AKSUM UNIVERSITY

Aksum Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Department of Electronic Communication Engineering
Host Company:Mekelle Ethio Telecom, North Region

INTERNISHIP REPORT

NO STUDENT NAME ID NUMBER

1 Gebrehiwot Hiluf AKU1101941

2 Meron Kahsay AKU1102375

3 Kiros Seyfu AKU1101915

Advisor name Mr. Yonas Desta (M.Sc.)

Submission date:
Mekelle, Ethiopia 2017 E.C
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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the internship report is prepared and completed by us under the supervision and
guidance of Ethio Telecom offices. We, students Axum University Institute of technology studying
Electrical and Computer engineering, Electronics and Communication stream, are declaring that this
report describes our three month training span in North Region Ethio telecom. We had stayed on operation
and maintenance department from October, 2024 to January, 2025. We hereby confirm that all the source
materials used while writing this report are referenced and acknowledged properly by our signatures

Name of Student Signature Date

1. Gebrehiwot hiluf ……… ___________ ___//____//_____

2. Meron kahsay……….….___________ ___//____//_____
3. kiros seyfu........ ____________ ___//____//_____

Advisor’s approval

As internee advisor, I hereby certify that I have read, evaluated and checked that this report is compiled
according to the format given by the faculty.

Advisor Name Signature Date

1. Mr.Yonas Desta(Msc)…………… __________ ___//_____//_____i

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Abstract
This report introduces several new concepts and terms that will be used through the
internship program and practical application of Electrical & computer Engineering. And
this Internship program is mainly concerned in communication & networking
Engineering to create productive, skilled and knowledgeable generation. This report is an
outcome of the practice we conduct during our internship period at Ethio telecom of
Mekelle. This brings to us a great opportunity to realize our theoretical knowledge by
practical works, which we gained for the last four years of study in Axum University.

This report is organized in to two the first part describes the report which includes
describing briefly the back ground of ethio-telecom (including its history, objective,
vision, mission), describing the overall internship experience we had gained during the
practical periods & the second part is the project that we are currently working on it.

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Acknowledgement
Above all, we want to express our gratitude to our family for supporting us emotionally and financially
throughout this program. Additionally, we would like to thank our department for providing us with this
internship program in order to broaden our knowledge and practical experience. Furthermore, we would
like to thank Ethio Telecom Mekelle for letting us finish our internship there. The following, however,
deserves special attention. We want to start by expressing our gratitude to everyone at the Ethio Telecom
who has supported and assisted us throughout our time there. Throughout the entire process of getting
ready for the internship program, their critical criticism, suggestions, and encouragement were of great
help to us.
A special thanks to our supervisor, MR kahsay introduce us with stuff members & Eng. zelalem from the
RAN subsection, whose wealth of experience and knowledge made our time at the company truly
meaningful. We are also profoundly thankful to Eng. kedir from the transmission department and Eng.
ambessa from the RAN subsection, for letting us unlimited opportunities to inquire, observe and freely
discuss on every system and network equipment’s.
Lastly, we extend our deepest gratitude to our advisor, Ins. Yonas (MSC), for his guidance, insightful
corrections, and diligent follow-ups on our documents. his support and attention to detail were
instrumental in our success.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................................................................... i

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................................... ii

Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................................................................. iii

List of figures ......................................................................................................................................................................... vii
List of tables ......................................................................................................................................................................... viii
ACRONYM............................................................................................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY ................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 VISION, MISSION, VALUES AND OBJECTIVES OF ETHIO TELECOM .................................................................................... 3
1.3.3. Value ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.4. Objective................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.5 SERVICES AND PRODUCTS ................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.5.1. Mobile service .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.5.2. Fixed line service ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5.3. Internet service......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 CUSTOMERS OF ETHIO TELECOM ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1 .7 ETHIO TELECOM KEY STAKEHOLDERS............................................................................................................................... 8
1 .8 WORK FLOW NORTH REGION ETHIO TELECOM ............................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................................................... 10

2. Overall Internship Experience ........................................................................................................................................ 10

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INTERNSHIP..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1. General objectives .................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.2. Specific objectives .................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.2 HOW DID WE GET INTO THE INTERNSHIP HOSTING COMPANY? .................................................................................... 10
2.3 WORK SECTIONS ............................................................................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1 Workflow of RAN section ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.4.3 Workflow of IP backbone ........................................................................................................................................ 12
2.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION .......................................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Radio waves: ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
2.4.2 Micro waves: ........................................................................................................................................................... 13

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2.4.3 Infrared waves: IR .................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.5 RADIO ACCESS NETWORK (RAN) ................................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 GSM ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................................................................ 16
2.8 TRANSMISSION SECTION ................................................................................................................................................. 53
2.8.1 Overview of Transmission bearer network ............................................................................................................. 53
2.8.2 Wavelength division multiplexing ........................................................................................................................... 54
2.8.3 Transmission Medias ............................................................................................................................................... 55
2.9 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 59
2.9.1 Optix RTN 900 series ............................................................................................................................................... 60
2.10 Challenges we have faced while performing our work task .......................................................................................... 62
2.11 Measures taken to overcome challenges we encountered ........................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................................................. 64

Analyzing Performance of Rectangular Planar Array Antenna ........................................................................................... 64

Summary of Project ........................................................................................................................................................... 64

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 65
3.2 Statement of problem ..................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.3 Objective of the project ................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.3.1 General Objective .................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.4 Significance of the Project ............................................................................................................................................... 66
3.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project ................................................................................................................................ 67
3.5.1 Scope of the Project ................................................................................................................................................ 67
3.5.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................................... 67
3.6 Literature Reviews ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
3.7 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 68
3.7.1 Methods .................................................................................................................................................................. 68
3.7.2 Fundamental Parameters of Antenna ..................................................................................................................... 68
3.7.3 System Model .......................................................................................................................................................... 70
3.7.4 Planar Array Beam forming ..................................................................................................................................... 71
3.7.6 Gain and Element Factor of Planar Arrays............................................................................................................... 71
3.7.6 Array Factor ............................................................................................................................................................. 73
3.7.7 Grating Lobe Issues for Planar Arrays ...................................................................................................................... 76
3.7.8 The beam width of a planar array ........................................................................................................................... 76
3.7.10 Result, Discussion, and Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 79

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................................................. 85

4. Overall Benefits Gained from the Internship ..................................................................................................................... 85
4.1 Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge .................................................................................................................................. 85
4.2 Improving Practical Skills ................................................................................................................................................. 86

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4.3 In terms of Industrial Problem-Solving Capability ........................................................................................................... 86
4.4 In terms of Improving Interpersonal Communication and Teamwork Skills .................................................................... 86
4.5 Improving Leadership Skills ............................................................................................................................................. 86
4.6 Understanding Work Ethics-Related Issues ..................................................................................................................... 87
4.7 In terms of Entrepreneurship Skills .................................................................................................................................. 87

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................................................... 88

Conclusion and Recommendation ......................................................................................................................................... 88
5.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................................................................ 88
5.2 .1 Recommendation for the Company ....................................................................................................................... 88
5.2.2 Recommendation for the University ....................................................................................................................... 89
5.2.3 Recommendations for Students .............................................................................................................................. 89

References ......................................................................................................................................................................... 90

Appendix ........................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Appendix1: Array Factor calculation code for fixed values of N, and M ............................................................................... 91
Appendix2: Matlab code for simulating 3D Array Factor ...................................................................................................... 93

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List of figures
Figure 1 organizational structure of ethio telecom ................................................................................ 5
Figure 2 overall organizational work flow of ethio telecom, northern region ..................................... 9
Figure 3 wiireless trasmission media ..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4 multiple access .......................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5 structure of GSM network ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 6 BTS tower & indoor physical appearance respectively ....................................................... 18
Figure 7 BBU physical structure ........................................................................................................... 20
Figure 8 BSC module structure ............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 9 cellular structure of BTS ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 10 GSM logical channel .............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 11 network elements in WCDMA based PLMN ...................................................................... 29
Figure 12 Networking elements ............................................................................................................. 35
Figure 18 Ethio telecom's transmission technologies ........................................................................... 53
Figure 19 wavelength division multiplexing ......................................................................................... 54
Figure 20 Adaptive modulation ............................................................................................................. 55
Figure 21transmission bearer network layer ....................................................................................... 56
Figure 22 DWDM system element ......................................................................................................... 58
Figure 23 OPTIX RTN network application ........................................................................................ 61

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List of tables
Table 1 description of BBU modules ..................................................................................................... 19

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ACRONYM
1G……………….……..………...First Generation cellular network
2G……………………..…..….…..Second Generation cellular network
3GPP…………………..………...Third Generation Partnership Project
AAA……………………..……....Authentication, Authorization and Accounting
ADM……………………...……..Add and Drop Multiplexer

ADSL……………………..……..Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AGCCH………….……….……..Access Granted Control Channel

AM…………….……….....…….Adaptive Modulation
ASG……….…………………….Aggregate Site Gateway
ATM……….………………….....Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATN…………………………..….Access Transmission Network
AuC……………………….….….Authentication Center
BB…………….….………..…….Broad Band
BBU……………...………...Baseband Unit
BCCH………………..……..Broadcast Control Channel
BSC………………..……….…….Base Station Controller
BSS………………...........……….Base Station Subsystem
BTS………………...…...……..…Base Transceiver Station
CCH…………………………...…Control Channels
CDMA…………………...........…Code Division Multiple Access
CEO………………….…..……....Chief Executive Officer
CN……………..…………….…...Core Network
CPRI……………………………..Common Public Radio Interface
CR……………………….…....Core Router
CS…………………………….Core switch/circuit switched
CSG…………………….….....Cell Site Gateway
CUG……………….………....Closed User Group

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CWDM……………………….Course Wavelength Division Multiplexing
DCCH…………………….….Dedicated Control Channel
DCDU……………………..…Digital Current Distribution Unit
DDF………………………….Digital Distribution Frame
DL………………………….....Down Link
DSL…………………………...Digital Subscriber Line
DSLAM…………………..…..Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
DWDM…………….……..…..Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

EDGE………………………....Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution

EIR……………....…………....Equipment Identity Register

EMS……………….………….Element Management System
EPON…………………………Ethernet Passive Optical Network
ER…………………………..…Edge Router
ETC……………………………Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation
EVDO………………………….Evolution Data Optimized
FAN…………………….…...…Fixed line Access Network
FCCH……………….….…...….Frequency Correction Channel
FDMA……………………....….Frequency Division Multiple Access
FE…………………….………...Fast Ethernet
FL…………………..……..……Fixed Line
FWT…………………………....Fixed Wireless Terminal
GE………………….….………..Giga Ethernet
GER…………………….……….General Excellent Router
GGSN………………..……….....Gateway GPRS Support Node
GMSC………………………….Gateway Mobile Switching Center
GOTA….. ……………..........Global Open Trucking Architecture
GPON…………………………...Giga Ethernet Passive Optical Network
GPRS………....…...……….…....General Packet Radio Service
GPS………………..………...….Global Positioning System

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GSM……………….…….…..….Global System for Mobile Communication
HLR…………………………….Home Location Register
HSCSD………………………... High Speed Circuit Switched Data
ICT…………………...………...Information Communication Technology
IDU……………….….…………Indoor Unit
IF………………...……………..Intermediate Frequency
IFL……………………….….....Inter Facility Link
IMEI……………….…..………International Mobile Equipment Identity
IMSI……………………..…….International Mobile Subscriber Identity
IMT………………….………....International Mobile Telephony
IP…………………………….…Internet protocol
ISDN……………………………Integrated Service Data network
ISP…………………………..….Internet Service Provider
ITU……………………………..International Telecommunication Union
L3VPN…………………….…...Layer 3 Virtual Private Network
LAI……………………….……..Location Area Identifier
LD………………............….......Laser Diode
LE……………………………. .Local Exchange
LED……………………....…... .Light Emitting Diode
LTE…………………………… .Long Term Evolution
Mbps…………………………..Megabyte per second
MME……………………...…...Mobility Management Entity
MPLS…………………….……Multi-Protocol Label Switching
MS………………………….….Mobile Station
MSAG………………….……...Multi Service Access Gateway
MSAN……………….….……..Multi Service Access Node
MSC……………………………Mobile Switching Center
MSG…………………………..Multi Service Gateway
MSTP………………..……….Multi-Service transport protocol

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MU…………………..……….Multiplexing Unit
NE……………………………Network Equipment
NGN……………….……..….Next Generation Network
NR……………………………North Region
NSS…………………..……….Network and Switching Subsystem
O&M………………..….……..Operation and Maintenance
OA………………….…………Optical Amplifier
ODF……………………………Optical Distribution Frame
ODU………………….…..……Outdoor Unit
OLA……………………………Optical Line Amplifier
OMT…………………….…...…Ortho Mode Transducer
OSC………………………….…Optical Supervision control
OSS……………………….…….Operation Subsystem
OTU…………………………….Optical Transmission unit

PDP………………………….…..Protocol Data Packets

PIN………………….……...……Personal Identity Number

PLMN………………..………….Public Land Mobile Network
PMO…………………………..…Project Management Office
POTS……………………………Plain Old Telephone System
PS………………………………..Packet Switched
PSTN………………………..…..Public Switched Telephone Network
PTN…………………………..…packet Transport Network
PUK……………………….…….PIN Unlocking Key
QAM………………………..……Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QOS……………………….……..Quality of Service
QPSK……………………………..Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RACH……………………………..Random Access Channel
RAN…………………………...…..Radio Access Network
RF…………………………...……..Radio Frequency

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RFS………………………………...Radio Frequency Subsystem
RNC……..…………………………...Radio Network Controller
RR…………………………………..…Reflector Router
RRU…………………………………….Remote Radio Unit
RSG…………………………………….Radio Service Gateway
RSS……………………………….…….Radio Station Subsystem
RTN…………………………………….Radio Transmission network
SCH………………………………….… Synchronization Channel
SDH……………………………………..Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SG…………………………………………Signaling Gateway
SGSN……………………………………Serving GPRS Support Node
SIM………………………………………Subscriber Identification module
SMS………………………………….…..Short Messaging Service
SOH………………………………………Section Over Head
STM………………………………………Synchronous Transfer Mode
TCH/F…….. …………………………….Traffic Channel/Full rate
TCH/H……………………………………Traffic Channel/Half rate
TDMA……………………………………Time Division Multiple Access
TEP……………………………………….Telecom Expansion Project
TG……………………………………….Trunk gateway
TM………………………………………..Terminal Multiplexer
TMSI……………………………………..Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
TRX………………………………………Transceiver
UE………………………………………..User Equipment
UL………………………………………..Up link
UMTS……………………………………Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
USIM……………………………………UMTS Subscriber Identity Module
UTRAN………………………………….UMTS Terrestrial RAN
VAS……………………………………..Value Added Service

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VDSL…………………………………...Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line
VLAN…………………………………..Virtual Local Area Network
VLR……………………………………..Visitor Location Register
VPN……………………………………..Virtual Private Network
VSAT……………………………………Very Small Aperture Terminal
VSWR…………………………...............Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
WCDMA………………………...............Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WDM…………………………………….Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WIMAX………………………………….Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Acces

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CHAPTER ONE

BACK GROUND OF ETHIO TELECOM

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Ethio telecom, previously known as the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC), is an
integrated telecommunications services provider in Ethiopia, providing internet and telephone
services. Based in Addis Ababa, it is one of the "Big-5" groups of state owned corporations in
Ethiopia, along with Ethiopian Airlines, the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Ethio -Insurance, and
the Ethiopian Shipping Lines.

The Ethiopian telecommunication started with a low rank beginning more than a hundred
years ago by establishing a telephone link between the capital city and some major imperial
cities. Based in Addis Ababa Today, telecommunication has extended to the interior of the country
and uses technologies such as micro-wave, satellite and fiber optics.

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY

The introduction of telecommunications services in Ethiopia dates back to 1894, when Minilik
II, the King of Ethiopia, introduced telephone technology to the country. However the first
Ethiopian pioneer of telephony was his cousin Ras Mekonnen who came back with telephone
apparatus in 1889 after his visit of Italy and established a company. In the following years, the
technological scheme contributed to the integration of the Ethiopian society when the extensive
open wire line system was laid out linking the capital city, Addis Ababa, with all the important
administrative cities of the country. The installation sequence of telegraph line in

Ethiopia was constructed as:-

 First in the years 1897 - 1899 between the city of Harar and the capital
Addis Ababa.

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 In 1904/05 from Addis Ababa into Eritrea and to Massawa via Tigray.
Changed to seven digits and the area codes from two to three digits. In
1905/06 from Addis Ababa to Gore in the province of Illubabor and Jimma
in Kaffa.

 Between 1905 and 1913 between Addis Ababa and Gondar, southern and
western Ethiopia (Gambella, Nekemte, Sidamo, etc.), Dire Dawa and
Djibouti.

 In 1909 Ethiopia joined the International postal, telegraph and telephone

service.

 In 1914, The Addis Ababa telephone exchange started to serve some 100
subscribers, and in 1932, 200 subscribers were supported.

 In 1932, Ethiopia became member of the International Telecommunication

Union (ITU)

 In 1933, radio-telephone communication was introduced and greatly

enhanced national and international connections, that is, services became
beyond telegraph

 In 1934,170 towns and villages become the beneficiaries of telephone

services

 In 1979, Sululta Satellite Earth Station Established and began to operate.

 In 1987,the second Sululta Satellite Earth station began operation
 In 1988, Digital exchanges start operation in Addis Ababa and other major
towns for the first time.

 In 1990, a Domestic Satellite Earth Station went operational.

 In 1997, Internet Service had introduced.
 In 1999, Mobile Telephone Service had launched.
 In 2001, Digital Data Network Service had introduced.
 In 2003, International Mobile Roaming, Satellite Mobile Service had
launched and prepaid mobile system was introduced.

 In 2006 the six digits fixed line and mobile telephone numbers had

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The company was placed under government control at the beginning of the twentieth century,
and was later brought to operate under the leadership of the Ministry of Post and
Communications until 1952. In 1952, it became an autonomous entity under the Ministry enactment
of Telecommunication Proclamation No.131 1952. By this proclamation telecommunication entity,
called "Imperial Board of Telecommunication of Ethiopian," IBTE, which exclusively regulates
and operates telecommunication services, was established. In 1975, IBTE was recognized as
Ethiopian Telecommunications Service. Without affecting its functions, the name was later changed
to Ethiopian Telecommunication Authority in 1975. On November 1996, the nomenclature altered
to ETC by Council of Ministers regulation No. 10/1996. The subsequent Proclamation 49/1996
expanded the ETC's duties and responsibilities. In late 2006, the ETC signed an agreement worth
US$1.5 billion with three Chinese companies, ZTE Corporation, Huawei Technologies and the
Chinese International Telecommunication Construction Corporation, to upgrade and expand In
2010, the nomenclature was changed to Ethio Ethiopian telecommunications services.
To ensure that Ethio Telecom runs parallel with top telecom operators, the Ethiopian government
has reached an agreement with France Telecom, one of the world‘s leader telecommunication
companies. The French Telecom company has taken over the management of the country‘s sole
telecom provider from 2010 to 2013.

1.3 VISION, MISSION, VALUES AND OBJECTIVES OF ETHIO

TELECOM
Vision

Ethio Telecom vision encompasses the following crucial points.

 To be a world-class telecommunications service provider
 To be committed to understand, meet and exceed the telecommunication needs and
expectations of country at large and customers in particular.

 To be a center for advancement of ICT, via research, innovation, transfer, adoption,

diffusion, adaptation, integration and dissemination in Ethiopia in particular and in
East/Horn of Africa in general.

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Mission

Ethio Telecom mission runs in parallel with Ethiopian government‘s mission, supporting the steady
growth of Ethiopia by transforming and modernizing telecommunication and services.

That is:

 To connect every Ethiopian through ICT.

 To provide products and services that enhances the development of our nation.
 To build a successful brand known for its customer consideration.
 To build its managerial capability that enables Ethio telecom to operate at an international
standard.
1.3.3. Value
While meeting international standards, Ethio Telecom remains faithful to its values which are:

 Lead with vision

 Respect
 Excellence
 Accountability
1.3.4. Objective
 being customer-focused company
offering the best quality of service
building a financial sound
company meeting excellent
world class standards

1.4. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Ethio Telecom‘s organizational structure can be broadly viewed as technical division, commercial
division, support division and others. Each division has its own sub divisions as listed below.

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Figure 1 organizational structure of ethio telecom

Ethio Telecom organizational structure includes different functional divisions that are under direct
administration of Board of Directors. As the figure above shown the organizational structure of
Ethio telecom depends on functional structure. The company has six major significant divisions,
which is led by chief officer, departments led by officer and section led by managers. Even if this
is create divisional rivalries it is best suit the company for the easy implementation of Enterprise
solutions applications. To grasp on our target divisions, Residential division is responsible for the
sales generated from residential people. Enterprise division is responsible for all enterprises like
government organization, profit and nonprofit organizations.

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Marketing and communication division take care of marketing related activities like tariff revision,
new product or service launch and sales guides‟ different sales analysis including market research.
Customer service divisions undertake after sales and presales activities mainly 994, 980 for VIP
customers. Technical Division, the core division of the company which is responsible for entire
network management of the company, Information system division facilitates and ensures the
automation part of the company as well as provides necessary detailed and summarized
information for managers depending on their request. When we see this all the board of directors
is the final controller of the company.

1.5 SERVICES AND PRODUCTS

Ethio Telecom is institutionalized with the objectives of promoting the development of high
quality, efficient, reliable and affordable telecommunication services in the country. Its services
can be broadly classified as:

 Mobile service
 fixed line service
 Internet service
 Value added services (VAS )
1.5.1. Mobile service
Mobile service includes mobile roaming, satellite mobile, GOTA service and business mobile.

 Mobile roaming is a service that helps subscribers automatically to make and receive voice
calls, send and receive data, or access other services when travelling outside the
geographical coverage area of Ethio Telecom, by means of using a visited country‘s
operator‘s network. It could be outbound roaming, a service given to Ethio customers who
wants to use their mobile phone abroad, and inbound, a service given to customers of
foreign operator who has a roaming agreement with it(like tourists, foreigner investors …).
Currently this service is provided only for GSM post paid subscribers.

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 GOTA (Global Open Trucking Architecture) is a service given using the CDMA2000
wireless network for the purpose of group communication. It allows two or more
individuals to communicate and also use for private and group calls using push to talk.

 Satellite mobile telephone is mobile phone that connects to orbiting satellites instead of
terrestrial network. It enables customers in every part of the globe to be beneficiaries of
telecom services through satellites stationed on the universe.

 Business mobile Service with/without CUG is a bundled postpaid mobile service that
allows enterprise customers to make calls at a discounted rate compared to the normal
mobile tariff rates.

 Packaged services are a service that could be provided in the form of voice off pick
package, GPRS package and SMS package. Special target of customers for all packages
include students, night shift workers, big Hotel workers and Taxi drivers.

1.5.2. Fixed line service

It includes Wired Fixed line, Wireless Fixed line (CDMA), Short code, Bulk SMS and ISDN/E1.

 Landline:-a telephone line that travels over terrestrial circuits. A land line can be copper
wire, fiber optics or microwave.

 Wireless Fixed line:-is much similar to the ordinary fixed telephone service; it uses
Fixed Wireless Terminal (FWT) which enables it to give a voice, data and other value
added services. It works where ever CDMA network is available.

 ISDN/E1 service:-Integrated services digital network (ISDN) is an international

communications standard for sending voice, video, and data over digital telephone
lines or normal telephone wires.
1.5.3. Internet service
Fixed broadband internet
Broadband is a relatively fast Internet service provided through wired and wireless connections with a
speed level from 256 Kbps.

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 Fixed Wired broadband internet is provided through copper or fiber with different access
methods like ADSL, VDSL, EPON and GPON.

 Fixed wireless BB internet wireless is device or system used to connect different fixed
locations with a radio or other wireless link.

 Wireless broadband internet is an Internet service which can be given through different
access methods like, AIRONET, supports up to 54 Mbps downloading capacity,
VSAT (supports up to 2Mbps downloading capacity), EVDO and 3G.

1.6 CUSTOMERS OF ETHIO TELECOM

Ethio Telecom provides its different services to government organizations (administrative offices,
educational institutions), private and commercial companies (Internet cafes, Private companies and
Banks), international institutions (Embassies and organization such as world health organization)
and individuals.

1 .7 ETHIO TELECOM KEY STAKEHOLDERS

Stakeholder is a person, organization or any other institution which has a crucial share or role on
telecom operations, development and investment. Ethio telecom has technical side as well as
management side key stake holders. In technical side the vendors are Huawei, ZTE, Ericson and
Nokia.
In management peoples, nations and nationalities of Ethiopia), international operators, the media
and the investment and international communities are key stakeholders of Ethio Telecom. Manager
side the stack holder was France telecom and now it is administered under Ministry of
Communication. Besides consumers (different governmental and non-governmental institutions,
the peoples, nations and nationalities of Ethiopia), international operators, the media and the
investment and international communities are key stakeholders of Ethio Telecom.

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1 .8 WORK FLOW NORTH REGION ETHIO TELECOM

The head office of Ethio Telecom is in Addis Ababa is networked with the regional telecoms.
Our hosting company is one of the regional telecoms and is known as NR Ethio Telecom. In NR
Ethio Telecom there are seven main departments and these are:-

Figure 2 overall organizational work flow of ethio telecom, northern region

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CHAPTER TWO
2. Overall Internship Experience
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INTERNSHIP
2.1.1. General objectives
The general objective of the internship is to see the practical career environment and acquire an
insight on how theoretical concepts are applied in practical working environment. Besides to
observing and practicing the operational environment, it helps us to know and apply the ethics of
working environment like responsibility, punctuality, professionalism and the like.

2.1.2. Specific objectives

Specific objective is to acquire and demonstrate competencies expected in a professional managerial
environment such as:

 Developing communicational, cooperativeness and team-work skills.

 Creating interrelation and interdependence to the internship company.
 Create conducive atmosphere to assess professional qualification.

2.2 HOW DID WE GET INTO THE INTERNSHIP HOSTING COMPANY?

During our fourth year study, we chose communication and electronics engineering stream and had
been studying it for two semester and then joined the internship. Thus, our internship have to be
somehow related to Communication and electronics engineering. The Aksum university pre
engineering and internship office and we were searching company that could accept us for about a
year. . From the very few opportunities, we got an acceptance in Ethio Telecom with the help of
our University internship office in collaboration with Ministry of Education and Ethio Telecom.
We then took one day training on overall organizational overview, rules and regulations of working
environment, products and services of Ethio Telecom in Addis Ababa at Ethio Telecom Microwave
building. At the end of the training, we were assigned to work at North Region Ethio Telecom,
Mekelle.

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We were lucky enough to be assigned in the North Region Ethio Telecom, which was our interest
to work there. We were informed to report at our respective hosting human resource offices and
we do so. The North Region Human Resource office, Mr.haftu, assigned us to work in wireless
department.

In wireless department we were told that, by Mr.teame, there are four sections which are RAN, Core,
Transmission and IP. Mr.teame informed as we will work in rotation a month per section and directly
assigned as to work in RAN sub section. We met with Mr.kahsay, RAN supervisor, and introduce us with
the stuff members. And we meet with engineer ambessa & engineer zelalem from the RAN division
delivered an enlightening lecture on wireless communication and the tasks of the RAN section. eng.
Zelalem led us on a field trip to base stations in Mekelle City, offering detailed explanations of the
equipment and devices involved in mobile communication. The experience sparked a newfound
enthusiasm for exploring cellular communication advancements.

2.3 WORK SECTIONS

The work section we had been stayed in was wireless department. Wireless has performance
resource allocation, RAN, optimization, core, transmission and IP sections. Of these we had been
involving in observing RAN, core, IP and transmission sections.

2.3.1 Workflow of RAN section

The workflow of the Radio Access Network (RAN) section in this region Ethiotelecom typically
includes the following steps:
1. Network Planning: Engineers assess coverage requirements, traffic
patterns, and technology advancements to plan the expansion or optimization of the
RAN. This involves determining the location of base stations, antenna configurations,
and frequency allocation.

2. Site Survey and Acquisition: Site surveys are conducted to evaluate

potential locations for base station installation. This includes acquiring necessary
permits, negotiating with property owners, and ensuring compliance with regulatory
requirements.

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3. Equipment Installation: Once sites are secured, engineers install base
stations, antennas, and other RAN equipment. This involves mounting hardware,
connecting power and network cables, and configuring equipment settings.

4. Integration and Testing: Installed equipment is integrated into the

existing network infrastructure and thoroughly tested to ensure proper functionality.
This includes testing connectivity, signal strength, and handover procedures between
base stations.

5. Customer Support and Troubleshooting: The RAN section provides

support to customers and addresses any network-related issues or complaints. This
involves troubleshooting connectivity problems, investigating coverage gaps, and
resolving service disruptions promptly

2.4.3 Workflow of IP backbone

The workflow of the IP Backbone section in the north region typically involves several key
steps and processes to ensure the efficient operation and management of the core network
infrastructure. Here's an overview of the workflow:
1. Network Design and Planning: The process begins with network design
and planning, where engineers and architects analyze requirements, forecast traffic
demands, and design the architecture of the IP backbone network. This includes
determining the locations of network nodes, selecting appropriate hardware and
software components, and defining the routing protocols and addressing schemes to be
used.

2. Infrastructure Deployment: Once the network design is finalized, the

next step involves deploying the necessary infrastructure components, such as routers,
switches, and optical transmission equipment, at various network locations. This may
include building or upgrading physical facilities such as data centers, network hubs, and
transmission towers to support the backbone network.
3. Configuration and Provisioning: After the infrastructure is in place,
network engineers configure and provision the network devices according to the design
specifications. This involves setting up routing tables, establishing logical connections
between network nodes, configuring security policies, and implementing quality of
service (QoS) mechanisms to prioritize traffic.

4. Monitoring and Maintenance: Continuous monitoring of network

performance and health is essential to ensure optimal operation of the IP backbone.
Network operations centers (NOCs) use monitoring tools and software to track key

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performance indicators (KPIs), detect anomalies or failures, and troubleshoot issues in
real time. Regular maintenance activities, such as software upgrades, hardware
replacements, and preventive maintenance, are also performed to keep the network
running smoothly.

5. Security and Compliance: Security measures are implemented to protect

the IP backbone network from various threats, including cyber-attacks, unauthorized
access, and data breaches. This includes deploying firewalls, intrusion
detection/prevention systems, access control mechanisms, and encryption technologies
to safeguard network assets and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.

2.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

• It is a communication while moving with wireless transmission medium.
• It refers to the transfer of info. B/n 2 or more points that are not physically connected. e.g. Cellular
Networks/Mobile networks
2.4.1 Radio waves:
• EM wave frequencies ranging from 3KHz to 1GHz
• Use omnidirectional antennas.
• The radio wave band is under government regulation.
• used for multicast communications, such as radio & television, & paging systems
• They can penetrate through w
2.4.2 Micro waves:
• EM waves between 300KHZ & 300 GHZ
• Microwaves are unidirectional; propagation is line of sight.
• Use directional antennas – point to point line of sight communication
• The parabolic dish antenna & the horn antenna are used for transmission & reception of
microwaves.
• Used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, & wireless
LANs.
• Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.

2.4.3 Infrared waves: IR

✓ infrared waves =>300 GHZ to 400THZ

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✓ For short range communications such as b/n a pc & a peripheral device
✓ Small distance, typically no more than 10m.
✓ Line of sight ( or reflection ) propagation, blocked by walls
E.g.TV remote control IRD port

Figure 3 wiireless trasmission media

▪
The 3 broad categorie of wireless transmission media are
:

P_0010

Multiple access

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Figure 4 multiple access

2.5 RADIO ACCESS NETWORK (RAN)

A radio access network (RAN) is part of a mobile Telecommunication system which implements a
Radio access technology. Conceptually, it resides between devices such as a Mobile phone, a
computer, or any remotely controlled machine and provides connection with its Core network
(CN). RAN consists of Base Transceiver Station (BTS), Base station Controller (BSC) for GSM,
NodeB, Radio Station Controller(RNC) for UMTS, eNodeB for LTE. It resides between Mobile
station (UE plus SIM card) and Mobile switching center (MSC).

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RAN (Radio Access Network) has three sub departments: GSM for 2G, UMTS for 3G, LTE and CDMA
(Code Division Multiple Access) for 4G. Of these, we had seen GSM and UMTS.

✓ 1G: 1st Generation ex. AMPS - Advanced Mobile Phone System

• Analog cellular

✓ 2G: GSM - Global System for Mobile Communication

▪ 2G networks were built mainly for voice services & slow data transmission.

▪ Ethio’s 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz & 1800 MHz

2.5.1 GSM ARCHITECTURE

Figure 5 structure of GSM network

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2.5.2 Radio Station Subsystem:

Radio station subsystem is portion of GSM architecture which covers all the radio aspects. RSS is
composed of two subsystems
1. Mobile station (MS)
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
Mobile station (MS):-
Mobile stations are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. The two
main elements are the main hardware, user equipment, and the SIM. The user equipment contains
the main elements of the mobile phone including the display case, battery, the electronics
components used to generate the signal and process the data to be received and transmitted. It also
contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) which is installed
in the phone at manufacture. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the
equipment has been reported as stolen.

The SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) contains the information that provides a unique identity of
the user to the network. Besides it stores user and location addresses such as IMSI (International
Mobile Subscriber Identity), TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) and LAI (Location
Area Identification). It also supports authentication and encryption mechanisms like PIN (Personal
Identity Number), PUK (PIN Unblocking Key), Ki - subscriber secret authentication key, A3 -
authentication algorithm, A8 - cipher key generation algorithm. Mobile station can only operate if
a SIM with a valid IMSI is inserted into equipment with a valid IMEI, since this is the only way to
correctly bill the associated subscriber.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Station Subsystem (BSS) IS the Radio Access Network (RAN) section of GSM
architecture that is fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the
network. It consists of two elements which are:-

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• Base transceiver station (BTS)
• Base Station Controller (BSC)
Base Transceiver Station:- BTS is a mobile network access device which comprises the
radio transmitter/receiver and their associated antennas that transmit and receive signals to
directly communicate with mobiles. BTS has indoor and outdoor components with their
specific functions. The indoor part consists of Base Band Unit (BBU), Radio Transmission
Network (RTN), ATN and Digital Current Distribution Unit (DCDU) and Rectifier.

Figure 6 BTS tower & indoor physical appearance respectively

BBU (base band unit)

BBU is a small box with all the external ports on the front panel. It consists of UMPT, UEIU, UPEU,
UBRI and WBBP

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Table 1 description of BBU modules

CARD FULL NAME FUNCTIONS

Controls the temperature and heat of every module in

FAN Fixed access BBU
network
Universal Controls and manages the entire BTS. It provides interfaces related to reference
UMPT main clock, power supply, operation and maintenance and external alarm collection
processing and
transmission
unit
universal Supports multiple environment monitoring signals. It supports eight Boolean
UEIU environment
alarm signals and two RS485 environment monitoring signals.
interface unit

Universal Supports to the -48 v DC power input supply. Supplies power to the boards,
UPEI power modules and fan in the BBU.
and
environment
interface unit
Universal Provides the interface for both 2G and 3G
UBRI baseba
nd radio
interface
Provides the interface only for 3G
WBBP WCDMA
baseband
processor

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Figure 7 BBU physical structure

The outdoor portion consists of the following components:

• Transceiver (TRX) basically does transmission and reception of signals. It is also called
drive receiver.
• Power amplifier (PA) amplifies the signal from drive receiver for transmission through
antenna; may be integrated with drive receiver.
• Combiner Combines feeds from several TRXs so that they could be sent out through a
single antenna.
• It allows for a reduction in the number of antenna used.
• Duplexer is used for separating, sending and receiving signals to/from antenna. It does sending
and receiving signals through the same antenna ports (cables to antenna).
• A remote radio unit is a remote radio transceiver that connects to an operator radio
control panel via electrical or wireless interface. They are generally connected to the
BTS/NodeB/ eNodeB via a fiber optic cable using Common Public Radio Interface
protocols.

The RRU can be configured to communicate with a base band unit (BBU) via a physical
communication link and can communicate with a wireless mobile device via an air interface. It is
used to extend the RF signal to some specified coverage area.

Basic functions of BTS include frequency hopping, channel coding and decoding, rate adaptation,
encryption and decryption, Paging and Uplink signal measures.
Base Station Controller (BSC)

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BSC resides between group of BTSs and MSC. It controls all the BTSs around it and the switching
mechanisms between MS and MSC, manages radio and terrestrial channels, encrypts and decrypts
the data, traffic measurement, authentication, location register and update and manages handover.
In Ethio Telecom North Region there are two BSCs which are Mekelle BSC and Shire BSC.

Figure 8 BSC module structure

Network and Switching Subsystem

NSS contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed as the core network which
performs call forwarding, hand over switching and the like. It provides the main control and
interfacing for the whole mobile network. NSS consists of MSC (Mobile Switching Center), LR
(Home Location Register and Visitor Location Register), gateway mobile and switching center
(GMSC), EIR and AuC.

Mobile Switching Center

The MSC controls call signaling and processing, and Coordinates the handover of the mobile connection
from one base station to another as the mobile roams around. The mobile switching center (MSC) is
the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as
well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data). The MSC sets up
and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and hand-over requirements during the
call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring. The MSC manages the

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roles of inter-cellular transfer, mobile subscriber visitors, and interconnections with the PSTN. Each
MSC is connected through GMSC to the local Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN or ISDN) to
provide the connectivity between the mobile and the fixed telephone users.

Home Location Register: HLR is a database that contains all the administrative information
about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able
to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the
phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it
communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately.

Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a database that contains temporary
information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers.
The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area,
the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if
the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without
having to interrogate the HLR each time.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR): EIR is an optional database that is supposed to

contain the unique International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI), which is a number of the
mobile phone equipment.[1] EIR is specified to prevent usage of stolen mobile stations or to bar
malfunctioning equipment (e.g., from certain manufacturer).

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC): GMSC provides interface between the
mobile network and Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

Authentication Center (AuC): The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores
a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and
ciphering of the radio channel.[2] It protects network operators from different types of fraud found in
today's cellular world

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❖ Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation and support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network
architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control
and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS.

Its working elements are Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC), EIR, AuC.

GSM cellular architecture

A given geographical area is segmented in to cells. Cell is a coverage area of a single BTS. The
possible coverage area is of a spherical region of radius ‗r‘, but hexagonal cells are used ideally so
as to neglect the interferences between them.

Figure 9 cellular structure of BTS

Several carrier frequencies are used without using the same frequencies in neighbor cells. Cell
radius varies from some 100 meters to 35 kilometers depending on user density, geography and
transceiver power.

GSM logical channels

The data, whether user traffic or signaling information, are mapped onto the physical channels by
defining a number of logical channels. A logical channel will carry information of a specific type
and a number of these channels may be combined before being mapped on to the same physical
channel. Logical channels are broadly categorized in to traffic channels and signaling channels.

Traffic channels (TCHs)

The traffic channels are intended to carry encoded speech or user data. Full rate traffic channels carry a
net bit rate of 22.8 Kb/s (TCH/F) whereas half rate traffic channels carry a net bit rate of

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11.4 Kb/s (TCH/H).

Control Channels (CCHs)

The control channels are intended to carry signaling and Synchronization data between the base station
and the Mobile station.
GSM control channels are divided in to three.

1. Broadcast control channels

2. Common control channels
3. Dedicated control channels
1. Broadcast control channels

Broadcast control channels are used to broadcast synchronization and general network information
to all the MSs within a cell. They are transmitted in downlink direction only. It has three categories.

I. Frequency correction channel (FCCH) is used for frequency correction and synchronization of
mobile station.

II. Synchronization Channel (SCH) is used to synchronize the mobile station time wisely with the
BTS.

III. Broadcast control channel (BCCH) is used to broadcast control information such as details of
the control channel configuration used at the BTS, a list of the BCCH carrier frequencies used
at the neighboring BTSs and a number of parameters that are used by the MS when accessing
the BTS to every MS within a cell.

2. Common Control Channels

Common control channels are used by an MS during the paging and access procedures. Common
control channels are of three types.

I. Paging channel (PCH) within certain time intervals the MS will listen to the Paging
channel, PCH, to see if the network wants to get in contact with the MS.

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II. Random access channel during listening to the PCH, the MS will realize it is being
paged. The MS answers, requesting a signaling channel, on the Random Access channel,
RACH. RACH can also be used if the MS wants to get in contact with the network.

III. Access grant channel (AGCH) is used by the network to grant, or deny an MS
access to the network by supplying it with details of a dedicated channel.
3. Dedicated Control Channels

DCCH is used to carry Signaling information between an MS and a BTS using associated and dedicated
control channels during or not during a call. They are of three types.

I. Slow associated control channels is used to transmit non-urgent information for instance,
transmitter power control.

II. Fast associated control channels is used for more urgent information, e.g. a handover command

III. Standalone dedicated control channels in some situations, signaling information must flow
between a network and an MS when a call is not in progress such as during a location update..

Logical channel

Traffic channel control channel

Full rate half rate

broadcast common dedicated

FCCH SCH BCCH PCH RACH AGCH SACH FACH SDCH

Figure 10 GSM logical channel

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2.5.2 Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS), 3G mobile networks
Evolution from 2G to 3G
The effectively rate of 2G mobile systems is too slow for many Internet services. Thus, in a race
for higher speeds, GSM and other TDMA-based technologies from 2G developed so called 2G+
mobile systems. 2G+ mobile networks evolved with High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD),
General Packet Radio system (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Digital Evolution (EDGE)
respectively

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

HSCSD is only software upgrade to 2G. It allows continuous use of multiple time slots (up to 4), channels,
for a single user and asynchronous allocation of time slots between DL and UL.

Drawbacks:-

Lack of statistical multiplexing (i.e. four time slots are occupied all the time during the connection).

Handover, which is complicated unless the same time slots are available end-to-end throughout the
duration of the call.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

GPRS is created as both hardware and software upgrade to the existing GSM system and introduces
statistical multiplexing via packet-switched services. It allows flexible (also multiple) allocation of
timeslots to MS and uses free slots only if data packets are ready to send. GPRS has two network
support nodes so as to integrate with the existing GSM architecture. These are, serving GPRS
support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).

Serving GPRS support node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of packets from/to mobile
stations within its service area Its main tasks are mobility management (including location
management, attach/detach), packet routing, logical link management, authentication, and charging
functions.

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GGSN acts as an interface between the GPRS packet network and external packet-based networks
(i.e., Internet). [1] It converts protocol data packet (PDP) addresses from the external packet-based
networks to the GSM address of the specified user and vice versa.

Enhanced Data Rates for Digital Evolution (EDGE)

EDGE was created to provide higher data rates for packet-based services, to enhance throughput
per time slot for both HSCSD and GPRS. It uses a new modulation scheme 8-PSK (phase shift
keying) in addition to that used by GPRS. It is an option for 3G networks.

Network elements
• The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) utilizes similar network
architecture that has been used in second generation systems:

– The UMTS system consists of a number of logical network elements that each admit a
defined functionality.

– In the standards, network elements are defined at the logical level and the physical
implementation usually follows the same logical structure due to open interfaces

– If interface is ‘open’ then it is defined such that equipment’s at the endpoints of an interface
can be from two different manufacturers.

– Thus, open interfaces are defined by global standards that each manufacturer must follow.

– UMTS standards have been created jointly by the industry community within the 3rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), see

Functionally the network elements are grouped into the

– Radio Access Network (RAN/UTRAN) that handles radio-related functionalities

– Core Network (CN), which is responsible for switching and routing calls and data
connections to external networks.

– User Equipment (UE) that interfaces with the user.

From standardization point of view, both UE and UTRAN are fully different from GSM.

Part of the definition of Core Network (CN) is adopted from GSM.

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This supports, for example, cost effective introduction of new radio technologies and
global roaming.

Network elements in WCDMA based PLMN

Our main focus area

UE UTRAN Core Network

Uu Iub Iu MSC
Node B GMSC CS
VLR
USIM RNC
Node B
Cu HLR
Iur
Node B
ME RNC
Node B SGSN GGSN PS

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Figure 11 network elements in WCDMA based PLMN

Network elements: UE

Typically PLMN is operated by a single operator

– Connected to other PLMNs and networks like internet

User Equipment (UE) contains

– Mobile equipment (ME): Radio communication over Uu interface

– UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM): The subscriber identity, execution of

authentication algorithms, storing of authentication and encryption keys and some
subscription information that is needed at the terminal.

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Network elements: UTRAN

• UTRAN consists of Node B’s and RNC’s

• Node B (Base Station): Handles/manages the traffic between Uu and Iub interfaces.
Basic tasks like coding, interleaving, rate adaptation, modulation, spreading etc.
Handles also some mobility management tasks.
• Radio Network Controller (RNC): Control radio resources of Node B’s in its
operation area. Provide services for Core Network (CN). Load and congestion
control, admission control, code allocation, radio resource management tasks. In
addition
• RNC terminates the RRC (Radio Resource Control) protocol that defines the
messages and procedures between the UE and UTRAN.
• The RNC controlling one Node B (i.e. terminating the Iub interface towards the
Node B) is indicated as the Controlling RNC (CRNC) of the Node B. The
Controlling RNC is responsible for the load and congestion control of its own cells,
and also executes the admission control and code allocation for new radio links to be
established in those cells.

Network elements: CN

HLR (Home Location Register): Database that is located in the user’s home system. Stores the
master copy of the user’s service profile.
– The service profile consists of, for example, information on allowed services and forbidden
roaming areas. It is created when a new user subscribes to the system, and remains stored
as long as the subscription is active.

MSC/VLR (Mobile Services Switching Centre/Visitor Location Register): The switch (MSC)
and database (VLR) that serves the UE for Circuit Switched (CS) services.
– The MSC function is used to switch the CS transactions
– The VLR function holds a copy of the visiting user’s service profile, as well as more
precise information on the UE’s location within the serving system.
– The part of the network that is accessed via the MSC/VLR is often referred to as the
CS domain.

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GMSC (Gateway MSC): The switch at the point where UMTS PLMN is connected to external
CS networks. All incoming and outgoing CS connections go through GMSC.

SGSN (Serving GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) Support Node): Functionality
is similar to that of MSC/VLR but is used for Packet Switched (PS) services.

The part of the network that is accessed via the SGSN is often referred to as the PS domain.

Similar to MSC, SGSN support is needed for the early UE handling operation.

GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Functionality is close to that of GMSC but is in
relation to PS services.

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The UMTS standards are structured so that internal functionality of the network elements
is not specified in detail.
2.5.3 4G: LTE

4th generation of cellular wireless Ex. LTE advanced o Long Term

Evolution/LTE is the project name of a new high performance air-interface for
cellular mobile comm. systems.
It provides a comprehensive & secure IP based services to users "Anytime,
Anywhere" at high data rates
It is based on GSM/EDGE & UMTS/HSPA network technologies.
It is increasing the capacity & speed using a different radio interface
together with CN improvements.
Long term Evolution /LTE
• Downloading data rate up to 100 Mbps
• Upload data rate up to 50 Mbps with 20 MHz bands
• The main advantages with LTE are:
• Great increase of spectrum efficiency
• High throughput
• Low latency
• Plug & play use
• Improved end – user experience
• A simple architecture resulting in low operating costs

Major LTE Radio Technologies:

▪ Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for downlink.

▪ Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)

▪ uses MIMO for enhanced throughput

▪ Reduced power consumption

▪ Higher RF power amplifier efficiency( less battery power used by handset

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LTE vs UMTS

• LTE supports scalable carrier bandwidth, from 1.4MHz to 20 MHz & supports both
FDD & TDM.
• The IP-based network architecture, called the Evolved Packet Core ( EPC ) &
designed to replace the GPRS Core Network,
• supports seamless handovers for both voice & data to cell towers with older
Simplified architecture:

• The network side of E-UTRAN is composed only of eNode Bs.

• The LTE standard only supports packet switching with its all-IP network.
• Voice calls in GSM, UMTS & CDMA2000 are circuit switched, so with the
adoption of LTE, carriers will have to re-engineer their voice call network.
• Phones from one country may not work in other countries.
• Users will need a multi-band capable phone for roaming internationally.
• A wide range of LTE terminal LTE architecture is a simplified & flat one compared
to UMTS/HSPA/HSPA+, the main changes include:
• CS core network is removed in LTE network architecture, there is only PS domain.
VoIP is applied in LTE.

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EPC STANDARD NETWORKING

• The PS domain of the CN adopted an architecture similar to soft switch. It

separates the control plane from the user plane.
• GGSN is replaced by packet data network gateway/PDN-GW/
• SGSN is replaced by control plane in serving gateway & mobility management
entity(MME)
• The MSC server & MGW are removed from the core network, voice services
provided based on IP.
• UMTS RNC “removed”, RNC functionalities moved to the eNode-B

• eNode-B connected directly to the Evolved packet core (EPC)

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Figure 12 Networking elements

eNodeB: evolved Node-B

• The eNodeB implements all functions regarding radio access to the EPC network.
The functions of the eNodeB include:
• Management & establishment of radio resources
• Header compression & user plane ciphering

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• MME selection when no route to an MME can be determined from the information
by the UE

MME: Mobility Management Entity

• The MME is responsible for mobility mg’t in the control plane, including mg’t of
user contexts & mobile status, & assignment of temporary identifiers.

• Tracking Area list management, P-GW & S-GW selection

• MME selection for handovers with MME change
• SGSN selection for handovers to 2G or 3G 3GPP access networks
• Roaming (S6a towards home HSS)

S-GW: Serving Gateway

• The S-GW is the anchor point in the user plane b/n different access networks.
• It can shield interfaces within the 3GPP network towards different access networks.
• The S-GW is the gateway which terminates the interface towards E-UTRAN.
The functions of the S-GW …:
• Mobility anchoring for inter-3GPP mobility (terminating S4 & relaying the traffic
b/n 2G/3G system and P-GW

P-GW: PDN Gateway

• It is the anchor point in the user plane b/n the 3GPP access networks & non3GPP
access networks.
• The P-GW is the gateway that terminates the SGi interface towards the PDN.
The functions of the P-GW include….
• UL & DL service level rate enforcement (for example, by rate policing/shaping per
SD

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2.8 TRANSMISSION SECTION
2.8.1 Overview of Transmission bearer network
Transmission is a process of transporting information between end points of a system or
network. It composed of transmission node equipment’s and transmission mediums and is locate
between switching nodes or between base station and base station controller. The main actions
performed in transmission network are modulation and multiplex/demultiplexing.

Every transmission system consists of transmitter, transmitting channel and receiver. Basic transmission
techniques deployed in ethio telecom are:-

Figure 13 Ethio telecom's transmission technologies

Multiplexing

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Multiplexing is a process that combines several signals for simultaneous transmission on single
transmission channel. It is economically feasible to utilize the available bandwidth of optical fiber or
coaxial cable or radio system in a single high capacity system shared by multiple users. Various
multiplexing techniques deployed are FDM, TDM, CDM and WDM.

2.8.2 Wavelength division multiplexing

WDM assigns incoming optical signals to specific frequencies of light (wavelengths or lambdas)
with a certain frequency band. It takes multiple optical signals, maps them to individual
wavelengths and multiplex the wavelength over a single fiber.

Figure 14 wavelength division multiplexing

a) Coarse wave length division multiplexing:

CWDM refers to the WDM technology with somehow larger interval between adjacent
wavelengths.wih working wavelengths in the 1310nm. It is used in short –distance transmission
system and rarely used currently CWDM operating wavelength is below C -band& L- band.

b) Dense wavelength division multiplexing:-

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DWDM refers to WDM technology with small interval between adjacent wavelengths, with
working wavelength in the 1550nm window. It can bear 8 ~ 160 wavelengths in one fiber and it
is mostly used in long- distance transmission system. DWDM operating wavelength is C – band
(15281561nm) & L – band (1577-1603nm).

Modulation
Of the various modulation techniques Ethio telecom uses adaptive modulation. Adaptive
modulation (AM) technology adjusts the modulation scheme automatically based on the
environmental, atmospheric and terrestrial conditions which affects channel quality. In AM, when
modulation schemes are switched, the transmit frequency, receive frequency, and channel spacing
remain unchanged.

Figure 15 Adaptive modulation

In AM, modulation scheme switching is hitless. When the modulation scheme is downshifted, high
priority services will not be affected when low-priority services are discarded.

2.8.3 Transmission Medias

Ethio Telecom‘s transmission media encompasses both wired and wireless. Wired transmission
media includes twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and optical fiber whereas unwired (Air) includes
microwave and satellite communications.

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Figure 16transmission bearer network layer

2.8.3.1 SDH transmission system

SDH uses synchronous multiplexing mode and flexible multiplexing mapping structure. Code
streams on different levels are arranged in the payload of the frame structure in a regular pattern,
and the payload is synchronous with the network; thus, software is adequate to drop low-speed
signals from high-speed signals at a time. It defines the features of digital signals such as frame
structure, multiplexing mode, transmission rate, and interface code pattern. SDH has universal
electrical and optical interfaces.

There are five SDH signal rates. These are STM_1, STM_4, STM_16, STM_64 and STM_256. Basic
signal rate of SDH is STM-1 and has data rate of 155.52 Mbps. STM_1 carries 63 E1.

Next generation SDH provides multi service transport platform which supports ATM, Ethernet,
and other services at the same time. This is done by accessing respective interfaces using the
appropriate cards.

SDH network elements

The transmission function of SDH network is performed with the help of the following basic
elements.

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✓ Terminating of Service
✓ add/drop of services
✓ Regenerating or Amplification of the signal
Terminal multiplexer: TM is used at the terminal node of the network and acts as a concentrator of
tributary signals.

Add drop multiplexer: ADM is used at the transition points in the SDH transmission network
(such as middle node of a link or in the ring).

Regenerator/ Amplifier: There are two types of REGs.

1. Pure optical regenerator (optical amplifier): It is used to amplify the optical

power so as to extend the optical transmission distance.

2. Electrical regenerator for pulse regeneration and shape: It is used to

ensure the good waveform of the transmitted signals without line noise accumulation
mainly through the processing of optical to electrical as well as vice versa conversion,
electrical signal sampling, determination, regeneration and shaping.
2.8.3.2 DWDM transmission system

Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic transmission technique that

employs light wavelengths to transmit data parallel-by-bit or serial-by-character. The wavelength
interval is between 0.8 and 2nm.

Along with the rate of TDM increase to 10Gbit/s, it is more and more difficult to implement
multiplexing of high-order groups through SDH technology, and requirements of fiber digital
communication for large-capacity and super-high speed transmission cannot be met. If the
transmission rate is higher than 10 Gbps, the system dispersion and other negative influences will
increase difficulty of long-distance transmission; thus, DWDM technology becomes a simple and
economical means to expand the fiber transmission capacity in a rapid and effective manner.

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Characteristics of DWDM are:

✓ Super-large capacity transmission

✓ Saving the fiber resources
✓ Transparent transmission of each path and smooth scaling and expansion
✓ Super-long distance transmission
✓ No special requirement on fiber chromatic dispersion
✓ Basis of future optical network.

Figure 17 DWDM system element

DWDM key technologies

Key technologies in DWDM are:

✓ Light source
✓ Multiplexing/DE multiplexing
✓ Optical amplification
✓ Optical add/drop

multiplexing

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✓ optical path monitoring

❖ Optical Light source: optical light source could be LED or laser diode (LD). It
provides standard and stable wavelength, Meeting requirements of long distance
transmission (up to 640Km). Besides chromatic dispersion tolerance of light source in a
WDM system is much bigger than that in an SDH system.
❖ Optical Multiplexing/de-multiplexing: OMU compounds optical signals with
rated wavelength from different channels into a single light wave and sending it to the
fiber for transmission, so as to carrying out multiplexing of optical waves.

❖ ODU: de-compounds optical waves from the fiber into optical path signals with the
former rated wavelength and inputting them into different optical path receivers, thus
carrying out de-multiplexing of optical waves. OMU and ODU are all passive devices.

❖ Optical amplification: optical amplifier is a kind of positive device amplifying

optical signals directly without optical-electrical-optical conversion in high-speed long-
distance transmission. It directly amplifies the multiplexed optical signals for solving
optical power limit.

❖ Optical add/drop multiplexing: it adds/drops wavelength channels in optical

domains.

Optical path monitoring: also called supervision technology is used to detect, control and manage
network operations of the whole DWDM system. It is used to transmit the NE management and
supervision information related to DWDM system.

2.9 FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY

Microwave is electromagnetic wave with frequency from 300MHz to 300GHz. Microwave
Systems transmits voice and data through the atmosphere as super-high-frequency radio waves.
Microwave is a line of sight communication and has the following characteristics.

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 Can be rapidly installed

 Can cross complicated terrains( Rivers, Lakes and Mountains)
 Used for long-haul telecommunications.

Still viable for right-of-way by pass and geographic obstruction avoidance

Design consideration of microwave engineering are free space Loss/ atmospheric attenuation,
reflections, diffractions, rain attenuation and skin effect. Ethio telecom‘s microwave technology is
deployed via Optix RTN 900 series.

2.9.1 Optix RTN 900 series

Optix RTN 900 is a new generation TDM/hybrid/packet integrated microwave transmission
system developed by Huawei. It provides seamless microwave transmission solution for mobile
communication or private networks. There are four types of Optix RTN 900 products: Optix RTN
900, Optix RTN 905, Optix RTN 910, Optix RTN 950, Optix RTN 950A and Optix RTN 980 of
which users can choose specific series suited for their site.

Optix RTN 900 series provide a variety of service interfaces that can be installed easily and
configured flexibly. It provides a solution that can integrate TDM microwave, hybrid microwave
and packet microwave technologies according to networking scheme for the sites, achieving
smooth upgrade from TDM to hybrid and from hybrid to packet microwave. This solution meets
transmission requirements of 2G, 3G and LTE. Besides it allows future network evolution and
evolution.

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Figure 18 OPTIX RTN network application

Equipment components of RTN

series
 Digital modem (indoor unit)
 IF cable
 Radio frequency (RF) unit
 Hybrid coupler pole

 Antenna
 ODU( outdoor unit)
Hybrid coupler is optional that is necessary when two ODUs are to be connected. NR Ethio
Telecom has N+0 protection configuration and doesn‘t use hybrid coupler.

Digital modem
The digital modem (IDU 900) accesses services, performs service and IF processing, provides system
control and communication function and modulates the baseband signal and converts to intermediate

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frequency signal. It provides radio links of various types in which different IF boards, control, switching
and timing boards and ODUs are configured for diverse microwave scenarios.

IF cable
IF cable connects ODU and IF boards directly. It transmits IF signal and ODU management signal
between IDU and ODU and provides _48V power to the ODU.

RF unit
RF unit, ODU, converts the intermediate frequency in to radio frequency and amplifies the signal
so as to transmit it with the microwave. Besides it performs up conversion, mixing IF signal and
high frequency local oscillation signal and output RF signal.

Antenna
Antenna is a passive device that radiates and absorbs the modulated signal. It is fed by direct
connect of the RF unit, coaxial cable, or waveguide.

2.10 Challenges we have faced while performing our work task

In the dynamic realm of our internship experience, we confronted a multitude of challenges
that pushed us to test our mettle and pursue growth. From the detailed intricacies of network
infrastructure to the subtle avenues of professional development, we often faced several
hurdles. Within this context, we encountered the subsequent key challenges:
Limited Equipment Access: we, as Interns, faced constraints as all equipment
installations were exclusively handled by vendor professionals, precluding any
handson involvement to prevent potential network disruptions.

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Monotonous Tasks: Daily responsibilities primarily revolved around staff duties,
leaving us craving more engaging assignments to gain practical experience and foster
skill development.

Lack of Practical Knowledge: The absence of hands-on experience created a gap in

practical knowledge, underscoring the need for opportunities to apply theoretical
learning in real-world scenarios.

Limited Supervisor Interaction: Due to supervisors' demanding schedules, we had

fewer opportunities for guidance and mentorship, leading to a diminished support
network.

Limited Autonomy: Within the highly secure environment of the northern region
Ethiotelecom, we were afforded very limited opportunities to work independently on
tasks, hindering our ability to demonstrate initiative and problem-solving skills.

2.11 Measures taken to overcome challenges we encountered

In our pursuit to overcome the challenges encountered during our task execution, we implemented a series
of strategic initiatives:
• We diligently documented key insights and observations during our supervisor's
demonstration sessions, ensuring the compilation of comprehensive reports.
Additionally, we familiarize ourselves with digital platforms such as Telegram to
access essential files shared by the supervisors.
• Facilitating seamless communication and knowledge exchange, we fostered
collaborative relationships not only within our team but also across different
sections. Through this interdepartmental interaction, we shared crucial
information and insights, enriching our collective understanding.
• Recognizing the value of expert guidance, we judiciously sought assistance from
company employees during their available time slots. Their insights and expertise
proved invaluable in addressing specific queries and navigating challenges
effectively.
• Embracing a proactive approach to learning, we undertook extensive reading and
formulated insightful questions for our supervisors during opportune moments.
Understanding the importance of self-reliance, we supplemented our learning
endeavors by engaging with telecommunications video tutorials, thereby
broadening our knowledge base and refining our skills autonomously.

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CHAPTER THREE
Analyzing Performance of Rectangular Planar Array
Antenna
Summary of Project
This paper is dedicated to advancing the connectivity of Ethiotelecom's wireless network,
with a specific focus on the North-region cellular network as a case study. The company
offers various services, each with a distinct quality of service (QoS) requirement.
According to ITU-T, QoS encompasses factors such as data and voice quality and signal
strength, all vital in cellular networks. This paper aims to explore methods for enhancing
connectivity within the North-region cellular network by analyzing and optimizing key
QoS parameters. By improving network performance in these aspects, Ethiotelecom can
ensure better service delivery and increased user satisfaction.
The paper extensively explores the design of planar array antennas aimed at resolving
current limitations within the company's telecommunication system. It tackles challenges
including coverage constraints, interference susceptibility, and inefficient spectrum
utilization. The potential of planar array antennas, enhanced with beam forming
technology, to revolutionize connectivity is thoroughly examined. Through careful analysis
and experimentation, the paper explores how beam forming can optimize planar array
antennas for precise signal transmission and reception. Various parameters and
configurations tailored to Ethiotelecom's needs are discussed. Finally, the anticipated
impact of deploying these advanced antennas, promising improved connectivity,
reliability, and service quality for the company's customers, is assessed. The project utilized
MATLAB for code writing and antenna simulations. Based on the simulation results, we
anticipate that our project can effectively address the aforementioned hurdles in wireless
communications.
Keywords: Planar Array Antenna, Beam forming

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3.1 Introduction
In the dynamic realm of wireless communication, antennas stand as quintessential
Components, serving as the bedrock upon which the efficacy of network performance is
established. Analogous to finely crafted lenses enhancing vision, rigorously designed antennas
possess the transformative capability to alleviate system constraints and uplift overall
operational efficiency [3]. This analogy resonates profoundly within the operational
framework of Ethiotelecom, where the relentless pursuit of optimal connectivity and service
delivery underscores the indispensable role of robust antenna infrastructure. Consider, for
example, the analogy of television broadcast reception: the strategic
deployment of high-performance antennas holds the power to substantially augment signal
Reception quality, thereby enriching user experience and satisfaction. Traditionally, antennas
with broad radiation patterns and modest directivity have prevailed. However, the imperatives
of long-distance communication within the company's operational domain demand antennas
endowed with highly directive characteristics, characterized by substantial gains [4].

The pursuit of such directive attributes often necessitates the enlargement of the antenna's
electrical size, a task achievable through either the augmentation of individual element
dimensions or the strategic assembly of radiating elements into arrays [5]. It is this latter
approach, harnessing the potential of antenna arrays, that presents a compelling solution for
the company's quest for enhanced connectivity without necessitating unwieldy
Increases in individual antenna size.
Antenna arrays, comprising interconnected individual antennas with precisely specified
amplitude and phase relationships, offer a pathway to augmented signal transmission and
reception capabilities. Antenna arrays can be finely tuned to exhibit desired radiation patterns
through the precise adjustment of element spacing, excitation amplitudes, and excitation
phases. These arrays eventually metamorphose into singular antennas with enhanced gain,
seamlessly aligning with Ethiotelecom's overarching mission to provide reliable and high-
quality wireless communication services.

This paper endeavors to delve deep into the details of array design and configuration, tailor-
made to suit the company's operational context, thereby empowering stakeholders to
Optimize antenna infrastructure and fortify network performance. By thoroughly exploring
array geometries, element configurations, and excitation techniques, we aim to equip the
company with the indispensable tools needed to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of
wireless communication technologies and effectively meet the dynamic demands of clients.

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3.2 Statement of problem
When addressing the challenges encountered by the Northern Region EthioTelecom in
wireless telecommunication, particularly those related to the directive features of antennas,
the need for innovative solutions becomes increasingly evident. Typically, single-element
antennas have broad radiation patterns and limited directivity, which exacerbates
difficulties as antenna size increases. This amplifies the need for precise antenna-pointing,
especially for larger structures. However, transitioning to an array setup of smaller antennas
presents a viable solution to these complexities. Arrays offer improved directive qualities
without the intricacies of single-element antennas, thereby reducing the necessity for exact
antenna positioning. This transition enhances network performance and elevates customer
satisfaction within the Northern Region EthioTelecom's wireless telecommunication
framework.

3.3 Objective of the project

3.3.1 General Objective
The main aim of this project is to examine how a rectangular planar array antenna performs across
various antenna parameters.
3.3.2 Specific Objectives
The following are the specific objectives of our project:
• Enhancing the total gain of the antenna
• Nullifying interference from specific directions
• Maximizing signal-to-noise ratio
• Identifying the direction of incoming signals
• Comprehending the advantages of rectangular array antennas

3.4 Significance of the Project

Here are some key points on the significance of designing a planar array antenna for the northern
region of EthioTelecom:

• Improved coverage: planar array antennas boost signal strength across the northern region
including rural areas, enhancing connectivity for all users.
• Enhanced capacity: with higher gain and directionality, these antennas optimize frequency
use, meeting rising demand for data and voice service.
• Enhanced capacity: with higher gain and directionality, these antennas optimize frequency
use, meeting rising demands for data and voice services.

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• Future tech support: compatibility with 5G and IOT prepares ethiotelecom for future
advancments, ensuring long term network viability and service expansion.
• Strategic significance: tailored solutions for the northern region highlight ethiotelecoms
commitment to meeting local needs, driving development, and fostering inclusivity.

3.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project

3.5.1 Scope of the Project
The scope of the project is to achieve better quality and higher capacity of wireless
communication by evaluating the design of rectangular planar array antennas and recommending
solutions based on Matlab simulation results and conceptual reasoning.

3.5.2 Limitations
The project encountered limitations, primarily related to time and materials. Originally, we
anticipated a four-month internship period as per the manual the company had given us at the
beginning. However, a revised semester schedule from our university, issued two months into
the internship, shortened our time by approximately one month. This constrained our ability to
conduct comprehensive evaluations and testing along with the company's experts. Furthermore,
the absence of reserved materials for interns hindered our capacity to practice and test our
designs effectively. We were unable to observe how the results of our simulations would behave
in real-world scenarios.

3.6 Literature Reviews

Planar array antennas are esteemed for their high gain, directional capabilities, and versatility
across various applications. Common design techniques include micro strip patch arrays, printed
circuit board (PCB) technology, and aperture-coupled arrays [6]. Optimization of design
parameters, such as element spacing and feeding network topology, is essential for achieving
desired radiation characteristics [7]. Advanced simulation tools like MATLAB enable precise
analysis and optimization of array configurations [8]. Beam forming techniques, including phase
shifting and amplitude weighting, facilitate adaptive beam forming and nulling capabilities [9].
Optimization algorithms, such as genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization, enhance
array performance by improving side lobe suppression and efficiency [10].

Planar array antennas are utilized in radar systems, satellite communications, and wireless
networks [11]. Advances in manufacturing technologies have made the fabrication and
customization of planar array antennas more cost-effective [12]. Implementing planar array
antennas can provide EthioTelecom with solutions to enhance coverage, capacity, and quality

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of service. This implementation supports the adoption of 5G and IoT technologies, extends
connectivity to underserved regions, and advances digital inclusion efforts in Ethiopia.
3.7 Methodology
3.7.1 Methods
To accomplish the objectives outlined in this paper, the following methodology is implemented:
1. Data Collection and Analysis: The initial step involves gathering and
analyzing data from Ethio-Telecom's north region wireless network to gain insights
into existing challenges in wireless communication.

2. Problem Identification: Through meticulous analysis, specific issues about

wireless communication are identified and delineated.

3. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of relevant literature is

conducted, focusing on potential solutions involving beam forming and planar array
antennas.

4. Evaluation of Planar Array Antenna Designs: Using MATLAB simulation

and conceptual reasoning, planar array antenna designs are rigorously evaluated. Key
factors such as spacing between elements and the number of elements in the x and y
directions are considered, with a particular emphasis on directivity, gain, and array
factors.

5. Recommendation of Solutions: Based on the evaluation results,

recommendations for potential solutions are formulated, aimed at effectively
addressing the identified issues in wireless communication.

Throughout the project, emphasis is placed on thorough research, careful analysis, and the
utilization of MATLAB as a tool for the detailed evaluation of planar array antenna designs.
3.7.2 Fundamental Parameters of Antenna
To clarify an antenna's performance, it's imperative to define various parameters. Some of these
parameters exhibit interrelationships, and not all are necessary for a comprehensive description
of the antenna's performance.
3.7.2.1RADIATION PATTERN

An antenna radiation pattern, also known as an antenna pattern, refers to a

mathematical function or graphical depiction showcasing the radiation
characteristics of the antenna concerning spatial coordinates. Typically determined
in the far field region, the radiation pattern is often represented as a function of
directional coordinates. The amplitude field pattern depicts the received electric or

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magnetic field at a constant radius, while the amplitude power pattern illustrates the
spatial variation of power density along a constant radius. For antennas, the field
pattern (in linear scale) typically portrays the magnitude of the electric or magnetic
field concerning angular space, while the power pattern (in linear scale) usually
represents the square of the field's magnitude in angular space. Additionally, the
power pattern (in dB) expresses the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field in
Decibels relative to angular space.
3.7.2.2 BEAMWIDTH

The beam width of a pattern refers to the angular separation between two identical points
on opposite sides of the pattern's maximum. Within an antenna pattern, there exist
several beam widths.
3.7.2.3 DIRECTIVITY

The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a

specific direction from the antenna to the average radiation intensity across all
directions. This average radiation intensity is equivalent to the total power radiated
by the antenna divided by 4π.
3.7.2.4 GAIN

Another valuable metric for assessing antenna performance is gain. While closely
linked to directivity, gain is a measure that considers both the efficiency and
directional capabilities of the antenna.
3.7.2.5 BANDWIDTH

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the frequency range in which the antenna's
performance, concerning a specific characteristic, meets a predetermined standard.
3.7.2.6 ARRAY ANTENNA

Many applications require radiation characteristics that a single element cannot achieve alone.
However, arranging multiple radiating elements in specific electrical and geometrical
configurations, known as an array, can achieve the desired radiation characteristics. This
arrangement can combine radiation from the elements to create maximum radiation in specific
directions while minimizing it in others. The term "array" typically refers to separate individual
radiators but can also describe radiators mounted on a continuous structure.
An antenna array, often called a "phased array," consists of two or more antennas whose signals
are combined or processed to enhance performance beyond that of a single antenna. This array can
increase overall gain, provide diversity reception, mitigate interference from specific directions,
steer the array for directional sensitivity, determine signal arrival direction, and maximize the
Signal Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR). The performance of an antenna array generally
improves with more elements but also increases cost, size, and complexity.

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3.7.3 System Model

Figure 3.1: Flowchart for the simulation of a planar array

The radiation characteristics Sr(θ, φ) in the far-field of an N-element array consisting of identical
radiating elements can be represented as the multiplication of two functions:

(1)
Fa(θ, φ) represents the array factor, while Se(θ, φ) denotes the power directional pattern of an
individual element. This principle is referred to as the pattern multiplication principle. The array
factor, Fa(θ, φ), varies with the array's geometry due to its dependency on the range.

(2)

The elemental pattern, Se(θ, φ), relies on the far-field radiation pattern of the individual element, which
is independent of range. (This disregards element-to-element coupling.)

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3.7.4 Planar Array Beam forming
The array factor in the two-dimensional case is given by:

(3)

In this context, (xn, yn) represent the coordinates of the nth point, ɸ is the azimuth angle relative
to the x-axis, and ϴ is the elevation angle relative to the z-axis, with the array being uniformly
excited. Planar arrays enable the scanning of the antenna's main beam toward any direction in
space. These arrays are utilized in applications such as tracking radar, search radar, remote
sensing, communications, and more. An example is the planar array of slots used in the
Airborne Warning and Control System, which employs waveguide slots on the narrow walls of
the waveguides. This system provides a 360degree view and can detect targets hundreds of
kilometers away at operational altitudes. It is typically mounted above the fuselage of an
aircraft.

Figure 3.2: Planar Array

A planar array offers a large aperture and can achieve directional beam control by adjusting the
relative phase of each element. This configuration produces symmetrical patterns with low side
lobes and significantly higher directivity (a narrower main beam) than individual elements.
Planar arrays are highly versatile, providing more symmetrical patterns with lower-side lobes and
greater directivity. They are capable of scanning the main beam toward any point in space.

3.7.6 Gain and Element Factor of Planar Arrays

The maximum gain of a uniformly illuminated, lossless aperture with area (A) and a broadside beam
is expressed as:

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(4)
With non-uniform aperture distribution and with the lossless present, the gain is reduced by
efficiency term η to

(5)
If the aperture consists of \(N\) equal radiating elements and is matched to accept the incident power,
then each element contributes equally to the overall gain. Hence

(6)
Where Ge is the gain per element, the matched element power pattern is:

(7)
If the aperture consists of N equal, discrete, radiating elements and is matched to accept power
like a continuous aperture, then each element contributes equally to the overall gain.
If the normalized radiation amplitude of the element or element pattern is

(8)

For a given element spacing s, the total number of radiators N in the area A is N= 𝐴/𝑆2 and gives

(9)
when the element spacing is = /2 then the power pattern of an element that is perfectly
matched at all scan angles is

(10)
The effects of the element pattern are most noticeable with wider beams. The radiation pattern
of an array is the product of the element pattern and the array factor. The array factor is
determined by the geometric arrangement of the elements and their phasing, assuming the
elements are isotropic and there is no mutual coupling. Its peak value remains independent of
the scan angle. The element pattern is the actual radiation pattern of an element within the array,
considering the presence of all other elements and accounting for all coupling effects and
mismatches.

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The maximum element pattern can be obtained experimentally by exciting one typical element
while terminating the other elements with matched loads. Any positions where the main beam
fails to form or where there is a significant loss in gain will appear as nulls in the element
pattern.
3.7.6 Array Factor
The "Array Factor" (AF) is the normalized radiation pattern of an array composed of isotropic
point-source elements.

Figure 3.3: Planar Array Geometry

If M elements are initially placed along the x-axis, the array element can be expressed as

(11)

Here, represents the directional cosine concerning the x-axis. It

is assumed that all elements are equally spaced with an interval of dx and have a progressive phase
shift of βx. Im1 denotes the excitation amplitude of the element at
coordinates . In the figure above, this element is in the n-th row and
the 1st column of the array matrix.
If N such arrays are arranged adjacent to each other along the y-axis, a rectangular array is
formed. We assume these arrays are equally spaced at a distance of dy and have a progressive
phase shift of βy along each row. Additionally, it is assumed that the normalized current
distribution along each x-directed array is identical, with absolute values scaled by a factor of
I1n (for n = 1, …., N). The array factor (AF) for the entire array will then be:

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(12)

The array factor is influenced by several factors including the number of elements, the spacing
between elements, and the amplitude and phase of the signal applied to each element.
The number of elements and their spacing directly determine the total surface area of the
radiating structure, known as the aperture. A larger aperture generally leads to higher gain.
Aperture efficiency measures how effectively the aperture is utilized.
The array factor for a planar equally spaced array with N elements in each column and M elements in
each row can be expressed as:

(13)

For uniform amplitude distribution (Inm = 1) and equal phase distribution (δnm = 0), the normalized planar
array factor is defined as:

(14)
where the coordinates α and β are determined as sinα = sinθcosφ, sinβ = sinθsinφ and

; (15)

The configuration of a rectangular array is determined by multiplying the array factors of the
linear arrays in both the x and y directions. Each element is excited with the same amplitude in
a uniform planar (rectangular) array, where Im1 equals In1 equals Io for all m and n.

(16)

The normalized array factor can be obtained as:

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(17)

Where,

The major lobe (principal maximum) and grating lobes of the terms:

(18)

Figure 3.4: Two-dimensional planar array (M x N Rectangular Pattern)

As for the above figure, to scan over all spaces without gratin lobes, both dx and dy need to be
less than half of the lambda.

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3.7.7 Grating Lobe Issues for Planar Arrays

Figure 3.5: Grating Lobe Issues with λ/2 Spacing (the two left side configurations) and Grating Lobe
Issues with λ Spacing (the two configurations to the right side).

The triangular grid is commonly preferred due to its efficiency, requiring approximately 14%
fewer elements compared to a square grid. The precise percentage of savings varies based on
the scanning needs of the array. Furthermore, for scan angles below 60 degrees, there are no
grating lobes present in a triangular grid.
In the case of a rectangular grid with half-wavelength spacing, no grating lobes are observable
across all scan angles. However, the question arises whether each element of the phased array
can transmit and receive without affecting others. The answer is negative, as mutual coupling
exists.
Mutual coupling refers to the phenomenon where one antenna element influences another.
Despite the assumption of no interaction between radiating elements in a simple model analysis,
the mutual coupling is a reality. It occurs because the current in one element is affected by the
amplitude and phase of the current in neighboring elements, as well as in the element under
consideration.
When the antenna is scanned from the broadside, mutual coupling can induce changes in
antenna gain, beam shape, sidelobe level, and radiation impedance. It can even lead to "scan
blindness," where the performance of the array is compromised. However, it's worth noting that
mutual coupling can sometimes be intentionally leveraged to meet specific performance
requirements.
3.7.8 The beam width of a planar array
The array beam width denotes the angular extent occupied by the array's main beam or main
lobe, measured at a consistent power level. Typically, this width is assessed at the half-power
point or the 3dB point, hence termed as the half-power beam width or 3-dB beam width.
Alternatively, the width can be determined between the first nulls adjacent to the main beam,

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termed the first-null beam width. However, in general usage, when referring to beam width, it
typically signifies the 3-dB beam width.

Figure 3.6: Beam width

We will now outline a straightforward method proposed by R.S. Elliot1. This method relies on
utilizing the beam widths of the linear arrays that construct the planar array. For a sizable array,
with its maximum near the broad side, the elevation plane half power beam width (HPBW) is
approximately:

(19)

where:

(θ0, φ0) - denotes the direction of the main beam;

Δθx - represents the half-power beam width (HPBW) of a linear broadside array, sharing the
same number of elements M and amplitude distribution as the linear arrays along the x-axis
constructing the planar array;
Δθy - signifies the HPBW of a linear broadside array, with the same number of elements N and
amplitude distribution as the linear arrays along the y-axis building the planar array.
The HPBW within the plane, perpendicular to the φ = φ0 plane and encompassing the maximum, is:

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(20)

For a square array (M=N) with amplitude distributions along the x and y axes of the same type,
equations 19 and 20 reduce to:

(21)
The beam solid angle of the planar array can be approximated by:

Or

(22)
3.7.9 Directivity of Planar Array

In various scenarios, the primary goal of an antenna array is to manipulate its response or beam
pattern to amplify radiation (or reception) in a specific direction while minimizing reception in
other directions. A valuable metric for assessing the precision of the array is its directivity,
which quantifies the ratio of the power radiated by the array in a desired direction to the average
power radiated in all directions. In array synthesis discussions, array gain is often used
interchangeably with array directivity, given that losses in antennas and antenna circuits are
disregarded. Nevertheless, it's crucial to recognize that while array directivity and array gain
are connected, they are distinct concepts.
The standard formula used to compute the directivity of an array is:

(23)

For large planar arrays, which are nearly broadside, the above equation reduces to:

(24)

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In this context:
Dx refers to the directivity of the corresponding linear broadside array along the x-axis, while Dy
indicates the directivity of the corresponding linear broadside array along the yaxis.
Additionally, one can employ the array solid beam angle ΩA from the equation preceding the
directivity formula to estimate the directivity of an almost broadside planar array.

(25)
Note:
1) The primary beam's orientation is managed by adjusting the phase shifts,
denoted as βx and βy.
2) The breadth of the beam and the levels of side lobes are regulated by the
distribution of amplitudes.
3.7.10 Result, Discussion, and Conclusion
3.7.10.1 Result

A snippet of code for the subsequent figure:

Following is the graph that is simulated by running complete one of the above
snippet codes:

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Figure 3.7: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/4 and dy=lambda/4

Then, with subtle changes to the above line of codes, the following graph was
simulated:

Figure 3.8: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda/2 and dy=lambda/2

Again, by changing a few parameters of the Matlab code used to simulate Figure 3.6,
we could obtain the subsequent graph:

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Figure 3.9: Rectangular Array Factor at dx=lambda and dy=lambda

After this, for a specific value of N (=8) and M (=10), we could simulate the following
graph to examine the case of the three scenarios.

Figure 3.10: Rectangular Array Factor for N=8 and M=10 with varying dx and dy

Below are the 3D plots for the three cases: dx=dy=0.25lambda, dx=dy=0.5lambda,
and dx=dy=lambda respectively. Note that in all cases, elements on the x and y axis,
calculation of power Array factor and plotted Array phase of 80 and Array
amplitudes of 1 are considered.

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Figure3.11: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.25lambda

Figure 3.12: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=0.50lambda.

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Figure 3.13: 3D Array Factor of a 6x6 planar array antenna with dx=dy=lambda

3.7.10.2 Discussion

We considered each element of the array as an isotropic radiator, a theoretical antenna that
emits radiation equally in all directions. As such, we plot the array factor to represent the
overall radiation pattern, which closely resembles that of isotropic radiator elements. This
array radiation pattern is solely determined by the array factor (AF) of the rectangular array.
The simulation results depict the array factor plot for a 4×4 planar array antenna, arranged
with four elements horizontally and vertically, shown in a 3D plot. Notably, grating lobes
appear when dx and dy are greater than or equal to lambda, regardless of the βx and βy
values. Additionally, the array factor plots illustrate an inverse relationship between beam
width and inter-element spacing for a constant number of elements. For example, wider
beam width is observed when d = λ/4 compared to when dx = dy = λ. Specifically, when dx
= dy ≤ 0.5λ, no grating lobes form for any angle βx and βy, resulting in a wide beam width.
Conversely, when dx = dy ≥λ, grating lobes occur for all βx and βy values, leading to a
narrower beam width. Moreover, when 0.5 λ < dx = dy < λ, grating lobe formation depends
on βx and βy, resulting in a medium beam width. Furthermore, the array factor plots show
that beam width is influenced not only by inter-element spacing but also by the number of
elements. As demonstrated, the beam width decreases as the array's number of elements
increases, with larger beam widths observed for N = 8 and M = 10 and smaller ones for N
= 64 and M = 80.

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3.7.10.3 Conclusion

In addressing the specific wireless telecommunication challenges encountered by

Northern Region EthioTelecom, especially those related to antenna directive
features, our project extensively evaluated the performance of rectangular array
antennas. Through comprehensive analysis and discussions, we've showcased how
array antennas effectively enhance network performance while simplifying
complexities associated with single-element antennas. Objectives such as
enhancing antenna gain and maximizing signal-to-noise ratio were thoroughly
assessed in our in-depth analysis of the configuration of rectangular planar arrays.
This study not only resolves identified issues but also offers valuable insights and
recommendations, emphasizing the pivotal role of array antennas, particularly
rectangular array antennas, in optimizing infrastructure and bolstering network
performance for Northern Region EthioTelecom. Despite our reliance on
MATLAB simulation for analysis, the findings have significant practical
implications for implementing rectangular array antennas within the company.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. Overall Benefits Gained from the Internship
As newcomers to the company, everything was novel and unfamiliar. Armed only with
theoretical knowledge, we embarked on this journey. The transition to real-world applications
was both captivating and enlightening, as it allowed us to witness and engage with the lessons
learned over the past four years. Our internship provided invaluable insights, bridging the gap
between theoretical concepts and practical implementation within our respective engineering
domains. We endeavored to immerse ourselves in every task, eager to gain hands-on
experience and learning opportunities. Working alongside experienced professionals in a
dynamic environment enriched our skills and provided us with the following advantages:
Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge
Improving practical skills
Interpersonal communication skills
Team playing Skill
Leadership skills
Develop Work ethics skills
Entrepreneur skills

4.1 Upgrading Theoretical Knowledge

We firmly believe that theoretical lessons provide a solid foundation indispensable for
practical implementations. However, theoretical knowledge gained through practical
experience is not only unforgettable but also easily comprehensible, serving as the primary
tool for problem-solving. Our internship proved instrumental in enhancing the theoretical
understanding acquired over the past four years, introducing us to new ideas beyond the
scope of regular classroom instruction. Moreover, it significantly elevated our problem
solving skills, particularly in the domains of network transmission and cellular
communication. Immersed in practical applications, we gained confidence and proficiency,
dedicating a substantial portion of our internship to studying documents and materials
provided by supervisors and staff members. Consequently, our theoretical knowledge was
greatly enriched and our practical experience was elevated to a new level. In truth, our time
at Ethiotelecom has enriched us more in theoretical knowledge than in practical skills.

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4.2 Improving Practical Skills
The primary aim of university internships is to extend student learning beyond the
classroom, bridging theoretical concepts with real-world applications. Although our
university endeavors to integrate theory and practice through lab exercises, the resources
are often limited. Thus, the internship emerged as a crucial program to enhance our practical
skills, filling the gaps in our experiential learning. During the internship, we gained
exposure to various facets of practical skills, addressing the deficiencies we encountered.

4.3 In terms of Industrial Problem-Solving Capability

In a large company like Ethio Telecom, daily activities are abundant, and new problems
arise frequently, requiring effective solutions. From our internship experience, we've
learned the importance of leveraging our university knowledge to address practical issues.
This involves applying our knowledge appropriately, continuously expanding our
understanding, thoroughly researching and understanding tasks before execution,
discussing challenges with colleagues, and maintaining self-confidence. Effective
problem-solving begins with a planning phase to identify and understand the problem,
followed by determining its impact and likelihood of occurrence, and then developing and
testing solutions. If the solution is ineffective, revisiting and refining the plan is crucial.

4.4 In terms of Improving Interpersonal Communication and

Teamwork Skills
During our internship, we significantly enhanced our interpersonal communication and
teamwork skills. With guidance from our associates, we developed formal communication
skills, focusing on avoiding interruptions to show respect, confidently presenting our ideas
to build trust, and honing active listening skills for better understanding and positive
responses. We learned the importance of effective teamwork, recognizing that
disagreements can hinder progress. Successful team players communicate constructively,
listen actively, participate fully, share willingly, cooperate, and show commitment to the
team. Confident and enthusiastic engineers with strong managerial and organizational
skills can lead projects successfully by gaining the trust of their co-workers.

4.5 Improving Leadership Skills

During our internship, we did not serve as leaders, but we observed leadership in action
from those in charge. We witnessed how officials efficiently managed tasks, led teams, and
created a conducive work environment. They demonstrated respect for lower-level
employees and maintained high ethical standards, showing responsibility for their sections
and the company as a whole. Interacting with various Ethio telecom workers, we observed
their daily activities and gained insights into their general behavior. From this experience,
we learned that a good leader must be exemplary in all traits, possess strong communication
skills to inspire workers and understand the importance of incentives and rewards.

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Recognizing outstanding performance, offering career advancement, and providing salary
increments are vital for motivating employees and achieving company objectives.

4.6 Understanding Work Ethics-Related Issues

Understanding and embodying strong work ethics is fundamental to personal and
professional success, emphasizing accountability, punctuality, respect, time management,
and attitude. Recognizing the profound impact of work ethics on individual performance,
team dynamics, and national development, we aspire to uphold these principles in our
careers. Work ethics encompasses the overall quality of behavior, emphasizing an
appreciation for the work process and a commitment to completing tasks with responsibility
and accountability. Throughout our internship, we have diligently adhered to our job
descriptions with enthusiasm, cultivating key attributes such as obedience to management,
honesty, self-confidence, politeness, and respectfulness. These qualities not only contribute
to our individual growth but also foster a positive work environment conducive to collective
success.

4.7 In terms of Entrepreneurship Skills

Entrepreneurship, a realm where dreams meet challenges, beckons those daring enough to
organize and operate businesses, unveiling both trials and rewards. While the journey isn't
without its hurdles, adept management and skilled human resources can turn the tide toward
profitability. Through this endeavor, we've grasped the essence of boldness, understanding
that success hinges on a deep comprehension of the business landscape and adept navigation
of its intricacies. In Ethiopia, where job scarcity looms large amid a surplus of educated
individuals, entrepreneurship emerges as a beacon of hope, offering a pathway to self-
sufficiency. Embracing this ethos, we've cultivated a vision of becoming educated
entrepreneurs, shunning conventional job pursuits in favor of charting our destinies and
creating opportunities for ourselves.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
Established a century ago, Ethiotelecom stands as Ethiopia's preeminent
Telecommunications powerhouse, intricately woven into the fabric of society, facilitating
communication across diverse sectors including education, commerce, and governance.
Throughout our internship, we gained profound insights into Ethiotelecom's pivotal role in
spearheading societal transformation and progress. Our exposure to fixed network transport
systems such as OTN and Cellular communications illuminated the expansive scope and
importance of telecom services in our nation's development journey. This immersive
experience not only deepened our theoretical understanding but also sharpened our practical
skills, seamlessly integrating us into the company's dynamic work environment. The
historical trajectory of Ethio-telecom underscores the monumental dedication and resources
required to uphold a modern telecommunications infrastructure amidst evolving demands
and technological advancements. Our internship provided us with a rich tapestry of
theoretical and practical expertise, empowering us to make meaningful contributions to
Ethiopia's technological evolution. In essence, this internship was an enriching odyssey,
offering invaluable experiences and insights into the realities of professional life and the
potential it holds for growth and innovation.

5.2 Recommendation
5.2 .1 Recommendation for the Company
Ethiotelecom, while a sizable and profitable entity, is not without its imperfections, and we
have identified several areas for improvement within the company. Despite the internship
program showcasing commendable aspects, there are notable weaknesses at the organizational
level that warrant attention. These include prioritizing safety and quality over economic gains,
particularly concerning the prevalence of low-cost Chinese manufactured devices within the
company's infrastructure. Additionally, the staff members were not always ready to assist us,
stemming from a lack of time as they had to put their regular tasks first, which hindered
effective communication and knowledge transfer. To enhance client satisfaction and uphold
international standards, Ethiotelecom should strive to deliver solutions that meet the highest
quality, safety, and environmental criteria, prioritizing stakeholder, client, and community

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benefits while upholding ethical values. Implementing a rotational system for interns across
various divisions can facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the company's operations.
Furthermore, establishing a dedicated research and laboratory section within Ethio
Telecom would prove beneficial, offering students valuable pre-programming
Opportunities and fostering innovation among employees to drive the company's continuous
improvement efforts.

5.2.2 Recommendation for the University

Expressing our gratitude to the university and our department head office for facilitating our
placement at Ethiotelecom, we strongly recommend that the university continues with the
internship program, as it is instrumental in preparing students for their future careers by allowing
them to apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings. This program also fosters a deeper
understanding of work ethics, employment demands, responsibilities, and opportunities. We urge
the university to continue assisting all students in securing internship positions relevant to their
programs by providing recommendations to ease their training periods and alleviate the stress of
finding internship placements.
5.2.3 Recommendations for Students
Internships provide an excellent opportunity to translate classroom knowledge into real world
experience. While learning is essential, applying those skills in a work setting allows for the
exploration of various career paths and specializations that align with personal interests. Hence,
we advise students to view internships not as a break but as a valuable chance to learn. Building
networks during this period is crucial, as connections with like-minded individuals can lead to
future job opportunities. Students should approach their internships with passion and
dedication, fully engaging in learning and practice within their companies.

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References
[1] Ethiotelecom, "Internship Manual: Providing an Overview of the Company to Interns,"
Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia, 2024.

[2] Ethiotelecom, "History of Telecommunications in Ethiopia," [Online]. Available:

https://www.ethiotelecom.et/history/. [Accessed: 23-April-2024].

[3] W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA:
Wiley, 2012.

[4] R. C. Hansen, Phased Array Antennas, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2009.

[5] J. D. Kraus and R. J. Marhefka, Antennas: For All Applications, 3rd ed. New York, NY,
USA: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

[6] C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 4th ed., Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley,
2016.

[7] J. Huang, C. C. Chen, and R. K. Wu, "Optimization of design parameters for planar array
antennas," IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 485-497,
Feb. 2018.

[8] T. V. Balabanov and A. A. Velidov, "Advanced simulation tools for planar array antenna
analysis and optimization," in Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on
Antenna Technology (iWAT), 2017, pp. 1-4.

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[9] Y. Li, S. Jin, X. Gao, and S. Zhang, "Adaptive beamforming for planar array antennas
using phase shifting and amplitude weighting techniques," IEEE Transactions on Wireless
Communications, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 3393-3405, Jul. 2019.

[10] J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart, "Particle swarm optimization," in Proceedings of the 1995
IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks (ICNN), 1995, vol. 4, pp. 1942-1948.

[11] J. Y. Chang, H. C. Wang, and P. K. Huang, "Applications of planar array antennas in

radar and wireless communications," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and
Techniques, vol. 63, no. 5, pp. 1450-1462, May 2015.

[12] Cunningham, D. M. Pozar, and S. D. Weigand, "Advances in manufacturing

technologies for planar array antennas," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, vol.
61, no. 3, pp. 7987, Jun. 2019.

Appendix
Appendix1: Array Factor calculation code for fixed values of N, and
M
% Define parameters

lambda = 1; % Wavelength

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N = 8; % Number of elements in the x direction
M = 10; % Number of elements in the y
direction angles = -pi:0.01:pi; % Angle range

% Define arrays for dx and dy dx_values = [0.25, 0.5, 1, 2] * lambda; %

Element spacing in the x direction

% Define colors and markers

colors = {'m', 'b', 'g', 'k'};

markers = {'o', 'none', 'x', '.'};

line_styles = {'-', '--', '-', '-'};

% Create the pattern for each dx and dy combination

figure; hold on; for idx =

1:length(dx_values) dx =
dx_values(idx); dy = dx; %
For equal dx and dy

% Array factor calculation af_x = sin(N*pi*dx*sin(angles)/lambda) ./

(N*sin(pi*dx*sin(angles)/lambda)); af_y =
sin(M*pi*dy*sin(angles)/lambda) ./ (M*sin(pi*dy*sin(angles)/lambda));

AF = abs(af_x) .* abs(af_y);

% Normalize the array factor

AF = AF / max(AF);

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% Plot the results with specified colors and markers plot(angles, AF,
'DisplayName', sprintf('dx=dy %.2f \\lambda', dx/lambda), ...

'Color', colors{idx}, 'LineStyle', line_styles{idx}, 'Marker', markers{idx}, ...

'MarkerSize', 8, 'MarkerFaceColor', 'none', 'MarkerEdgeColor', colors{idx}, ...

'MarkerIndices', 1:10:length(AF)); % Set marker indices with spacing

end

% Adding Display Features

xlabel('$-\pi \leq \alpha \leq \pi$', 'Interpreter', 'latex'); ylabel('Normalized

Rectangular Array Factor'); title('Rectangular Array Factor for N=8 and M=10
with varying dx and dy (dx=dy)'); legend('show', 'Interpreter', 'latex', 'Location',
'best'); grid on;

% Set x-axis ticks and labels xticks(-

pi:pi/2:pi); xticklabels({'-\pi', '-\pi/2',
'0', '\pi/2', '\pi'});

xlim([-pi pi]); % Limiting x-axis range from -pi to pi

hold off;

Appendix2: Matlab code for simulating 3D Array Factor

% Constants lambda = 1; % Wavelength dx =
lambda; % Element spacing in x-direction dy =

AKU DEPARTMENT OF ECE (ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT AND PROJECT
lambda; % Element spacing in y-direction N =
6; % Number of elements in x and y directions
phi = 80; % Array phase in degrees

A = 1; % Array amplitude

% Define theta and phi angles

theta = linspace(0, pi, 100);
phi_deg = linspace(0, 2*pi,
100);

% Calculate 3D array factor

AF = zeros(length(theta),
length(phi_deg)); for i = 1:length(theta)
for j = 1:length(phi_deg)

AF(i,j) = abs(sum(sum(exp(1i*(2*pi*dx/lambda*(0:N-1)*sin(theta(i))*cos(phi_deg(j)) +
2*pi*dy/lambda*(0:N-1)*sin(theta(i))*sin(phi_deg(j)) + phi*pi/180)))))/N^2;

end

end

% Convert theta and phi to

degrees theta_deg =
rad2deg(theta); phi_deg =
rad2deg(phi_deg);

% Calculate Array Factor in dB

AF_dB = 10*log10(AF);

AKU DEPARTMENT OF ECE (ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

94
STREAM) 2017 E.C
 INTERNSHIP REPORT AND PROJECT
% Plot 3D array factor figure; surf(phi_deg, theta_deg, AF_dB.',
'EdgeColor', 'none'); title('3D Array Factor of a 6x6 Planar Array
Antenna (for dx=dy=\lambda)'); xlabel('Phi (degrees)'); ylabel('Theta
(degrees)'); zlabel('Array Factor (dB)'); colorbar;

AKU DEPARTMENT OF ECE (ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

95
STREAM) 2017 E.C