Earth Science

Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

Outline:
1. Minerals
a. Mineral Properties
b. Mineral Groups
2. Rocks
a. Rock Classification
b. Rock Cycle

Learning Objectives:
After completing the module, the students should be able to:
 demonstrate understanding about physical and chemical properties of minerals and will be able to
identify certain minerals using specific tests;
 identify some common rock-forming minerals;
 identify and describe the three basic rock types;
 establish relationships between rock types and their mode of origin and environments of
deposition/formation; and
 understand the different geologic processes involved in rock formation.

MINERALS AND ROCKS

Mineral is a naturally occurring (not man-made or machine generated), inorganic (not a by-
product of living things), solid with an orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.
Minerals are the basic building blocks of rocks such as salt (halite), graphite, diamond, and gold.
MINERAL PROPERTIES

1. Luster
- It is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky,
pearly,dull (earthy), greasy, among others.
2. Hardness
- It is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion.

The Mohs Scale of Hardness Friedrich Mohs in 1812 measures the scratch resistance of
various minerals from a scale of 1 to 10, based on the ability of a harder material/mineral to
scratch a softer one.

Figure 1.Mohs Scale of Hardness

Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-Mineral/step3/Hardness/ (8/30/2015)
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

3. Color and streak

a. Color maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals. A lot of minerals can
exhibit same or similar colors. Individual minerals can also display a variety of
colors resulting from impurities and also from some geologic processes like
weathering.
Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz),
purple (amethyst),
orange (citrine),
white (colorless quartz)

b. Streak on the other hand, is the mineral’s color in powdered form. It is inherent in
almost every mineral, and is a more diagnostic property compared to color. Note that
the color of a mineral can be different from its streak.
Examples of streak:
1. Pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but has a black or dark gray streak.
2. Hematite (Fe2O3).

Figure 1.Color vs streak of a hematite (Fe2O3).

Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-Mineral/step6/Streak/ (8/30/2015)

4. Crystal Form/Habit
◦ The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal
(mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage
or fracture. The crystal forms also define the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension
which are its length, width and height.

Examples : prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and equant.

◦ A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous.

Figure 2.Crystal form / habit.

Source: http://www.slideshare.net/davidprestidge/earth-lecture-slide-chapterfive
page 46 of 74 (8/30/2015)

5. Cleavage – the property of some minerals to break along specific planes of weakness to
form smooth, flat surfaces.
◦ Cleavage is the weak plane that developed after the crystal is formed. These planes exist
because the bonding of atoms making up the mineral happens to be weak in those
areas.
◦ Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct, unrelated properties. Although both
are dictated by crystal structure, a crystal habit form as the mineral is growing, relying on
how the individual atoms in the crystal come together.
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

6. Fracture
- Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and
non-planar. Quartz for example has an inherent weakness in the crystal structure that is not
planar. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others.

7. Specific Gravity
- The ratio of the density of the mineral and the density of water
- This parameter indicates how ma ny times more the mineral weighs compared to an equal
amount of water (SG 1). For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times more
than a bucket of water.

8. Others
- There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their identification (e.g.
magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.). Magnetite is strongly magnetic;
sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in
powdered form.

Example: magnetite is strongly magnetic

sulfur has distinctive smell
halite is salty
calcite fizzes with acid
MINERAL GROUPS

The most stable and least ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is based on their
chemical compositions.

Figure 3. Mineral Groups

1. Silicates
◦ Are minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely,
silicon and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen
tetrahedron – the fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
◦ Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.
◦ Aside from Si (46.6 % by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common elements that make
the earth’s crust are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1), Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
Ex. olivine, quartz

2. Oxides - They are minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more
metal ions. Ex. magnetite, hematite

2. Sulfates - Sulfates are minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4)- anion.
Ex. Gypsum
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

3. Sulfides - Are minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of
economically important metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.

4. Carbonates - Carbonates are minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion combined
with other elements

5. Native Elements - Are minerals that form as individual elements.

a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity,
typically with metallic luster, low hardness EX. (gold, lead, copper)
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity. Ex. (arsenic, bismuth)
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive Ex. (sulfur, diamond)

7. Halides - Halides are minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more
metals.

ROCKS CLASSIFICATION
Rocks are natural substances consisting of aggregate minerals clumped together with other
minerals through natural processes. They are like other minerals are a product of a natural cyclic
process.
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous Rocks - Rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten rock material
(magma or lava).
- Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth while
lava is a molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through
volcanic or fissure eruptions.
- Molten rock material can solidify :
a.below the surface of the earth (plutonic igneous rocks/intrusive
ignoeus rocks) or
b.at the surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks/extrusive igneous
rocks).
- Minerals are formed during the crystallization of the magma.
- Note that the rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that
control crystal size and the texture of the rock in general.

Figure 4. Lava and Magma

2. Sedimentary - These are rocks that formed through the accumulation, compaction,
Rocks and cementation of sediments.
- They generally form at surface or near surface conditions.
- Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include:
1. weathering of rocks,
2. sediment transport and deposition,
3. Compaction, and
4. Cementation
 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

- Factors in sedimentary processes: weathering and transport agents

(water, wind ice).
- Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in
rocks
Two Types:
1. Non-clastic / Chemical/Biochemical
evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic
matter. They are classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and
dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and bioclastics (coal,
coquina).The chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic
rocks.

Figure 5. Non-clastic rocks

2. Clastic/terrigenous
- grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks.Clastic
rocks are commonly classified based on particle size.
- Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have
undergone some stages in the sedimentary processes could be
classified as sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic rocks).
- The presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is
indicative of sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of
processes happening in different sedimentary environments.
- Table below shows the different clastic rocks.

Figure 6. Clastic Rocks

 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

3. Metamorphic - Are rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks
Rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the process of
metamorphism.
- Metamorphism can involve changes in the physical and chemical
properties of rocks in response to heat, pressure, and chemically active
fluids.
- They are commonly formed underneath the earth through
metamorphism

Two Kinds

1.Contact metamorphism
◦ Heat as the main factor: occurs when a pre-existing rocks get in
contact with a heat source (magma)
◦ Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of intruding
magma
◦ Creates non-foliated (crystals arranged in random manner)
metamorphic rocks (e.g. hornfels)

2.Regional metamorphism
◦ Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone
deformation during orogenic event resulting in mountain belts
◦ Occurs in a regional/large scale
◦ Creates foliated (crystals aligned in layers) metamorphic rocks such
as schist and gneiss
◦ Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru regional
metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from the main
geologic event.
◦ Below is a table of the different common metamorphic rocks.

Figure 7. Different Common Metamorphic rocks

 Earth Science
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; Science, Technology, Engineering and,
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268
Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Mathematics
MODULE II GRADE 11

THE ROCK CYCLE

- Rock cycle is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks are formed, modified,
transported, decomposed, melted and reformed.
- It is also defined as constant recycling of minerals and it illustrates how geologic processes
occurring both underneath and on the Earth’s surface that changes a rock from one type to
another.

Figure 9.The Rock Cycle

Source: http://rockcycle8.wikispaces.com/rock+cycle

Reference Material/s:
Leopoldo de Silva, Ph.D. (2016)Teaching Guide for Senior High School Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,C.P.
Garcia Ave., Diliman, Quezon City

Gheoeiochta, S(2020) Geological Survey: The Rock Cycle.Ireland.Retreived from:

http://rockcycle8.wikispaces.com/rock+cycle