by Daniel O’Connell in 1823, to press the claims
of the Irish Catholics upon Parliament. It held entirely aloof from all the
secret societies, and endeavoured to keep strictly with the limits of the law,
but in 1825 it had become so powerful that an Act was passed declaring it
an illegal association.

Catholic Emancipation Act.

An Act passed in 1829, substituting for the old formula, which included
abjuration, a new form of oath, and thus enabling Catholics to sit in either
House. It opened to them all offices under the state, except those of Regent,
Lord Chancellor, Viceroy of Ireland, and Royal Commissioner of the
General Assembly of Scotland. The Roman Catholic Church was to remain
a dissenting church, and restrictions were placed on the immigration of
members of the monastic orders, and especially of Jesuits, while the use of
ecclesiastical titles was forbidden.

Catholic League (France).

See League.

Catholic League (Germany.)

A league of the Catholic Princes of Germany, formed at Frankfort in
1651, to carry out the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia.

Catholic Relief Act.

An Act passed in 1793, admitting Catholics to the magistracy, grand
juries, and the franchise.

Catholic Rent.
 An unauthorized tax or cess levied upon Irish Catholics by O’Connell’s
Catholic Association in 1823, and afterwards. The funds thus obtained were
placed in O’Connell’s hands, to be used at his absolute discretion for
furthering the objects of the Association.

Cato Street Conspiracy.

A plot to murder the Ministers, during Lord Liverpool’s administration
in 1820, at a dinner which they were to attend at Lord Harrowby’s house.
The plot was discovered by a police agent named Edwards, who posed as
one of the conspirators, and Thistlewood, the ringleader, and four others
were executed.

Caucus.
A private meeting of members of a political party to decide upon the
adoption of candidates, or the platform of the party. The name is of
American origin.

Cautionary Towns.
The Dutch towns of Flushing, Walcheren, Rammerkins and Briel, which
were handed over to Elizabeth in 1585, to be held as security for the
payment of the English troops in the Netherlands. They were restored to
Holland by James I.

Cavalier Parliament.
See Pensioned Parliament.

Cavaliers.
The supporters of Charles I against the Parliament. The name was first
applied to them in the course of the frequent disturbances which arose in
London between the King’s party and the City party, the “Roundheads,” in
1641.

Cave.
 See Adullamites.

Cawnpore, Massacre of.

The massacre by Nana Sahib of the English Garrison in Cawnpore,
during the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The garrison had surrendered under a
pledge of being permitted to retire unharmed. Of those massacred, 560 were
women and children.

Cecil’s Fast.
The name given to an Act passed by Cecil, Lord Burleigh, after the
Reformation, enjoining the eating of fish on certain days. Fish had almost
ceased to be an article of diet in England, as it was looked upon as a badge
of Romanism.

Cent Jours.
See Hundred Days.

Centralists.
A party in Mexico, who support the centralized republican government,
and are opposed to undue extension of the autonomy of the various states.
The party came into existence about 1823.

Centralists.
A party in Switzerland in 1800, who supported the Helvetic Constitution,
which established a uniform republican government, and abolished the old
cantonal liberties.

Centennial State.
Colorado is so called, as having been admitted a State in 1876, the year
of the centenary of the Union.

Centro-Americana, Confederacion.
 A league of Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador, formed in 1842, with
the object of uniting the Central American States into a federal republic.
Guatemala opposed the scheme and it fell to the ground.

Centrumsfraction.
The Centre, or Clerical, party in the first German Reichstag in 1871,
under the leadership of Dr. Windhorst. They were strong supporters of the
Papal claims in the subsequent Kulturkampf.

Centum Gravamina.
The list of grievances and charges against the Roman Catholic clergy,
drawn up by the Diet of Nuremburg in 1523.

Ceorl.
In Saxon times, a freeman owning his own land, and independent of any
overlord.

Chambre Ardente.
A court, specially composed of bigoted Catholics, established by Henri
II in 1551, for the trial of heretics.

Chambre Introuvable.
The French Assembly elected in 1815, and dissolved in the following
year, was so named by Louis XVIII.

Champ de Mars.
The annual meetings of the Franks for military purposes during the early
times were held during the month of March. At a later period the month of
meeting appears to have been altered to May, when the assembly was called
a Champ de Mai. The great parade-ground in Paris is known as the Champ
de Mars.

Chaperons Blancs.
 The White Capes, the popular party in Ghent in 1379, under the
leadership of Jan Yoens.

Chapter of Mitton.
The name given by the Scots to the defeat of the Archbishop of York’s
forces at Mitton, in 1319, by a Scottish invading army. It was so called on
account of the number of ecclesiastics in the Archbishop’s army.

Charte La.
The charter issued by Louis XVIII on ascending the French throne in
1814. He proclaimed the equality of all Frenchmen before the law, liberty
of opinion and liberty of the press, and confirmed the inviolability of all
property sold by the state. He established an hereditary peerage, and fixed,
as the qualification for electors to the Chamber of Deputies, the payment of
direct taxes amounting to 300 francs per annum.

Charter of 1826.
A constitution promulgated by Pedro IV of Portugal, on the model of the
English Parliamentary system.

Charters.
See Acte Additionel, Aragon, Confirmatio, First, Forests, Fuero, Groote
Privilegie, Irish, Joyeuse Entrée, Justice, Maryland, Magna, Massachusetts,
People’s, Pfaffenbrief, Priests’, Virginia.

Chartism.
An agitation which broke out in 1837 and culminated in the Chartist
riots of 1839. It was probably due to the declaration by the Liberal party
that they were satisfied with the results of the Reform Bill of 1832, and did
not intend to press for further reform in this direction. The movement takes
its name from the “People’s Charter,” a manifesto setting forth the aims of
the agitators. This Charter demanded manhood suffrage, annual
Parliaments, the ballot, abolition of the property qualification for a member
of Parliament, payment of members, and equal electoral districts. The most
prominent Chartists were Feargus O’Connor, Frost, and Williams.

Chartres, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1299, by Edward I of England and Philip IV of
France, after Edward’s abortive Flemish expedition. England recovered
Guienne, and undertook to give up the Flemish alliance, while France
renounced the alliance with Scotland.

Chastisement of Novgorod.
The massacre, by Ivan the Terrible, of over 1,500 prominent citizens of
Novgorod, owing to his suspecting the aristocracy of the city of a design to
open the gates to the Poles.

Châteaubriand, Edict of.

An edict issued by Henri III, enacting severe measures against heresy.
Among its provisions was one forbidding all argument on religious matters,
and another confiscating the property of any person who went to Geneva.
This edict also established the Chambre Ardente.

Châtillon, Congress of.

A congress opened at Châtillon on February 5, 1814, to treat with
Napoleon as sovereign of France. The allies, however, found his demands
impossible, and before the Congress was dissolved, the Treaty of Chaumont
had been signed, by which Napoleon lost all chance of obtaining the terms
that the allies were at first prepared to grant.

Chauffeurs.
Bands of brigands, who in 1793 infested the northern and afterwards the
central departments of France. They took their name from their habit of
roasting the feet of their victims, to force them to disclose the whereabouts
of their valuables.
Chaumont, Treaty of.
A treaty signed by England, Austria, Russia and Prussia, in March, 1814,
after the allies had entered France. The signatories bound themselves for
twenty years to unite in resisting the designs of France. Each of the
contracting parties was to provide 150,000 men, and England in addition a
subsidy of £5,000,000. It was the knowledge of the signature of this treaty
which induced Joseph, in Napoleon’s absence, to order the Marshals to
capitulate, and the army to leave Paris, thus entailing the abdication of the
Emperor.

Chauvinism.
Originally an unreasoning admiration for Napoleon, the name being
taken from Chauvin, a character in Scribe’s “Le Soldat Laboureur.” At the
present time, the word has lost its dynastic significance, and is used to
express a perfervid patriotism, somewhat corresponding to the English
Jingoism.

Chefoo Convention.
A convention between Great Britain and China, negotiated by Sir
Thomas Wade in 1876, by which China recognized the right of foreigners to
travel in the interior, and to be duly protected while so doing.

Chester, County Palatine of.

A County Palatine, established by William the Conqueror, who bestowed
it on his nephew, Hugh Lupus. The earldom was seized by Henry III in
1237, and has since been an appanage of the crown.

Chevalier Sans Peur et sans Reproche.

Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de Bayard (1476-1524), is called by his
biographer “the fearless and stainless knight.”

Chevaliers du Poignard.
 A band of royalists, who, armed with daggers and hunting knives,
assembled at the Tuileries on February 28, 1791. They were dispersed and
disarmed by Lafayette, and being charged with a conspiracy to carry off the
king, maintained that they were assembled only for his protection.

Chiltern Hundreds.
The Hundreds of Bodenham, Desborough, and Stoke, in
Buckinghamshire, the stewardship of which is a sinecure, in the gift of the
crown, originally established to keep down the bands of robbers which
infested the Chiltern Hills. It is now used as a means of enabling a member
of Parliament to vacate his seat, as by accepting the office he becomes
disqualified for a seat in Parliament, unless re-elected.

Chimney Money.
See Hearth Money.

Chinandega, Pacto de.

A name given to the Confederacion Centro-Americana, which was
formed at Chinandega in 1842, with the object of uniting the Central
American States.

Chinese Gordon.
The sobriquet of General Charles Gordon, the conqueror of the Taepings.

Chônin.
In old Japan the wardsmen or trading class, the lowest in rank of the four
Japanese classes.

Chouans.
The royalist party in La Vendée and other parts of Brittany, who held out
against the revolutionary armies until 1779. Among their most celebrated
leaders were Larochejaquelin and Cadoudal.
Chouiski.
See Belski.

Christ, Order of.

A Portuguese order of knighthood, founded circ. 1318.

Christian Alliance.
An offensive and defensive alliance entered into in 1529 by Austria and
the Canton of Zurich. It was also known as the Treaty of Ferdinand.

Christinos.
The Spanish party supporting the Regency of Queen Christina in 1833,
in opposition to the Carlists.

Chupatties.
Small cakes of unleavened bread, which were sent through the villages
of British India just before the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny in 1857. It is
supposed that they were a signal to prepare for a rising, though other
explanations have been given of their meaning.

Cicero, The British.

A sobriquet of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (1708-1778).

Cid, The.
Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, a celebrated Spanish chieftain, in the reigns of
Ferdinand I, Sancho II, and Alfonso VI, was known as the Cid Campeador,
or Campaigning Chief. He died in 1099.

Ci-devants.
The name given during the French Revolution to those who, owing to
the abolition of all titles of honour, were no longer known by their titles, but
by their family names. Thus Marie Antoinette was brought to trial as the
“Widow Capet.”

Cincinnatus, The American.

A sobriquet of George Washington.

Cinq-Mars, Conspiracy of.

A conspiracy directed against Richelieu, the leaders of which were Cinq-
Mars, the favourite of Louis XIII, the Duc d’Orléans and De Thou. An
arrangement was made with Spain, by which she was to support the
conspirators with men and money. This agreement was discovered by
Richelieu in 1642, and Cinq-Mars and De Thou were arrested and executed.

Cinque Cento.
The sixteenth century, the later period of the Italian Renaissance.

Cinque Ports.
These were originally Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich,
to which were afterwards added Rye and Winchilsea. They were
incorporated at a very early, though uncertain date, to provide and man
ships for the defence of the Channel, and in return enjoyed certain
privileges, judicial and other. Their earliest known charter was granted by
Edward I, but they were summoned to send Barons to Parliament by Henry
III in 1265, there is no doubt that they were incorporated in some form at a
considerably earlier period. Their privileges were finally abolished by the
Municipal Corporations Act in 1835.

Cintra, Convention of.

A convention signed by Junot and Sir Hew Dalrymple in 1808, after the
defeat of the French at Vimeira. It permitted Junot to evacuate Portugal,
England providing transport, with liberty to him and his troops to serve
elsewhere. The convention caused great indignation in England, and led to
the recall of the three English generals, Dalrymple, Burrard, and Wellesley.
Circe of the Revolution.
Madame Roland was so called from the influence exercised by her
fascinating manner over the leaders of the French Revolution, and
especially over the Girondins.

Circumspecte Agatis, Statute.

A statute of Edward I, issued in 1205, to put a stop to the pretensions of
the ecclesiastical courts, which were gradually encroaching more and more
upon the functions of the civil courts.

Cisalpine Republic.
A republic formed by Napoleon out of the provinces conquered by him
in Northern Italy in 1796-1797.

Cispadane Republic.
A republic, with Bologna for its capital, established by Napoleon in Italy
in 1797.

Civil Marriage Bill.

A Bill introduced into the Hungarian Diet in 1893, by Dr. Wekerle. It
made civil marriage compulsory, permitted marriage with a deceased wife’s
sister, and made sundry changes in the divorce laws in the direction of
greater freedom. It was violently opposed by the Catholics, and only passed
the Upper House through the personal interposition of the King Emperor.

Civil Rights Act.

An Act of Congress, passed in 1875, conferring equal rights on all
citizens, black or white, in the matter of public conveyances, inns, places of
amusement and jury service.

Claim of Right.
A declaration by the Scottish Convention of 1689, accompanying the
offer of the crown to William III. It was similar in character to the
Declaration of Rights of the English Parliament, but in addition it
proclaimed the abolition of the Episcopacy.

Claimant, The.
Thomas Castro, alias Arthur Orton, a butcher of Wagga-Wagga, New
South Wales, who in 1871 brought an action with intent to prove that he
was Sir Roger Tichbourne, the rightful owner of the Tichbourne estates in
Hampshire. His case broke down, after a long trial, and in 1874 he was
convicted of perjury and sentenced to fourteen years’ penal servitude.

Clair-on-Epte, Treaty of.

A treaty between Charles the Simple of France, and the Northmen under
Rolf the Ganger, in 912. In order to obtain immunity from the Viking raids,
Charles ceded to the Northmen the coast of Normandy.

Clan Act.
An Act passed in 1715, providing (1) that if a feudal chief rebelled, all
his vassals who remained loyal should in future hold direct from the crown.
(2) That a loyal tenant whose landlord was convicted of treason should have
two years gratuitous possession added to his lease. (3) That the lands of a
disloyal tenant should revert to his chief if loyal. (4) That settlements of
estates after August 1, 1714, should be no bar to their forfeiture for high
treason.

Clan Chattan and Clan Quhele.

A combat between thirty picked men of each of these clans was fought at
Perth in 1396. It is supposed to have been for the purpose of deciding a
dispute as to the chieftainship of the Clan Chattan.

Clan-na-Gael.
An Irish secret society, an offshoot of the Fenians, formed in 1881. It
was composed of the extreme physical force men among the Fenians, and
was also known as the United Brotherhood.
Clarendon Code.
The name given to the four Acts composing the repressive ecclesiastical
legislation of Clarendon, in the reign of Charles II, namely the Corporation,
Uniformity, Conventicle, and Five Mile Acts.

Clarendon, Council of.

See Constitutions of Clarendon.

Classes, Act of.

An Act of the Scots Parliament, passed in 1649, disqualifying from
public office and seats in Parliament, all Malignants, enemies of the
Covenant, Engagers, etc.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.
A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1850,
providing for the construction of a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. It was stipulated that in the event of such canal being constructed,
neither party should erect fortifications on the line of the canal, nor assume
any sovereign rights over any portion of Central America. The United States
afterwards repudiated the treaty, and it is now superseded by the Hay-
Pauncefote Treaty.

Clean the Causeway.

The name given to a brawl in the streets of Edinburgh in 1519, in which
the Douglas faction were attacked by the supporters of the Government.
The Douglasses swept their opponents from the streets, killing their leader,
Sir Patrick Stuart.

Cleargrits.
The extreme democratic party in Canada in 1850 were so called. They
were in favour of secession from England and annexation to the United
States.
Clemency Canning.
A nickname given to Lord Canning, Governor-General of India, in
consequence of what many considered his undue leniency in the treatment
of the rebels, after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny in 1858.

Clementine League.
See Holy League.

Clergy of France, Declaration of the.

A manifesto issued by Bossuet in 1682, declaring that the Pope had no
power in France in temporal affairs, and that his spiritual authority was
subject to that of a General Council, as proclaimed by the Council of
Constance; that the constitution of the Gallican Church was not to be
subverted, and that, in questions of faith, the Pope’s opinion was not
binding unless supported by the Church. This declaration was, by Royal
Edict given the force of law.

Clericis Laicos, Bull of.

A Bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII in 1296, forbidding the clergy to
pay tribute to a temporal sovereign. The result of this Bull in England was
that the clergy refused to pay taxes. They were consequently outlawed, and
much church property was confiscated by Edward I.

Clermont, Council of.

A Council summoned by Urban II in 1095, at which the Pope proclaimed
the duty of Christians to free the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of
Saracens. At the Council Godefroi de Bouillon and other notable
personages assumed the red cross, and the First Crusade followed.

Clicquot, King.
The nickname by which Frederick William IV of Prussia was known in
England.
Clontarf Meeting.
The name given to an incident which marked the collapse of O’Connell’s
Repeal agitation. A monster meeting was fixed to be held at Clontarf on
October 8, 1843. The Government proclaimed the meeting, and O’Connell
did his best to prevent the peasants assembling. In this he was successful,
but the proof that he did not mean under any circumstances to resort to
strong measures was the death blow to his movement.

Clouds, Battle above the.

The name given to the attack on Lookout Mountain by the Federal
troops at the battle of Chattanooga in 1863, during the American Civil War.
They advanced to the attack through a heavy mist, and the battle was fought
in a clear atmosphere, with the fog below.

Closter Seven, Convention of.

A convention, signed in July, 1757, between the French and the Duke of
Cumberland, who had advanced to the Weser in command of an English
force, and had been driven back by a French army, under D’Estrées, to the
mouth of the Elbe. The Duke agreed to disband his army.

Club, The.
A section of the Whig party in Scotland, who, at the accession of
William and Mary, advocated extreme views as to the limitations to be set
to the power of the king. Notwithstanding their opinions, they did not
hesitate to ally themselves with the Jacobites in their opposition to William.

Club Parliament.
The Parliament of 1346, so called because the Barons attended it
accompanied by their retainers armed with clubs. It is also called the
Parliament of Bats (or Batons.)

Clubmen.
 The name assumed by bands of peasants who, in 1644, assembled in
various parts of England, but especially in the West, to protect their lands
from the ravages of the civil war. They sided with neither party, but
attacked both impartially when their property was threatened.

Coalition Ministry.
A Ministry formed under Lord Aberdeen in 1853, composed of Liberals
and Peelites, and including among its members, Lord John Russell, Lord
Palmerston and Mr. Gladstone.

Cockburn’s Act.
The Betting Act, passed in 1853, is so called after its introducer, Sir
Alexander Cockburn. It did away with betting houses, and rendered the
exhibition of betting lists illegal. In 1874 the Act was extended to Scotland.

Cockerton Judgment.
A judgment in the Court of Queen’s Bench in the case of Regina v.
Cockerton. Mr. Cockerton, the auditor of the Local Government Board, had
surcharged certain expenditure of the London School Board, and the
correctness of his action being called in question, the court held that it was
illegal to make a payment out of the rates (1) for advanced instruction in art
and science in elementary day schools, (2) for any instruction to adults at
evening continuation classes.

Cockpit of Europe.
The name given to Belgium on account of the numerous important
battles which have been fought there.

Code Napoleon.
The Code of Law issued by Napoleon in 1803. It was based on the old
French law, with such alterations as had been rendered necessary by the
Revolution, and certain new provisions, introduced by Napoleon, notably
those relating to the law of succession and to the marriage law. For the
purpose of this codification, which remains the law of France, he called to
his councils the most eminent French lawyers, irrespective of party, among
others Tronchet, Cambacérès, Portalis and Roederer.

Codes.
Allgemeines Landrecht, Brehon, Bretts and Scots, Burgos, Caroline
Ordinance, Clarendon, Consolato, Doom-Book, Etablissements, Frédéric,
Frostathing, Fuero Juzgo, Grágás, Gulathing, Jus Magdeburgicum, Jutland,
Landrecht, Louis, Libro de Tasas, Lübeck, Ludlow, Martian, Mulmutine,
Noir, Oleron, Recess of Colding, Regiani Majestatem, Savary, Siete
Partidas, Thirty-three Articles, Wisbuy, Wisliza.

Codini.
The Pigtail Party, a name given by the supporters of the House of Savoy
to the Papal party in Rome, the suggestion being that they are behind the
times.

Coercion Act.
An Act of Parliament passed in 1833, giving the Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland power to prohibit any meeting of whatever nature which he
regarded as dangerous to the peace, and to declare any district to be in a
disturbed state. The bill gave the right to search for arms and suspended the
Habeas Corpus Act in the proclaimed districts, substituting martial law for
the regular tribunals.

Cœur de Lion.
The sobriquet of Richard I of England.

Cognac, League of.

See Holy League.

Collectivism.
A form of socialism, the leading tenet of which is that capital and the
means of production should be in the hands of associations of workers, and
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