UNIT-IV: ALLOYS & CORROSION

Alloys: Purpose of making alloys, classification of alloys, ferrous alloys ex: Steel, non-ferrous
alloys ex: Cu, Al, Pb (features and applications).
Corrosion: Introduction, causes and effects of corrosion, chemical and electrochemical
corrosion and mechanism of corrosion. Types-differential aeration corrosion (Pitting and
waterline corrosion), differential metal corrosion (Galvanic corrosion). Factors affecting
corrosion-nature of metal (position, passivity, purity, areas of anode and cathode) & nature of
environment (temperature, pH, humidity). Corrosion control methods-proper designing, cathodic
protection, differences between galvanizing and tinning, paints-constituents and functions.

CORROSION

The surface of almost all the metals begin to decay more or less rapidly when exposed to
atmospheric gases, water or other reactive liquid medium.

The process of decay metal by environmental attack is known as corrosion.

Metals undergo corrosion and convert to their oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulphides etc.

E.g. Iron undergoes corrosion to form reddish brown colour rust [Fe2O3. 3H2O].

Copper undergoes corrosion to form a green film of basic carbonate [CuCO3 + Cu (OH)2]

Causes of corrosion

1. The metals exist in nature in the form of their minerals or ores, in the stable combined forms
as oxides, chlorides, silicates, carbonates, sulphides etc.
2. During the extraction of metals, these ores are reduced to metallic state by supplying
considerable amounts of energy.
3. Hence the isolated pure metals are regarded as excited states than their corresponding
ores. So metals have natural tendency to go back to their combined state (minerals/ores).
When metal is exposed to atmospheric gases, moisture, liquids etc., and the metal surface
reacts and forms more thermodynamically stabled compounds.

Effects of corrosion

1. Wastage of metal in the form of its compounds.

2. The valuable metallic properties like conductivity, malleability, ductility etc. are lost due
to corrosion.
3. Life span and efficiency of metallic parts of machinery and fabrications is reduced.
4. Contamination of the metal
5. Investment and maintenance cost increases
Theories of corrosion
Dry corrosion or Chemical corrosion

This type of Corrosion occurs mainly through the direct chemical action of atmospheric gasses
like O2, halogens, H2S, SO2, N2 or anhydrous inorganic liquid with the metal surface.

There are three types of chemical Corrosion:

(1.) Oxidation corrosion

(2.) Corrosion due to other gases

(3.) Liquid metal corrosion

(1) Oxidation Corrosion:This is carried out by the direct action of oxygen low or high
Temperatures on metals in absence of moisture. Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals are
rapidly oxidized at low temperatures. At high temperature all metals are oxidized (except Ag,
Au, and Pt).

At Anode : M → M2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

At cathode : 1/2 O2 +2e- → O-2 (Reduction)

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Net reaction : M +1/2 O2 → MO

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1.Oxidation corrosion:

The Nature of the Oxide formed plays an important part in oxidation corrosion process.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide (corrosion product)
When oxidation starts, a thin layer of oxide is formed on the metal surface and the nature
of this film decides the further action. If the film is
 (i) Stable layer: The oxide film behaves has a protective layer which prevents further
Corrosion.
E.g., the oxide films of Al, Sn, Pb, Cu, Cr, W etc. are stable and therefore further corrosion is
prohibited.
(ii) Unstable oxide layer: If the metal oxide unstable, the oxide layer formed decomposes back
into metal and oxygen. Oxidation corrosion is not possible.
E.g., Ag, Au and Pt do not undergo oxidation corrosion.
(iii) Volatile oxide layer : If the metal oxide layer is volatile, then the oxide layer volatilizes
after formation and leaves the underlying metal surface exposed for further attack. This causes
continuous corrosion which is excessive in molybdenum oxide (MoO3).
(iv) Porous layer: If the metal oxide layer is porous, the oxide layer formed has pores or cracks.
In this case the atmospheric oxygen penetrates through the pores or cracks and corrode the
underlying metal surface. This cause continuous corrosion till conversion of metal into its oxide
is completed.
Ex: Alkali and alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Mg etc.)
2. Corrosion due to other gases: This type of corrosion is due to gases like SO2, CO2,Cl2, H2S,
F2 etc. In this corrosion, the extent of corrosive effect depends mainly on the chemical affinity
between the metal and the gas involved. The degree of attack depends on the formation of
protective or non protective films on the metal surface which is explained on the basis of Pilling
Bedworth rule.
Pilling-Bed worth rule = Volume of metal oxide layer
Volume of metal

Smaller the specific volume ratio greater is oxidation corrosion

i. “If the volume of the metal oxide is at least as great as the volume of the metal from
which it is formed”-It is non porous and becomes protective layer by tightly adhering to
the base metal. No corrosion occurs and oxidation metal reaches to zero . Ex: Cr, Ni,W
Ag + Cl2 → 2AgCl (protective film)
ii. “If the volume of the oxide is less than the volume of metal, the oxide layer is porous ,
non-protective, because it cannot prevent the access of oxygen to the fresh metal
surface below”.
Fe (steel) + H2S → FeS (porous)

3. Liquid metal Corrosion: This corrosion is due to chemical action of flowing liquid metal at
high temperatures on solid metal or alloy. The corrosion reaction involves either dissolution of a
solid metal by a liquid metal or internal penetration of the liquid metal into the solid metal.
Eg. Coolant (sodium metal) leads to corrosion of cadmium in nuclear reactors.
Wet corrosion or electrochemical corrosion:
• This type of Corrosion occurs where a conducting liquid is in contact with the metal.
• This corrosion occurs due to the existence of separate anodic and cathodic parts, between
which current flows through the conducting solution.
• At anodic area, oxidation reaction occurs there by destroying the anodic metal either by
dissolution or formation of compounds. Hence corrosion always occurs at anodic parts.
• At cathode reduction takes place.
• Corrosion product is formed in between anodic and cathodic parts

Mechanism: Electrochemical corrosion involves flow of electrons between anode and cathode.
The anodic reaction involves dissolution of metal liberating free electrons.
M → Mn+ + ne-
The cathodic reaction consumes electrons with either evolution of hydrogen or absorption of
oxygen which depends on the nature of corrosive environment.
a) Evolution of hydrogen: This type of corrosion occurs in acidic medium.

E.g. Considering the metal Fe, anodic reaction is dissolution of iron as ferrous ions with

Liberation of electrons.

Fig. Hydrogen evolution corrosion

At Anode : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)
The electrons released flow through the metal from anode to cathode, whereas H+ ions of acidic
solution are eliminated as hydrogen gas.

Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2 (Reduction)

The overall reaction is: Fe + 2H+ → Fe2+ + H2

In Neutral solution Evolution of hydrogen:

At Anode : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

At cathode : 2H2O +2e- → H2 + 2 OH- (Reduction)

Fe2+ + 2OH-→ Fe (OH)2

If oxygen is in excess, ferrous hydroxide is easily oxidized to ferric hydroxide.

4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe (OH) 3 → Fe2O3. 3H2O.

This type of corrosion causes displacement of hydrogen ions from the solution by metal ions. All
metals above hydrogen in electrochemical series have a tendency to get dissolved in acidic
solution with simultaneous evolution of H2 gas. The anodes are large areas, whereas cathodes
are small areas.

b)Absorption of oxygen: For example, rusting of iron in neutral aqueous solution of electrolytes
in presence of atmospheric oxygen. Usually the surface of iron is coated with a thin film of iron
oxide. If the film develops cracks, anodic areas are created on the surface. While the metal parts
act as cathodes. It shows that anodes are small areas, while the rest metallic part forms large
Cathodes. The released electrons flow from anode to cathode through iron metal.

At anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

At cathode: ½ O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH- (Reduction)

Overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH-→ Fe (OH)2

If oxygen is in excess, ferrous hydroxide is easily oxidized to ferric hydroxide.

4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe (OH) 3

The product called yellow rust corresponds to Fe2O3. 3H2O.

fig. Oxygen absorption corrosion

Types of corrosion

1. Waterline corrosion or Concentration cell corrosion

This type of corrosion occurs due to electrochemical attack of the metal surface exposed
to electrolyte of varying concentrations or varying aeration.

This type of corrosion is due to

(i) Galvanic Corrosion or bimetallic Corrosion

(ii) Concentration cell corrosion (Differential aeration corrosion)

Galvanic Corrosion/ Bimetallic corrosion

• When two dissimilar metals (eg., zinc and copper) are electrically connected and exposed
to an electrolyte, the metal higher in electrochemical series undergoes corrosion. This
type of corrosion is called Galvanic corrosion.
• In this process, the more active metal acts as a anode while the less active metal acts as
cathode.
Example: zinc (higher in electrochemical series) forms the anode
and is attacked and gets dissolved; whereas copper (lower in
electrochemical series or more noble)acts as cathode.
Mechanism:
• In acidic solution, the corrosion occurs by the hydrogen
evolution process;
• while in neutral or slightly alkaline solution, oxygen
absorption occurs.
• The electron-current flows from the anode metal zinc to
the cathode metal copper.
Zn Zn+2+2e- (Oxidation)
• Thus it is evident that the corrosion occurs at the anode
metal; while the cathodic part is protected from the attack.
Example:
(i) Steel screws in a brass marine hardware
(ii)Lead-antimony solder around copper wire;
(iii) a steel propeller shaft in bronze bearing
(iv) Steel pipe connected to copper plumbing.
 Concentration cell corrosion (Differential aeration corrosion):

• Differential aeration corrosion is the most common type of concentration cell

corrosion. When a metal is exposed to different air concentrations, it has been found
to be poorly oxygenated of the metal becomes anodic and well oxygenated part
becomes cathodic.
• The potential difference is created which causes the flow of electrons from anode
(metallic part immersed in NaCl solution) to cathode (exposed to atmosphere).
Examples:
• i) The metal part immersed in water or in a conducting liquid is called water line
corrosion.
• ii) The metal part partially buried in soil.
Explanation:
If a metal is partially immersed in a conducting solution the metal part above the
solution is more aerated and becomes cathodic. The metal part inside the solution is
less aerated and thus becomes anodic and suffers corrosion.

Eg. Anode : Zn rod immersed deep in NaCl solution

Cathode : Zn rod above NaCl solution

Fig. Concentration cell corrosion

Pitting Corroson:

• Pitting is a localized attack, which results in the formation of a hole around which the
metal is relatively unattacked.

• The mechanism of this corrosion involves setting up of differential aeration or

concentration cell.

• Metal area covered by a drop of water, dust, sand, scale etc. is the aeration or
concentration cell.

pitting corrosion is explained by considering a drop of water or brine solution (aqueous

solution of NaCl) on a metal surface, (especially iron).

• The area covered by the drop of salt solution as less oxygen and acts as anode. This area
suffers corrosion, the uncovered area acts as cathode due to high oxygen content.
 • It has been found that the rate of corrosion will be more when the area of cathode is
larger and the area of the anode is smaller.

• Hence there is more material around the small anodic are results in the formation hole or
pit.

Mechanism:

• At anode : Fe is oxidized to Fe2+ and releases electrons.

Fe → Fe2+ +2e-

• At cathode : Oxygen is converted to hydroxide ion

½ O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH-

• The net reaction is Fe + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2

Factors effecting corrosion

The rate and extent of corrosion depends upon various factors due to nature of metal and
nature of corroding environment.

Factors due to nature of metal

There are two factors that influence the rate of corrosion.

The rate of corrosion is different in different atmosphere.

1. Nature of the metal

2. Nature of the corroding environment

Nature of the metal Nature of the corroding environment

1. Position in Galvanic series 1.Tempetarure

2. Purity of metal 2. Humidity of air

3. Passivity 3. Influence of pH

4. Areas of anode and cathode

Position of metal in galvanic series

• When two metals or alloys are in electrical contact in presence of an electrolyte, the metal
with higher oxidation potential suffers corrosion.

• The metal higher in the electrochemical series becomes anodic.

• Rate and severity of corrosion, depends upon the difference in the position metals.

• The greater is the difference, the faster and higher is the corrosion.

Purity of the metal:

• Heterogeneity is produced if impurities are present in a metal which form tiny

electrochemical cells at the exposed parts.

• The anodic parts get corroded

• Ex: Zn metal containing impurity (such as Pb or Fe) undergoes corrosion of Zn, due to
the formation of local electrochemical cells.

• The rate of extent of corrosion increases with the increasing exposure and the extent of
the impurities.

Consequently, corrosion resistance of a metal may be improved by increasing purity

Passivity:

• Passivity is a loss of electrochemical reactivity (drastic decrease in corrosion rate) that

many engineering alloys

• (e.g. stainless steel, Ni based alloys, Al alloys) exhibit under certain environmental
conditions.

• Passivation usually is the result of the presence of a thin protective oxide or oxy-
hydroxide passive film on the metal surface.

• If the film is broken it compensates the film by re exposure to oxidizing conditions. Thus
they produce “self healing film”. This property is called passive character of a metal.

• Ex: The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is due to passivating character of

Chromium present in it

Relative areas of anodic and cathodic cells :The relative areas o of corrosion is
influenced by cathodic to anodic cells.
 If the metal has small anodic and large cathodic area, the rate of corrosion is very high.
This is because the electrons are liberated at anode which is consumed at cathode. If the
cathodic area is larger, the liberated electrons are rapidly consumed at cathode. This
further enhances the anodic reaction leading to increase the rate of corrosion.

Physical state of metal: Metals with small grain size have more tendencies to undergo
corrosion. Metal with more stress/strain also undergoes corrosion easily.

Factors affecting due to Nature of Environment

1. Temperature: the rate of corrosion reactions increases with increase in temperature.

2. Humidity in air: the moisture or humidity present in atmosphere furnishes water to the
electrolyte which is essential for setting up of an electrochemical cell. The oxide film formed has
the tendency to absorb moisture which creates another electrochemical cell.
3. Presence of impurities : Atmosphere is contaminated with gases like CO2, SO2, H2S; fumes
of H2SO4, HCl etc. and other suspended particles in the vicinity of industrial areas. They are
Responsible for electrical conductivity, thereby increasing corrosion.

PH value: pH value of the medium has the greater effect on corrosion. Acidic pH increases the
rate of corrosion.

Corrosion control methods

I. Cathodic protection

The method of protecting the base metal by making it to behave like a cathode is called
as cathodic protection. There are two types of cathodic protection

(a) Sacrificial anode method

(b) Impressed current method.
a. Sacrificial anode method
 In this protection method, the metallic structure to be protected (base metal) is connected
by a wire to a more anodic metal so that all the corrosion is concentrated at this more
anodic metal.
 The more anodic metal itself gets corroded slowly, while the parent structure (cathodic) is
protected. The more active metal so employed is called sacrificial anode. The corroded
sacrificial anode is replaced by a fresh one, when consumed completely.
 Metals commonly employed as sacrificial anode are Mg, Zn, Al and their alloys which
possess low reduction potential and occupies higher end in electrochemical series.
Eg. A ship-hull which is made up of steel is connected to sacrificial anode (Zn-blocks) which
undergoes corrosion leaving the base metal protected.
Eg. The underground water pipelines and water tanks are also protected by sacrificial anode
method. By referring to the electrochemical series, the metal with low reduction potential is
connected to the base metal which acts as anode.

Fig. Sacrificial anode method: ship hull and underground water pipeline

Applications:

1.Protection as buried pipelines, underground cables from soil corrosion.

2. Protection from marine corrosion of cables, ship hulls, piers etc.

3. Insertion of magnesium sheets into the domestic water boilers to prevent the formation
of rust.

4. Calcium metal is employed to minimize engine corrosion.

Advantages:

1. Low installation and operating cost.

2. Capacity to protect complex structures.

3. Applied to wide range of severe corrodents.

Limitations:

1. High starting current is required.

2. Uncoated parts cannot be protected.

3. Limited driving potential, hence, not applicable for large objects.

b. Impressed current method

 In this method, an impressed current is applied in opposite direction to nullify the

corrosion current, and convert the corroding metal from anode to cathode.
  The impressed current is slightly higher than the corrosion current. Thus the anodic
corroding metal becomes cathodic and protected from corrosion.
 The impressed current is taken from a battery or rectified on A.C. line.
 The anode is usually insoluble anode like graphite, high silica iron, scrap iron, stainless
steel, or platinum.
 A sufficient DC current is applied to an inert anode, buried in the soil (or immersed in the
corroding medium) and connected to the metallic structure to be protected.
 The anode is, usually, a back fill, composed of coke breeze or gypsum, so as to increase
the electrical contact with the surrounding soil.
 The impressed current protection method is used for water tanks, water & oil pipe
lines, transmission line towers etc.

Fig. Impressed current method

• This kind of protection technique is particularly useful for large structures for long term
operations

Pros of Impressed Current CP

• Unlimited driving potential.

• Capable of protecting large steel structures when designed properly.
• Requires less anodes then a galvanic system.
• Output can be controlled using a permanent reference electrode, desirable when the
electrolyte resistivity is known to change.

Cons of Impressed Current CP

• Initial costs can be more expensive.

• Requires an external DC power source along with an AC supply.
• System requires routine maintenance and monitoring.
• Anode wires can be susceptible to damage.
Metallic coatings: The surface of the base metal is coated with another metal (coating metal).
Metallic coatings are broadly classified into anodic and cathodic coatings.
Anodic coating:the metal used for the surface coating is more anodic than the base metalwhich
is to be protected.

• For example, coating of Al, Cd and Zn on steel surface are anodic because their electrode
potentials are lower than that of the base metal iron. Therefore, anodic coatings protect the
underlying base metal sacrificially.
• The formation of pores and cracks over the metallic coating exposes the base metal and a
galvanic cell is formed between the base metal and coating metal. The coating metal
dissolves anodically and the base metal is protected.
2. Cathodic coating:

•Cathodic coatings are obtained by coating a more noble metal (i.e. metals having higher
electrode potential like Sn, Au, Ag, Pt etc.) than the base metal. They protect the base
metal as they have higher corrosion resistance than the base metal due to cathodic nature.
• Cathodic coating protects the base metal only when the coating is uniform and free
from pores.
• The formation of pores over the cathodic coating exposes the base metal (anode) to
environment and a galvanic cell is set up. This causes more damage to the base
metal.
Methods of application of metallic coatings

1. Hot dipping
 Hot dipping process is applicable to the metals having higher melting point than
the coating metal.
 It is carried out by immersing a well cleaned base metal in a bath containing
molten coating metal and a flux layer.
 The flux cleans the surface of the base metal and prevents the oxidation of the molten
coating metal.
Eg. Coating of Zn, Pb, Al on iron and steel surfaces.

The most widely used hot dipping processes are galvanizing and tinning.

Galvanizing

 Galvanizing is a process in which the iron article is protected from corrosion by coating it
with a thin layer of zinc. Coatining of Zn on iron
 Galvanizing is widely used for protecting iron exposed to the atmosphere (roofs, wire
fences, pipes etc.) Galvanized metallic sheets are not used for keeping eatables
because of the solubility of zinc.
 Galvanized materials are not useful or storing food materials
 It is anodic coating material
b. Tinning
 The process of coating tin over the iron or steel articles to protect them from
undergoing corrosion is known as tinning.
 Tin is a noble metal and therefore it possess more resistance to chemical attack.
 It is the cathodic protection offered by the tin.
 Tinning materials are used for food storage and making utensils.
Surface coatings

The application of surface coating is the common method to protect the surface of the metal from
the corroding environment. These surface coatings exhibit chemical inertness to corrosive
environment, adhesive properties and impermeable.

a. Organic surface coatings(Paints)

Paint is a dispersion of a pigment in medium oil (vehicle). When paint is applied on a surface,
the medium oil saves the surface from corrosion. The pigment saves the medium oil from the
ultra violet light given by the sun.

Ingredients of paint

1.Base: solid matter which supplies the body

2.A liquid vehicle: which carries the solid matter and allow it so evenly spread on the surface

The important constituents of paint are as follows.

1. Pigment
2. Drying oil or medium oil or vehicle
3. Thinner
4. Drier
5. Filler or extender
6. Plasticizer
7. Anti-skinning agent
1. Pigment: A pigment is a solid and colour-producing substance in the paint.
FUNCTIONS : The following are the functions of the pigment:
(a) A pigment gives opacity and colour to the film.
(b) A pigment gives strength to the film.
(c) It protects the film by reflecting the destructive ultraviolet rays.
(d) It covers the manufacturing defects

• The most commonly used pigments in paints and the compounds required as follows:
• White pigments - White lead, ZnO, BaSO4, TiO2, ZrO2
 • Blue pigments - Prussian blue, ultramarine blue
• Black pigments - Graphite, carbon black, lamp black
• Red pigments - Red lead, Fe3O4, carmine
• Green pigments - Chromium oxide, chrome green
• Brown pigments - Burnt umber
• Yellow pigments - Chrome yellow, lead chromate

2.Vehicle oil/ Drying oil or medium:

• The liquid portion of the which the pigment is dispersed is called a medium or vehicle.

• E.g. linsed oil, dehydrated castor oil, soyabean oil and fish oil.

Functions

(a) Vehicles hold the pigment particles together on the surface.

(b) They form the protective film by evaporation or by oxidation and polymerization of the
unsaturated constituents of the oil.

(c) Vehicles give better adhesion to the surface.

(d) They impart water repellency, durability and toughness to the film.

3.Thinners
• Thinners are volatile substances which evaporate easily after application of the paint.
• Reduces the viscosity and increases the elasticity of the Paint film.
• Enhances the dissolving the additives in vehicle medium

Functions :

i) To reduce the viscosity of the paint

ii) To dissolve vehicle and the additives in the vehicle

iii)To suspend the pigments

iv)To increase the penetration power of the vehicle

v)To increase the elasticity of the paint film

vi)To help the drying of the paint film.

Eg., Turpentine, Kerosene, Naphtha.

4. Driers
• Driers are used to accelerate the drying of the oil film.
 Eg: Naphthenates, Resonates, linoleates, tungstates of lead ,cobalt, Mn, Zn
Functions
• Driers act as oxygen carrier catalysts which help the absorption of oxygen and catalyze
the drying of the oil film by oxidation, polymerization and condensation.
• Improve the drying quality of the oil film
5. Extenders/ Fillers
Fillers are added to reduce the cost and increase the durability of the paint.
E.g. talc, Gypsum, mica, asbestos etc.
Functions
(a) Fillers serve to fill the voids in the film.
(b) They reduce the cracking of the paints.
(c) Fillers increase the durability of the paints.
(d) They reduce the cost of the paint.
6. Plasticizers
• They provide elasticity to the film and minimize cracking.
Ex: Tributylphosphate, Triphenylphosphate
7. Anti skinning agents
• These are sometimes added to some paints to prevent gelling and skinning of the
finished product.
Eg., Polyhydroxy phenols.
Alloys
Most of the metals have the properties like malleability, ductility, electrical conductivity etc.,
But for most of the applications their tensile strength, corrosion resistance and hardness are
not sufficient. These Properties can be improved by mixing a metal with some other metal or
non metal

• An alloy is a solid mixture of two or more different elements having the following
characteristics

– At least one element must be metal

– The two components are properly mixed

– Metallic characteristics are retained or improved after alloying

Necessity of making alloys:

Hardness: Pure metals which are generally soft, can be made harder by alloying them with
other metal/non metal

Ex:
 • hardness of Pb can be improved by alloying with arsenic (0.5%) used for making
bullets.
• Cu with gold
• carbon with iron to improve hardness.

Melting point: Alloying lowers down the melting point of pure metal and it becomes more
fusible.

ex: an alloy of Bi, Pb, Sn, Cd possess m.pt =71°C much less than its constituent elements

Tensile strength: Tensile strength of pure iron can be increased upto 10 times by alloying it
with 1% of carbon

Corrosion resistance: Pure metals have poor corrosion resistance.

ex:

• pure iron is corroded in moist air,

• alloy of Iron with Cr, Ni, and Mo is even acid proof and it is known as stainless steel.
• An alloy of Cu with Sn is more corrosion resistant than Cu.

Castability : For getting good casting the material needs the characteristics like fusibility,
strength and expansion on solidification.

• Pure metals cannot be used for casting , printing type as the undergo contraction on
solidification
ex: 5% tin , 3% antimony are added in lead for good castability.

Colour: Colour of copper is red

Ex: Zn – white

Alloy of Cu with Zn (Brass) gives yellow.

Differences between Metals and alloys:

S.No Metals Alloys

1 Made up of only one metal Mixture of metal with other metal/non metal

2 High ductility Low ductility

3 Lack of mechanical properties like Superior mechanical properties

 strength and hardness

4 High melting point Low melting point

5 Lack of strength Ex: Cu, Zn High strength Ex: Brass, steel

6 Soft and easily bent because of same Strong and hard, less malleability
size of atoms can slide over each
other

Classification of alloys

• Based on microstructure: Substantial and interstitial alloys

• Based on presence and absence of iron: Ferrous and non ferrous

• Based on the principal metal in the alloy:

ex: cu alloy has Cu as the major constituent

FERROUS ALLOYS: These are contains iron as main component.

Features

• Improve tensile strength

• Ductility

• Toughness

• Heat resistance

• Hardness

• Shock resistance

• Chemical resistance

• Cutting ability
 Steel : Iron containing 0.15-1.5% of carbon

• Types of steels

1. Plain carbon steel

2. Alloy steels

Plain carbon steel: In addition to carbon, steel also contains

Si upto 0.03%

S upto 0.5%

P upto 0.5%

Mn upto 1%

• With increase in carbon content

Susceptibility to heat treatment increases

Increase hardness

increase Strength till 0.83%, after which the strength decreases and ductility decreases

There are three classes of steel depending on the carbon content like

Low, medium and high carbon steel

Steel Low carbon/mild/soft steel Medium carbon steel High carbon steel

% of carbon content 0.15 – 0.3 0.3 - 0.8 0.8 – 1.5

Strength ͂40 kg/mm2 ͂50 kg/mm2 ͂65 kg/mm2

Weldability by forging Possible Difficult Difficult

Ability to withstand Good Better Best

shock and impact

Possibility of Yes, with difficulty Yes, to some extent Yes, easily

hardening and
tempering
Structure Fibrous --- Granular

Toughness Quite tough Tougher than mild steel ---

Applications Reinforcing cement concrete Hydraulic fittings, Cutting tools, cuttering

(RCC), roof covering, bolts, agricultural tools, knifes, wood working
nuts, screws, manufacturing automobile engine tools-saws, drills,
of railway tracs components hammers

ALLOY STEEL:

• These are also known as corrosion resistant steels

Alloying elements are

a) Chromium: to improve hardness and toughness, when added 12% it imparts

corrosion resistance.

b) Manganese:1-1.5% increase toughness, strength and brittleness.

c) Nickel: Improves corrosion and abrasion resistance and strength at high

temperatures

d) Tungsten: improves toughness, shock resistance, hardness at high

temperatures.

f) vanadium: improves tensile strength

• Stainless steel contain Cr >16%

• It resists corrosion due to the formation of dense, tough film of chromium oxide at the
surface of metal.

Types of stainless steel:

a) Heat treatable stainless steel:

contain 1.2 % carbon &

12-16% chromium.

Properties:

They are tough, magnetic can be worked in cold state.

 Good resistance to water and weather

Can be used at high temperatures upto 800°C.

Uses: surgical instruments, scissors, blades & cutlery

b) Non-heat treatable stainless steel:

contains Cr - 18-26%

Ni – 8-21%

C - 0.15%

Properties:

less strength, but more corrosion

resistance at high temperatures.

Uses: household utensils, decorative pieces,

sinks, dental instruments

Types of alloy steel:

Steel Composition Uses

Heat treatable steel (stainless) 1.2% C, 12-16% Cr Surgical instruments, scissors, blades,
cutlery

Non heat treatable steel (stainless) 18-26% , 8-21% Ni Household utensils, decorative articles,
dental instruments, sinks
(Magnetic and non magnetic type) 0.15% C

Shock resistance steel/spring steels 0.8-1.1% Cr,0.25% V Leaf springs, coil springs

0.35-0.9 % C

Heat resisting steel 3.5% Mo, >12%Cr Boilers, gas turbines, annealing boxes

Magnetic steel 12% Al, 20% Ni, 6% Loud speakers ,motors, transformers,
Co electromagnets
Cast iron: It is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%.

• It has very low melting point

It contains

carbon – 1.8-4%

Silicon – 1-3%

Properties: Melting point temperature is 1150°C to 1200°C, pure iron has 1535°C

more harder, tough, ductile and elastic in nature

Uses: making pots, pans

Non Ferrous Alloys:

• These do not contain iron

• Main components are Al, Cu, Pb, Sn, Zn, Ni.

Features:

1. Melting points are lower than ferrous alloys

2. Softness

3. Cold working characteristics

4. Special electrical properties

5. Attractive colors

6. Easy castability

7. Atmospheric corrosion resistance

8. Low density

9. Magnetic properties

10. Low coefficient of friction

Copper Alloys:

• Brass: composition: Cu- 60-90% , Zn – 40-10%

 Features: Greater strength, Durability, lower melting point than Cu and Zn,Good corrosion
resistance

• Bronze: composition: Cu- 80-95%, Sn – 20-5%

• Features: Tough, strong , corrosion resistant

Type of alloy Composition Properties Uses

Brasses Cu - 90% Strong and harder Riverts, hardwares,

than pure copper screws, jewellery
Commercial brass Zn – 10%
Golden color

Cartridge brass Cu - 70% Soft, ductile, harder Sheet fabrication,

and stronger than condenser tubes, cartridge
Zn – 30% copper, cases, house hold articles

Bronzes Cu - 80-95% Tough, strong,

corrosion resistant,
Main Bronzes are Sn – 20-5% can readily be casted
Besides this some other and machined
metals are added

Coinage Cu - 89-92% It is soft, ductile and Coins, statues, valves,

Bronze/common durable wires , utensils
Bronze Sn – 11-8%

Gun metal Cu - 85% It is hard,, tough, Hydraulic fitting , heavy

strong to resist the load bearings , parts of high
Sn – 8% force of expansion pressure steam plants
Zn - 4%

Pb - 3%

Aluminium Alloys:

• With modern advancement of Aircrafts and automobiles, the utility of light weight alloys
have increased considerably.
 • Al and Mg are two important types of such alloys Ex: Duraluminium, Magnaluminium

Alloy Composition Characteristics Use

Duralumin Al:95% • Light ,tough , high • Air craft industry in the

ductile , easily form of Alclad
Cu:4% castable , good
conductor heat • ( duralumin clad on
Mn : 0.5%
electricity , either side with pure
Mg : 0.5% corrosion resistance Al)

• Its tensile strength • Making automobile

can be raised by and locomotive parts
heat treatment upto • Making surgical
about 2000kg /Cm2 instruments ,cables ,
Without affecting its fluorescent tube caps.
ductility

Magnalumin Al:70-90%% Its is quite strong, Cheap balances , airplane

tough and lighter than parts and scientific
Mg : 30-10% Al and posses instruments, pressure
mechanical properties cockers
similar to brass.

Lead and Tin alloys:

Alloy Composition Characteristics Use

Solder Pb: 50% Low melting alloys Soldering

Sn:50%

Soft solders Pb: 37.67% Low melting alloys Soldering electrical

connections sealing tin
Sn:31-60% cans ,joining lead
Sb: 0.12-2% pipes.

Type metal Pb: 75% It expands slightly upon Printing type

solidification and gives
 Sb: 20%, Sn:5% good casting

UNIT-IV: CORROSION AND ALLOYS

Corrosion: Introduction, causes and effects of corrosion, chemical and electrochemical

corrosion and mechanism of corrosion. Types-differential aeration corrosion (Pitting and
waterline corrosion), differential metal corrosion (Galvanic corrosion). Factors affecting
corrosion-nature of metal (position, passivity, purity, areas of anode and cathode) & nature of
environment (temperature, pH, humidity). Corrosion control methods-proper designing, cathodic
protection, differences between galvanizing and tinning, paints-constituents and functions.
Alloys: Purpose of making alloys, classification of alloys, ferrous alloys ex: Steel, non-ferrous
alloys Ex: Cu, Al, Pb (features and applications).

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Enumerate the effects of corrosion.

2. Differentiate between dry corrosion and wet corrosion.
3. What is Pilling-Bedworth rule? Give its significance.
4. Corrosion of water filled steel tanks occurs below the water level. Give reasons.
5. Compare differential aeration corrosion and differential metal corrosion?
6. The metal under water drop undergoes accelerated corrosion. Why?
7. Nuts and bolts are to be made of same metal. Justify.
8. Small anodic area results in intense corrosion. Give reason.
9. Passivity results in more corrosion resistance. Why?
10. Iron corrodes faster than Al, even though iron is placed below Al in the galvanic series.
Why?
11. Why the rate of metallic corrosion increases with increase in temperature.
12. Galvanization of iron is preferred to tinning, justify your answer.
13. What is cathodic protection? Give an example of a sacrificial anode.
14. Brass utensils are usually tinned. Give reasons.
15. Identify the reasons for not recommending galvanized utensils for cooking.
16. Compare sacrificial anode method & impressed current method.
17. List out the requisites of a good paint.
18. Alloys are preferred as engineering materials instead of pure metals. Justify.
19. What are alloy steels? Give examples.
20. Compare and contrast between ferrous and non-ferrous alloys with examples.
21. How does stainless steel differ from steel? Why is it so called?
22. List out the applications of commercial brass and cartridge brass alloys.
23. Justify the extensive use of aluminum alloys in aircraft industry.
24. Name the alloy used in making surgical instruments and analyze its composition.
25. Identify the alloys used commonly for soldering.

ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Explain the mechanism involved in the rusting of iron with the help of wet corrosion
theory. (OR)
2. Discuss in detail the mechanism of electrochemical corrosion theory with the evolution
of hydrogen and absorption of oxygen with chemical equations.
3. a) List out the differences between dry corrosion and wet corrosion.
b) What is differential metal corrosion? Explain galvanic corrosion with example.
4. Explain how the following factors affect the rate of corrosion.
a) passivity b) position of the metal c) relative areas of anode and cathode d) pH
5. What is differential aeration corrosion? Write a note on the following.
a) water line corrosion b) pitting corrosion.
6. What is galvanic corrosion? Explain its mechanism with an example.
7. a) Explain cathodic protection method for controlling corrosion.
b) Differentiate between galvanising and tinning.
8. Define cathodic protection. Explain sacrificial anode protection and impressed current
method.
9. Define paint? Explain the constituents of paint and mention their functions.
10. a) What are alloys? Discuss the necessity of making alloys.
b) Draw a flowchart of classification of alloys.
11. a) Discuss briefly the purpose of making alloys.
b) Write a short note on applications of aluminum and copper alloys.
12. Discuss in detail ferrous and nonferrous alloys with examples.
13. a) Write a short note on alloys of copper that are used in everyday life.
b) Why is lead normally used commercially in the form of alloys? Explain any two
alloys of lead with their uses.
14. What are alloys? Give a brief account on their types and applications.