THERMAL EXPANSION

MATTER: Is anything that has mass and occupies space. The three states of matter are solids,
liquids and gases.
 Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body.
 All matter expands as it gets hotter and contracts when it cools.
 EXPLANATION: Temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles and weakens the
IMF. As a solid is heated, the particles move faster and faster and so vibrate with more
force. As a result, the particles spread apart slightly in all directions and the solid
expands.
 Continued heating makes matter change from one state to another.
The difference between heat and temperature

 Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of a substance while heat is the total
amount of energy possessed by the molecules in a substance.
 Temperature is measured in kelvin while heat is measured in joules. ▪ Heat is energy
while temperature is not.

NB: Although heat and temperature are different there is some relationship e.g. an increase in
temperature signifies an increase in heat energy.

Thermal expansion

 It is the tendency for substance to increase in size when heat is added to it.
 The word thermal comes from the Greek word ‘thermos’ meaning heat.
 Thermal expansion is a result of an increase in spaces between atoms in the substance.
Thermal expansion of Solids
Once a solid is heated it

• Increase in length
• Increase in volume
• Increase in area
It is difficult to see expansion of solids with our naked eyes but in reality expansion occur.

According to kinetic theory once a solid is heated, it increases the speed and energy of the atoms
in the solid, it increases the spaces between the atoms and increasing the size of the substance.

Experiment
Aim: to demonstrate expansion of solids using the ball and ring
Apparatus: metal ball, metal ring, metal chain, source of heat Procedure:
 o Heat the ball strongly while away from its ring o Pass the ball through the
ring. What do you observe?

Observation:

o The metal ball does not go

through the ring after heating it. o
The ball passes through the
ring when cooled.
Conclusion:
Solids expand when heated and contract on cooling.

Particle behavior during thermal expansion in solids

 Molecules in solids are closely packed and are continuously vibrating about their fixed
position.
 When solids are heated, the molecules vibrate with larger amplitudes about their fixed
position.
 As the distance between the molecules increase, the volume also increase.

Thermal expansion of Liquids

Liquid particles move freely unlike solid particles that move about fixed position.

Liquids expand more than solids since they have relative weaker intermolecular forces.

Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate expansion of liquids

Apparatus: A glass flask, Long narrow glass tubing, Coloured water, Tripod stand, A rubber
stopper, Bunsen burner and Wire gauze.

Procedure:
 Fill a glass flask with coloured water.
 Fit the flask with rubber stopper carrying long narrow glass tubing.
 Mark the initial level of water in the glass tube before heating.
 Heat the water in the flask and observe the level of water in the glass tube.

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Observation:
 The level of water after heating was higher than the level of water before heating.

Discussion:
 When heating, the glass flask expands and the level of water drops first.
 When heating continued, the level of water started to increase.
 When the water was allowed to cool down, the level of water went down to its initial
level

Conclusion:
 Liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Particle behavior during thermal expansion in liquids

o Liquid molecules are loosely packed and move freely.

o The force of attraction between their molecules is weaker than in solids
o On heating, the speed of the molecules increases.
o The collisions between the molecules increase the distance between the particles causing
the liquid to expand (increase in volume).

Thermal expansion of Liquids

 Like solids and liquids, gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.
 However, gases expand more than liquids and solids because their molecules move
furthest on heating.
 Gases have equal expansion rate.

Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate expansion in gases.
Apparatus: A thin glass flask, a long narrow glass tube, a rubber stopper and a balloon.
Procedure:
  Take a thin glass flask and the balloon tied on it
 Heat the apparatus placed on the tripod stand. Observe what happens.

Observation: On heating, the balloon is inflated hence bulges.

Discussion: On heating, the air in the thin glass flask expands, increasing volume in flask and in
the balloon hence inflating the balloon.

Conclusion: Gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.

Particle behaviour during thermal expansion in gases

 Intermolecular distances in gases are large compared to those in solids and liquids
 The forces of attraction between the molecules of gas are very weak (almost negligible)
hence, the molecules move freely in all directions.
 When a gas is warmed, the molecules gain more kinetic energy and move far apart hence
its volume increases.

Expansion of water and its effects Anomalous expansion of water

- This is unusual expansion of water between 0 ͦ C to 4 ͦ C.
- Liquids generally when their temperature increases. This is different from water.
- Water expands as it freezes.
- As the temperature of water drops e.g. from 100℃ to 4℃ it contracts.
- Between 4℃ to 0℃ water expands.
- Beyond 0℃ water expands rapidly.
- This unusual (abnormal) behavior of water when it is heated from 0℃ to 4℃ is referred
to as anomalous expansion of water.
- Therefore at 4℃, a fixed mass of water has a minimum volume.
- Between 4℃ to 0℃ there is a breaking of bonds in water and atoms rearrange
themselves and has more space.
- From the graph below, the least (minimum) volume of water is found at 4℃. At this
temperature 4℃, the density of water is maximum.

4
 Effects of anomalous expansion of water.
1. Bursting of water pipes.
2. Survival of aquatic organisms in freezer of lakes and ponds.
o In cold weather, the temperature of the atmosphere falls below 0, water in a
lake or pond freezes and ice is formed.
o Fish and other organisms survive because the volume of a fixed mass of water
is minimum at 4 hence density of water is maximum at this temperature.
o As the temperature of air above the lake falls from 10 to 4, the density of
water increases.
3. Weathering of rocks.
o When water freezes in the cracks of a rock, the volume of water increases on
cooling from 4 to 0. This causes the rock to break into small pieces, resulting
into weathering of rocks.

4. Formation of iceberg.
o An iceberg is a large mass of ice that floats in the sea.

Effects and applications of thermal expansion

- Telephone and electric cables are loosely connected to give room for contraction.
- Separating stuck tumblers/ glasses. They can be easily separated by placing them upright
in warm water and pouring very cold water in the inner tumbler.
 - Gaps in railway line. A space of a few millimeters is left between the joints to allow the
bars have enough space to slide toward and away from each other in hot and cold
weather respectively.
- Gaps or rollers in bridges.
- Gaps in fences.
- Tooth filling.
- Removing tightly screwed bottle covers or parts of bicycle/car where shrink fitting and
riveting was used

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Define the following:

a. Temperature
b. Thermal expansion
c. Anomalous expansion of water
2. Describe how expansion and contraction of metals is used in shrink fitting.
3. Explain the following observations:
a. An inflated balloon hung in the open at a wedding bursts when the
temperature of the environment rises.
b. Soda bottles are thick
c. Water bubbles seem to increase in size as they rise from the bottom of a
tank.
d. Electric wires are seen to sag when it’s hot but look very straight when it’s
cold.
e. Fish living in Polar Regions such as in Antarctica do not die even when
the temperatures fall below 0℃ .
4. Give scientific reasons for the following:
a. Electricity cables sag in warm weather and tighten in cold weather.
b. The mouth of a glass bottle is greatly heated when the glass stopper is
rigidly stuck to the mouth so as to remove it.
5. Describe a single experiment to demonstrate that liquid expands more than solid.
6. Explain why gaps are left between the railway tracks.
7. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate expansion and contraction in solids.
8. Explain why:
a. Iron sheets produce crackling sound when there is a change in weather.
b. Soft drinks in the glass bottles are not filled to the brim.
9. Describe how a plumber can join two metallic pipes of the same diameter.

6
 10. How does the volume of a given mass of water change when
a. water is cooled from 10℃ to 0℃?
b. water is frozen to ice at 0℃?
11. State and explain the effects of anomalous expansion of water.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton discovered three principles or laws that govern the movement of objects.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

It states that unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise a body will remain in its
state of rest if it is at rest or will continue moving uniformly in a straight line if it is moving.
It is a law of inertia. The ability of a body to stay as it is. Examples:

• Coin supported by a piece of paper over a box. If the card is given a sharp push (flicked
away), the coin will stay as it is i.e. in a state of rest because of inertia. But the paper will
not be there to support it. The coin will therefore just fall down into the box below after
the paper is removed.
• When a car stops suddenly, its occupants lurch forward in an attempt to continue
moving.
• When standing on a bus and suddenly the bus moves you fall backwards. Your body will
try to stay in the state of rest as the bus was before it started moving.
• A pilot jumping from space craft will continue to travel at the same speed and direction
like the spacecraft.

Mass and Inertia

Mass is the amount of matter in a substance while inertia is the reluctance of a body to change its
state of motion.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

It states that the force acting on a body is directly proportional to the product of its mass and
acceleration.
Mathematically, F = ma.
It also states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force
applied and takes place in the direction in which the force acts or

Force is directly proportional to gain in momentum per unit time.

Mathematically ,
MOMENTUM
o Momentum of a body is the product of its mass and
velocity. o Momentum = mass x velocity. Momentum is a
vector quantity.
o SI units: Kg.m/s o Large momentum requires
(i) Big mass.
(ii) High velocity.

Connecting momentum and force

mv - mu = change in
momentum
Therefore, force = change in momentum per time taken

Force is defined as the rate of change of momentum. This is Newton’s second law of
motion too. Impulse

Impulse is change in momentum Formula: Ft = mv-

mu.
SI units = Ns (Newton second)

Impulse is important because it is a constant value. The size of the force can be made smaller if
the time for which the force acts is made longer.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion

o It states that for every force of action acting on a body there is an equal and opposite
force of reaction to the body.
o It can also be cheaply expressed as for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

Examples:

- Stepping from a rowing boat. - Hand pressing against a wall.

- Suitcase placed on a table.
- Walking: Feet push backwards on the ground. The ground pushes forward against your
foot with an equal and opposite force of reaction.
- Kicking a football.
- Cannonball explosion. The ball and cannon act on each other with equal and opposite
forces.

Linear Momentum

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The law of conservation of linear momentum (the principle of conservation of momentum)

o It states that when two or more objects act on each other their total momentum remains
constant provided no external forces are acting.
o Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.

Collusions o A collusion is an event in which moving bodies exert force on each other for a
short time.
o During collusions bodies experience force leading to change in momentum.
o According to this law there is always same amount of momentum before and after bodies
collide. Types of collusion
There are two types of collusion, namely; elastic collusion and inelastic collusion.
a. Elastic collusion
 In this type of collusion objects bounce back from the point of collusion.
 Both momentum and kinetic energy of the bodies are conserved. This is possible within
atoms.
 Examples of elastic collusions include; two inflated balls collide, collusion of gas
particles.

Example:
A cannon of mass 800kg fired a cannon ball of mass 3kg at a velocity of 120m/s. find the recoil
velocity of the cannon.
Solution:
Momentum = mass x velocity
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.
M1 U1 + M2 U2 = M1 V1 + M2 V2 where,
M1 = first mass U1 = initial velocity of 1st mass V1 = final velocity of
st
1 mass
M2 = second mass U2 = initial velocity of 2nd mass V2 = final velocity of 2nd mass
M1 = 3kg U1 = 0m/s V1 = 120m/s
M2 = 800kg U2 = 0m/s V2 = ?

3×0+800×0=3×120+800×V
0+0 = 360 + 800V
360 = 800V
V = -0.45m/s

The cannon recoiled backwards at a velocity of 0.45m/s. the negative value in the velocity shows
that the cannon moved (recoiled) in the opposite direction.
b. Inelastic collusions
 In this kind of collusion object stick to each other when they collide and move together in
a single direction with the same velocity.
 Kinetic energies of the bodies are lost to sound and heat. Their total momentum is
conserved.
 Examples of inelastic collusions include; collusion of cars, bullet fired at a piece of
wood.
Example:
A mass of 3kg moving with a velocity of 4m/s collides with another mass of 2kg which is
stationary. After collusion the two masses stick together. Calculate the common velocity for the
two masses.

Solution:
Momentum before collusion = momentum after collusion
M1 U1 + M2 U2 = (M1 + M2)V
(2×0)+(3×4)=(3+2)𝑉
0 + 12 = 5V
12kgm/s = 5V
Common velocity, V = 2.4m/s

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. a) Explain why Newton’s first law of motion is also called the law of inertia.
b) Describe an experiment to illustrate the Newton’s first law of motion.

2. A ball mass of 2.0kg, travelling at 1.5m/s catches up and collides with another ball of mass
3.0kg travelling at 0.8m/s in the same direction. If they stick and move together, calculate

a) the velocity after collusion for each ball

b) the change in momentum for each ball
3. A rugby player of mass 75kg, running east at 8.0m/s. collides with another player of mass
90kg and who is running directly towards him at 5.0m/s. If the two players cling together
after the tackle, what will be their common velocity?

4. Figure below is a graph of acceleration against applied force.

10
 Find:

a) the force that results to acceleration of 14m/s2.

b) the gradient and state its unit.

5. Two ice hockey players travelling in opposite directions get entangled and move while locked
together. Player A has a mass of 120kg and is travelling at 5m/s. Player B has a mass of 90kg
and is travelling at 4m/s.
Caculate

a) the initial momentum of player A

b) the speed with which they both move after being locked together

c) in which direction did they move after collusion?

6. A satellite is travelling in an orbit around the earth. The scientists controlling it need to
produce its speed by firing a small rocket motor to collide with it. The rocket motor moves at
a speed of 4000m/s and ejects its fuel at a rate of 2.0kg per second.
a) If the rocket motor acts for 5.0 seconds, calculate the total change in momentum of the
fuel ejected in this time.

b) If the mass of the satellite is 2000kg, calculate the change in speed of the satellite.
 FRICTIONAL FORCE
Solid Friction is set up because surfaces are not smooth and IMF between the molecules of the
two surfaces rubbing together at very short distances.

Fluid Friction
All objects are slowed down as they pass through a fluid. Cause

a. Randomly moving molecules of a fluid strike the moving object and slow it down.
Solution: Making moving objects streamlined.

b. IMF: An object moving in a fluid must push aside and displace molecules of the fluid.
In the process IMF have to be broken. This requires energy from the object therefore
the object is slowed down as the fluid molecules resist the movement.

Factors affecting fluid friction

a. Shape and size of the object.

b. Viscosity of the liquid.
c. Speed of the object in the fluid medium
Viscosity

• Viscosity is the measure of how easily a fluid flows.

• If the frictional force is comparatively low as in water, the viscosity of the liquid is low.
• If the frictional force is large as in glycerine, the viscosity of the liquid is high.
• Air has very low viscosity.
• The resistance due to fluids is called the viscous drag.

Falling in different Liquids: Water, Ethanol and Glycerine

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Procedure

• 3 identical ball bearings are dropped into 3 identical jars containing different liquids water,
ethanol and glycerine.

Observation

• The ball bearing in ethanol reaches the bottom first and the ball bearing in glycerine
reaches the bottom last.

Explanation
In all the 3 jars the ball bearings accelerate from the surface until they reach terminal speed. The
balls accelerate because of unbalanced resultant forces. Weight is greater than the sum of
upthrust and friction forces. This produces a real resultant.

Why does the ball bearing in ethanol reach the bottom of the jar first?
Ethanol has weakest IMF and lowest viscosity. The friction force in ethanol is smallest. Resultant
force is greatest in ethanol. Therefore, the ball bearing accelerates the longest time before reaching
terminal speed. The average terminal speed is greatest. Glycerine has larger IMF and higher
viscosity. Glycerine would have a largest frictional force.

The graph beside the diagrams shows motion of the ball bearings in water, ethanol and glycerine.
Balanced Forces

• Balanced forces are equal forces acting in opposite directions. When forces are balanced
the resultant is zero and the effect is INERTIA. Inertia literary means laziness. The
results of inertia on a body are:
• The body will remain at rest if it is at rest (stationary)
• The body will continue moving uniformly in a straight line if it is moving.
Falling in a liquid

Forces act on the ball bearing are:

a. Weight acting downwards.

b. Upthrust acting upwards.
c. Frictional force acting upwards

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Observations: The ball travels further each second in the first four seconds (From A to D). This
is acceleration. After passing point D the ball moves with uniform velocity. We say the ball has
reached TERMINAL VELOCITY.

Explanation: The ball accelerates from point A to point D. The forces are unbalanced. The
downward force weight is greater than the sum of the upward forces friction and upthrust. This
produces a real resultant. From point D to the bottom the ball bearing moves with uniform
velocity. The downward force and the sum of the upward forces balance. The increase in speed
causes an increase in frictional force.
There is no resultant force and the ball bearing reaches terminal velocity.

The graph beside the diagram shows motion of the ball in the liquid.
Terminal velocity
It is the maximum uniform velocity reached by an object falling through a fluid

What is upthrust?
It is an upward push that any object experiences if immersed in a liquid. It is a constant force and
is not related to friction.

FALLING IN AIR

14
Observation Experiment

Drop a ball bearing and a feather at the same time from a given height.
Observation
The ball bearing reaches the bottom first.

Explanation
The resultant force of the ball is larger than that of the feather because

a. The ball bearing has greater weight than the feather.

b. The feather has larger frictional force because of its large surface area.

In air upthrust is negligible for most bodies because weight is incomparably greater than
upthrust.
Therefore, the ball bearing accelerates for a longer time reaches terminal speed last and reaches
the bottom first.

FALLING IN A VACUUM – FREE FALL

 Free fall means falling under conditions of no air resistance.

 In a vacuum all bodies fall with the same acceleration of 10m/s/s.

15
 This is acceleration due to gravity, g.
 Started together they reach the bottom together.
Other conditions of free fall
 Heavy dense objects: For them air resistance is negligible compared to the weight of the
object.
 Small balls falling through a short distance: For them air resistance has negligible effect.
Applications of frictional force
 The brakes in a car use pads made of material that offer a lot of friction.
 The friction between the soles of our shoes and tyres of cars provide a grip on the
ground.
 The conveyor belts in factories do not slip because of friction between them.
 Nails are able to hold the pieces of wood.
 Writing on paper, chalkboard, etc utilizes friction.
 Help in movement.

Disadvantages of friction
 As parts rub against each other in machines they tear and wear.
 When there is friction energy is lost through heat and sound.
 Sound produced during friction causes noise.
 Because of friction we need to apply more power to do some work. Cars use a lot of fuel
to overcome friction when moving.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
• It is the ratio of frictional force to the normal force
• Frictional force depends on the nature of the two surfaces and the force pressing the
surface together.
• The force pressing the surfaces together is also called the load and acts normally
(perpendicularly) to and away from the surface.

• It is denoted by the Greek letter µ

16
 • In any static or dynamic friction, the frictional force is directly proportional to the normal
force.
𝐹∝𝑁
𝐹 = µN F
µ=
N

Where: µ= coefficient of friction (constant)

F= frictional force
N= normal force (reaction, R)

Types of coefficient of friction

1. Coefficient of static friction

This is the force opposing motion between surfaces when the surfaces are just about to move.
F static frictional force
µs = =
N normal force

2. Coefficient of kinetic friction

This is the force opposing motion when there is relative motion.
F kinetic frictional
force µk = =
N normal force

Example 1
A force of 25N limits the motion of a block of mass 50kg which is being dragged on the
horizontal ground. Calculate the coefficient of static friction force.
Solution:

Fs = µs N
where µs is the coefficient of static friction
10𝑁
Weight of the block = Normal force = 5okg × = 500𝑁
𝑘𝑔
𝐹
µs=
𝑁

17
µs=
µs= 0.05

Example 2
Figure below shows a block of mass 200kg being dragged at constant velocity with a force 40N
at angle 60 ͦC to the horizontal. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction (µk).

Solution:
F = µN
Since F is acting at an angle, we find its horizontal component
FH = F cosθ
= 40 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 = 40 × 0.5 = 20𝑁
Substituting this in, F= µk R, we get:
20𝑁 = µ × 200 × 10 µk =

= 0.01

The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.01

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Name the force that opposes motion.

2. Define the following:
a) Coefficient of static friction
b) viscous drag

3. Explain factors that affect friction in solids

18
4. A force of 2500N limits the motion of a motorcycle of mass 500kg on a horizontal flat road.
Calculate the coefficient of friction of the surfaces in contact.

5. A block of wood of mass 35kg being dragged by a force F on a rough horizontal surface of
coefficient of friction is 0.2 at angle of 35°.

a) Determine the value of F.

b) How can one reduce friction between surfaces?

HOOKE’S LAW

Effects of forces
• Changing the shape of an object
• Changing direction of a moving object
• Bringing a moving object to rest
• Decreasing or increasing motion of an object – deceleration or acceleration.
Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate effects of forces on bodies
1. Take a sponge and squeeze it
2. Take a rubber band and pull its two ends and see what happens
Observation
 The rubber band increases in length and the sponge reduces in size.
 Force changes the size of a body. Therefore, force can cause change in size and shape of
the object.
Stretching of materials
Robert Hooke performed different experiment involving:
i. Strength of spiral springs ii.
Stretching of wires and
iii. Loading horizontal beams fixed at one end

• Hooke discovered the relationship between the applied force and the extension of the
material used. This relationship is referred to as Hooke’s Law.
• Hooke’s law states that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension of a
spring is directly proportional to the load applied on the spring.
• Mathematically, the applied force, F, is directly proportional to the extension, e,

19
 i.e. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑒 Therefore:

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒, where k is a constant of proportionality called the spring constant

𝐹
Hence, 𝑘 =
𝑒
❖ The SI unit of the spring constant, k, is the newton-metre (N/m) ❖ The spring constant
is a measure of the stiffness of the spring.

Verification of Hooke’s law

Experiment
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the extensions produced in a spring and the force
applied.

Apparatus: A metre ruler, a spiral spring, a stand with clamp, and seven
50g masses

Procedure:
• Set up the apparatus as shown below. Note the initial position (𝑥) of the pointer before
the weight is loaded. The initial pointer reading 𝑥 = __𝑐𝑚

• Load the spring with a 50g mass and record the new pointer reading. Unload the spring
and observe what happens to the pointer.
• Repeat step 2 with 100g, 150g, 200g, 250g, 300g, 350g and record the readings in the
table below.

Mass (g) Force (N) Final reading (𝒚 𝒄𝒎) Extension (𝒚 – 𝒙)𝒄𝒎

50
100

20
 150
200
250
300
350

Draw a graph of applied force against extension produced.

Discussion
• The graph of force against extension gives a straight line graph passing through the
origin.

∆𝐹
= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝑒

∴ 𝑇ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑘
∆𝐹
= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑒

Conclusion
• It can be seen from the graph that the extension produced is directly proportional to the
force applied.
• Each time the spring in unloaded the pointer returns to its original.

 The material that are able to recover their original shape and size after unloading are said
to be elastic.
 If more weights are added to the spring a point is reached where extension is no longer
proportional to the applied force. This point is called the elastic limit.
❖

21
  The pointer does not return to the original position when the load is removed once the
elastic limit is exceeded. The spring is said to have been permanently deformed i.e. it
requires a permanent extension. Below shows a graph of force against extension after the
spring has been permanently deformed.

 The spring is said to undergo elastic deformation along OE. When a material is
undergoing elastic deformation it is said to be obeying Hooke’s law.
 The spring is said to undergo plastic deformation along EA. Hooke’s law is no longer
obeyed beyond point E.
 If the weights are further added, a point is reached beyond which the material loses its
elasticity. This is called the yield point.

Example
A force of 12N extends a spring by 8mm. Calculate the extension that is produced by the same
spring if a force of 25N is hanged on it. (Assume the elastic limit is not exceeded)

Solution

𝐹 12𝑁
𝑘= =
𝑒 8𝑚𝑚

= 1.5𝑁/𝑚𝑚

𝐹 25𝑁 Extension,𝑒 =
=
𝑘 1.5𝑁𝑚𝑚

= 16.67𝑚𝑚

22
Combination of spring in series and parallel

Experiment 1
Aim: To determine the spring constant two springs arranged in series Materials: Ruler, two
identical springs and clamp stand.

Procedure: Set up the apparatus as shown above

From the results, draw a graph of the force applied against the extension and use your graph to
determine the spring constant for two springs in series.

Discussion
A single spring produce an extension e, two identical springs arranged in series produce an
extension 2e for the same force

Applying Hooks’s law,

𝐹 = 𝑘1 × 𝑒 ……….. for the single spring
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑠 × 2𝑒 ............ for the two springs in series

Where 𝐹 is the applied force, k1 is the spring constant for the single spring, and ks is the spring
constant for the two springs connected in series.
Since the same force is used,

𝑘𝑠 × 2𝑒 = 𝑘1 × 𝑒

𝑘1𝑒 1
𝑘𝑠 = = 𝑘1
2𝑒 2

23
 Ks = K1

This experiment shows that the spring constant for two identical springs in series is equal to half
of the spring constant of one spring.

In general the spring constant, ks for 𝑛 identical springs in series is given by the expression

K1
Ks = n
Where K1 is the spring constant for one spring and 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … .. 𝑛 is the number of
springs. This arrangement produces a less stiff spring system than one spring.

Experiment 2
Aim: To determine the spring constant for two springs in parallel

Repeat the above experiment with the two springs connected in parallel as shown below.

You should observe that while a single spring produces an extension 𝑒, two identical springs

produce an extension 𝑒, for the same force.

Applying Hooke’s law,

𝐹 = 𝐾1 × 𝑒 ………….. for a single spring

24
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑝 × ( 𝑒) ……… for the parallel springs

𝐾𝑝𝑒

𝐾𝑝 = 2𝐾1

In general, kp = nk1 where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … n is the number of springs and kp is the spring

constant for 𝑛 springs in parallel. This arrangement produces a stronger or stiffer spring system
than a single spring.

Example
Figure below shows two system of identical springs. If each spring has a spring constant of
50N/cm. Calculate the total extension produced by the load attached in each system. (Assume the
springs are weightless).

Solution:
In system (a) total spring constant,

Kp= nk where n is the number of springs

25
Kp= 2 × 50 = 100𝑁/𝑐𝑚

From Hooke’s law,

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒

𝐹
𝑒= , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑊 = 500 = 10 = 5000𝑁
𝑘

5000𝑁 50
= = = 50𝑐𝑚
100𝑁𝑐𝑚 1

In system (b) resultant spring constant,

𝑘
Ks=
𝑛

Ks= = 25𝑁/𝑐𝑚

5000𝑁
Extension, 𝑒 = = 200𝑐𝑚
25𝑁𝑐𝑚

Application of Hooke’s law

 Calibration of spring balance. Hooke’s law is applied in the making of spring balances
which are used to measure weights of various substances.
 Elasticity in materials e.g. elasticity is applied in making spring beds, diving boards, etc.
 Stretching and compressing of spiral springs help in designing spring shock absorbers or
shock breakers used in car suspensions.
 Elastic materials are used in making rubber bands, rubber shoes, etc. ❖ Elastic materials
are used in making catapult used for hunting birds.
 Elastic materials are used to make equipments used in trampoline games.

26
RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE
1. State Hooke’s law.
2. Describe the experiment to verify Hooke’s law.
3. Show graphically the relationship between the extension of a spiral spring and the force
applied to it. Labe the axes of the graphs and point out the main features shown by the curve.
4. A spring of spring constant 0.073N/mm produces an extension of 3mm when a certain force
is applied to it. Find the magnitude of the force applied.
5. A spring produces an extension of 6mm when a force 0.3N is applied to it. Calculate the
spring constant for a system when two such springs arranged in:
a) Series
b) Parallel
6. A vertical spring of length 30cm when not stretched has a pan attached to its lower end.
When an object of mass 100g is placed on the pan its length becomes 36cm. When another
object of mass 200g is placed on the pan the length of the spring becomes 40cm. Calculate
the mass of the pan.
7. Explain any two applications of Hooke’s law.
8. Describe how you would calibrate a spring balance.
9. A light rod CD 20cm long is supported horizontally by two similar vertical springs attached
to its ends. A load of 2N is hung from a point on the rod 15cm from C. The upper end of the
spring at the end D has to be raised by 2cm in order to restore balance. Find the force needed
to extend each of the springs by 1 cm.

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND ANGULAR VELOCITY
Angular displacement

• Angular displacement of a particle is the angle swept through by the centre of the circle.
The distance traveled in a specified direction by an object experiencing motion in a
curved path is known as angular displacement.
• Angular displacement is measured in radians.
• In order to understand the concept of angular displacement, let us consider a particle
attached to the end of a string and being rotated about some fixed point, O and the length
of the string being the radius of rotation, r.

27
 • If the particle moves from point A to another point B, the particle moves through the arc
length S and an angle θ. The angle, θ is the particle’s angular displacement (see the
Figure below).

• The angular displacement, θ (i.e. the angle turned through by a body) when the radius (r)
is equal to the length of the arc (S), is called a radian. By definition, θ the angular
displacement is given in radians by the equation:
θ = S/r
Thus, S= rθ
• Note that the radian is a dimensionless number (having no physical dimension or unit)
since it is the ratio of the two lengths.
• Now, since the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr, there are 2π radians in a
complete circle.
Therefore 2π radians = 360 degrees π radians =
180 degrees and rad = 57 degrees 18
seconds

• Here is a definition of a radian: “One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a
circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle”.

Angular velocity

• It is the rate of change of angular displacement.

• A particle experiencing angular motion also has velocity (i.e. it moves at a given speed
(magnitude) in a particular direction) just like we saw under linear motion. The rate of
change of a particle’s angular coordinate (the angular displacement θ) with time is known
as angular velocity (ω).

28
 change in angular displacement
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
change in time

θ
𝛚=
t
• Suppose θ changes from θf – θo in time t. The average angular velocity (ω) of the particle
can be defined as ω = (θf – θo)/t

• The units of ω are rad/s or revolutions per minute (rev/min or rpm).

Also

ω (in rad/s) =2 πf , where f is the frequency of rotation in

rev/sec

Example
What is the angular speed of a car that takes 8 seconds to cover 120 ͦC 0f a circular path?
Solution:

𝜃 = 120℃ = = 2.1𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑡 = 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝜃 2.1𝑟𝑎𝑑
ω= =
𝑡 8𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

0.2618𝑟𝑎𝑑
=
𝑠

Relationship between angular velocity and frequency

• For one complete circular motion, 𝜃 = 360° = 2𝜋 radians and the time taken 𝑡 = 𝑇
(periodic time)
• Hence ω = θ = 2π
t T

• Since the frequency of revolution, 𝑓 = 1 we get 2𝜋𝑓

29
 𝑇

• Angular velocity = 2𝜋 × 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) or ω = 2πf

Relationship between the angular velocity and tangential (linear) velocity

• We have seen that the arc length, 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃

• Divide both sides by 𝑡, we get, 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
𝑡 𝑡

• But 𝑠 is the tangential (linear) velocity of the rotating particle and

𝑡
𝑟𝜃 is its angular velocity.
𝑡

• Therefore, 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑟) × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (ω)

𝑣 = 𝑟ω

The rate of change of angular velocity is known as angular acceleration. Hence, the angular
acceleration (α) of a particle or object is the rate at which its angular velocity changes with time.
It follows that if the angular velocity of a particle changes uniformly from ωo to ωf in time t, its
angular acceleration (α) is

𝜔𝑓 – 𝜔𝑜
𝛼=
𝑡
whose units are rad/s2 or rev/min2 or rev/s2.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
• It is the force that constrains an object in motion to move in a circular motion.
• Centripetal means center seeking. In other words, the force that is keeping the object on
the circular path is acting towards the center (O) of the circle. • Centripetal force is 𝐹 ∝
𝑣2, 𝐹 and 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚 which when
𝑟
combined together gives:
2
𝑘𝑚𝑣

30
 𝐹= where k is the constant of proportionality (k = 1)
𝑟

• Therefore, centripetal force, 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑣2 where, 𝑚 is the mass of the

𝑟
object, 𝑣 is the linear speed along the circular path in m/s and 𝑟 is the radius of the
circular path.

Centripetal force in terms of angular velocity

𝑚𝑣2
• Centripetal force, 𝐹 =
𝑟

• But 𝑣 = 𝑟ω, where ω is angular velocity

• Substituting for 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑣2 , 𝐹 = 𝑚 (𝑟ω)2 = 𝑚𝑟(ω)2 = 𝑚𝑟(ω)2

𝑟 𝑟

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟(ω)2

Since the force is centripetal then the corresponding acceleration is referred to as centripetal
acceleration.
Centripetal acceleration is mathematically defined as
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
where ac is centripetal acceleration; v is the linear speed of the car; and r the radius of the
circular path.

Example:
A car of mass 1200kg has to make a circular turn of radius 30m. If it is moving with a uniform
speed of 10m/s, calculate the centripetal force acting on the car.

Solution:

𝑚𝑣2
Centripetal force, 𝐹 =

31
 𝑟
1200 × 102
𝐹=
30

𝐹 = 4000𝑁

Applications of uniform circular motion

a) A car negotiating a circular path on a level horizontal road

o E.g. vehicles going round a bend or round about.
o As vehicles or bicycles move around circular paths experience centripetal force which
keep them on their path. If this centripetal force is not strong enough a vehicle or object
continues in a straight line causing accidents.

b) Banking roads o To ensure that car bend safely in case friction in not enough roads are
banked.
o This helps provide some additional centripetal force.

32
c) An aircraft taking a circular turn
o When an aircraft takes a turn in a horizontal plane, it must make a correct banking angle in
mid-air in order to successfully negotiate the curved path.

d) Conical pendulum
o If a simple pendulum held in the hand, with the bob of the pendulum hanging freely, the
hand is swung in circular pattern, the bob of the pendulum starts revolving in a horizontal
circle of radius.
o If the speed of the bob is increased gradually, the radius of the circle in which the bob
revolves also increases.

33
 e) Centrifuge o It is a rotating device used to separate particles of substances like liquid
or gases depending on size and density.
o For example in milk industries centrifuging is used to separate cream from milk.
o It produces a force thousands of times greater than the gravitational accelerating which
put pressure on the liquid.

f) Leaning inwards of a cyclist.

A cyclist leans inwards when going round a curved track.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. What is the difference between angular velocity and tangential velocity.

2. Define centripetal force.

34
3. An artifial earth satellite describe a circular orbit close to the earth’s surface with a speed of
111.1m/s. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the satellite, if the radius of the earth is
6400km.
4. A car of mass 1.2 tonnes is moving on a circular section of a bridge of radius 25m with a
speed of 12m/s. Calculate the centripetal force that make the car not to skid over this bridge.
5. Explain the following statements:
a) A cyclist going round a curve leans inwards towards the centre.
b) Curved tracks are usually banked.
c) a pilot who is not fastened to the seat in an aircraft can “loop the loop” without
falling downwards at the top of the circular loop. 6. A satellite orbits the earth once every 4
hours. Calculate
a) the angular velocity of the satellite.
b) The centripetal acceleration of the satellite, if the radius of the satellite’s orbit is
12800km.
c) The linear speed of the satellite.
7. Convert the following angles into radian measure: 270° and 540° 8. Calculate the
angular velocity of the minute hand of a wrist watch.
9. A fly wheel is rotating at 10 revolutions in every 2 seconds. Calculate its angular velocity.

MOMENTS OF FORCES

• The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to rotate an object about some point.
• The tendency of a force to rotate a rigid body about any defined axis is called the
Moment of the force about the axis.
• A moment of force about a point is the product of the force and perpendicular distance
from the point to the line of action of the force.
• The moment of the force about a point is either clockwise or anticlockwise about the
point.
• The Moment of Force (F) about an axis through Point (A) or for short, the Moment of F
about A, is the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
between Point (A) and the line of action of Force (F)
MA = F×d
Moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance
=𝑓×𝑑

SI unit of moment of a force

Since, moment of a force= force (N) × perpendicular distance (m)

35
Therefore, the SI unit of moment is newton metre (Nm).
Moment of a force is a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction.

Calculate the moment of the force about the fulcrum when a pet dog of
mass 10kg is at a distance of 1.2m from the fulcrum of the seesaw as

Example

shown below.
Solution:
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 10𝑘𝑔 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔

= 100𝑁
Moment of the force about the fulcrum
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚
= 100𝑁 × 1.2𝑚
= 120𝑁𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Principles of Moments
• The principle of moment gives the relationship between two moments that are at the
same turning point (fulcrum).
• It states that when a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the sum of
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about
the same point.
• The moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of moments of the components
of the force about the point.
For instance,

36
The sum of the clockwise moments = F3 × PA + F4 × PB
The sum of anticlockwise moments = F1 × PC + F2 × PD
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Example
John, Joyce and Janet sat on the seesaw as shown below. Where is John, whose mass is 60kg
seated so that the seesaw is balanced horizontally if the masses of Joyce and Janet are 50kg and
20kg respectively?

Solution:

John’s weight 60𝑘𝑔 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔 = 600𝑁

Joyce’s weight= 50𝑘𝑔 × 10𝑁/𝑘𝑔 = 500𝑁,
Janet’s weight= 20𝑁 × 10𝑁𝑘𝑔 = 200𝑁

Taking moments about the pivot

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

600 × 𝑑 = 500 × 2 + 200 × 1

600𝑑 = 1000 + 200
600𝑑 = 1200

𝑑= = 2𝑚

John should sit at a distance of 2m from the pivot.

37
Couple
 Parallel forces which act in the same direction are called like parallel forces.
 Parallel forces which act in the opposite directions are called unlike parallel forces.
 Two equal and unlike parallel forces acting on a body at different points form a couple.
 A couple produces a turning effect on a body.

Moment of a couple
 Since the pivot is at C, the moment of the force F acting at point A = F× AC, in the
clockwise direction.
 Similarly, the moment of the force, F acting at point B = F × BC, also in clockwise
direction.

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 = (𝐹 × 𝐴𝐶) + (𝐹 × 𝐵𝐶)

= 𝐹(𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶), 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐶
= 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐹 × 𝐴𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒.

 The moment of the couple, called the torque which is defined as the total rotating effect
of a couple and is given by the product one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the forces.

 Hence, 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

 The SI unit of torque is the newton-metre (Nm)
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Example
In figure below, each force is 4N and the arm of the couple is 20cm. Calculate the moment of the
couple.

38
Solution:
The moment of a couple = 𝐹 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 4𝑁 × 0.20𝑚
= 0.80𝑁𝑚
NB: The centre of mass (gravity) of a body is the point where the whole mass of the body
appears to be concentrated.

Applications of principles of moments of a force in everyday life

The following are some of the common examples which illustrate the turning effect of a force i.e
moment of a force:
 Opening or closing a door
 Opening a bottle using a bottle opener
 A pair of scissors or garden sheers
 Children playing on a see-saw
 A wheelbarrow being used to lift some load
 A wheel cart being used to lift heavy loads
 A screw driver being used to tighten or loosen a screw
A crowbar being used to move large object
RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. State the principle of moment.

2. Describe an experiment to prove this principle using two known masses and a uniform metre
ruler.

3. A uniform metre rule is suspended at the 50 cm mark and a stone at the 0 cm mark. The
metre ruler is balanced horizontally when a mass of 100 g is suspended at the 60cm mark.
Calculate the weight of the stone.

4. Explain any four importance of moments in our everyday life.

5. Jane and James are seated at 3 m and 2 m respectively from the centre of a see-saw on one
side and Jack at 4m from the centre on the other side. The see-saw is balanced horizontally.
Find the weight of Jack, if the masses of Jane and James are 40kg and 30kg respectively.

6. State three effects of force on an object.

ELECTRICTY AND MAGNETISM
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

39
 1. describe magnetisation and demagnetization
2. describe electromagnetism
3. explain uses of electromagnetism
CONTENTS

• magnetization and demagnetization o domains

o experimentations to illustrate magnetisation and demagnetization
• electromagnetism o investigation of electromagnetism o field patterns of electromagnets o
magnetic fields of current-carrying conductors o force on current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field(descriptive, no equations)
o Fleming’s left-hand rule
• uses of electromagnetism o simple experimentations to illustrate electromagnetic induction.
o factors affecting magnitude and direction of the induced emf o Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws
of electromagnetic induction
(descriptive, no equations) o ac
and dc generators o dc motor
• Transformers and power transmission
• Power loss in transformers and transmission line
• Environmental impact of power generation and transmission
• Solving mathematical problems involving transformers
• Making and testing a simple transformer and an electric motor (project) A magnet is any
ferrous material that can exert a force of attraction on other metallic objects Magnets have
the following properties:

(i) They attract materials made of iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.
(ii) When a magnet is free to swing it will always point north-south when it comes to rest.
Observation Experiment

• Suspend a magnet using a string and stirrup on a bench as demonstrated below

• Let the magnet swing and allow it to come to rest freely Observation: It points north-south.
Conclusion: Magnets are used as compass needles because when a magnet is free to swing it will
always point north-south when it comes to rest.

40
Magnetic Field: This is the region around the magnet in which magnetic materials experience
magnetic force. This field consists of imaginary lines with arrows called magnetic field lines or
magnetic lines of force.

How to detect field pattern of a magnet.

- Place a bar magnet on a flat surface.

- Lay a stiff paper over it. Sprinkle iron fillings on the paper.
- Tap the card gently.
- The iron fillings set along the field lines and produce a pattern that appears as shown
below.

How materials get attracted to a magnet

• It is by magnetic induction. Moving a magnet close to iron makes the magnetic particles
rearrange so that the side close to the magnet acquires a pole different to that of the
magnet. The two unlike poles attract.

Three ways of making magnets

I. By Induction: Bringing a magnet close to a magnetic material.

II. By Stroking: A magnetic material is rubbed with a magnet in single stroking. In double
stroking the magnetic material is rubbed with two magnets.

41
III. Electrical Method: This is done by placing an iron core (a magnetic material) in a
solenoid which has been connected to direct current. A Solenoid is copper wire coiled
into a helical shape. When electric current flows through the solenoid the bar becomes
magnetised. It becomes an electromagnet.
How to determine the poles of a solenoid as an electromagnet – Right Hand grip rule Imagine
your right hand gripping the coil such that the fingers point the same way as the conventional
current direction. Then the thumb points towards the northpole.

PERMANENT MAGNETS AND

TEMPORARY MAGNETS

• Permanent magnets retain their magnetism even after the magnetic material that induced
the magnetism in them is removed.
• Temporary magnets lose the magnetism once the magnetic material inducing the
magnetism in them is removed e.g. electromagnet.

How to demagnetise a magnet

i. Stopping the flow of current in an iron electromagnet

ii. Placing the iron core in a coil carrying alternating current
iii. Heating a magnet iv. Hammering or dropping.
Electric current has a magnetic effect
A wire carrying current sets up a magnetic field (flux). If a compass is placed close to the wire
the compass needle is deflected towards the wire. The current direction and direction of
magnetic flux is given by Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.

Maxwell’s corkscrew rule

Imagine a corkscrew being screwed along the wire in the direction of current, the direction of
rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic flux. The direction (movement) of the
screw is the direction of the current.

42
 ELECTROMAGNETS

These are temporary magnets made by

placing a ferrous material (soft iron core) in a
solenoid of direct current. When electricity passes
through a solenoid it acts as a magnet. The solenoid
demagnetises by stopping the flow of current or
by allowing a.c. flow through it.

Uses of electromagnets

• Making electric bells

• Separating ferrous materials from non-ferrous ones
• Removing steel splinters from a patient’s eye in hospitals
• Lifting iron and steel loads
• Used as telephone relays
• Switching on different circuits
• Used in generators
• Used in transformers
The electric bell.

How the electric bell works?

• The bell push switch is closed.

43
 • When electric current flows in the solenoid the solenoid is magnetized.
• A soft iron armature is pulled to one end of the solenoid by its magnetic attraction.
• The iron core strengthens this attraction.
• A hammer is also held into the steel spring that carries the soft iron armature. As the
armature is pulled the hammer is pulled as well.
• The hammer strikes the gong and rings the bell.
• The circuit breaks at the copper strip. Current stops flowing and the solenoid is
demagnetised.
• The steel spring flies back to its original position.
• The circuit is again complete and the action is repeated.
Advantages of electromagnets

1) It is easily demagnetised by switching off current (or allowing a.c pass through it)
2) It can easily be controlled unlike a permanent magnet.
3) Magnetism can easily be increased. HOW?
• By using soft iron core
• By increasing the turns in the solenoid • By increasing the current
• By making poles closer.
Electricity in a magnetic field produces movement
A wire carrying current in a magnetic field experiences a force. The force acts at right angles to
both the current and the field

Explanation: There are two field patterns. One due to the magnetic field and the other one due to
the wire carrying current. The resultant field produces movement.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand at right angles to each other. The first
finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field. The second finger points in the direction of
the current. The thumb points in the direction of the thrust (force). This applied in an electric
motor.

How an electric motor works?

An electric motor consists of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. When electricity flows through
the wire movement is produced.

Input: Electric energy and magnetic field

44
Energy changes: electrical energy to kinetic energy.

• The commutator is a half split ring of copper. The brushes are carbon blocks. They are
connected to an electrical supply.
• As electricity flows XZ will experience an upward force. WY will experience a
downward force.
• The coil rotates in an anticlockwise direction until it is vertical. In a vertical position the
brushes are in line with the gaps in the commutator and the current stops.
• The coil overshoots the vertical because of inertia. The commutator halves change
contact from one brush to the other. Then the direction of current reverses and the
direction of forces reverses as well.

Galvanometer (microammeter)

 It is a very sensitive ammeter.

 It measures very small currents.
 Therefore, it is a microammeter.
 INPUT: Electric current and magnetic field

45
The coil is suspended on a vertical wire about which it rotates. The rotation causes the connected
pointer to move across a graduated scale. Rotation of the fine wire makes the coil twist.

Disadvantages of the galvanometer

 It cannot measure alternating current

 It can easily break the suspension wire with a large current
 It has to be on a level surface before use
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Remember that a wire carrying current sets up a magnetic flux. And electricity in a magnetic
field produces movement.

Now hypothesize what can happen if there is movement in a magnetic field???

 Movement in a magnetic field produces electricity

force is induced. Whenever a
conductor cuts
magnetic lines of force
electromotive

 Electromagnetic induction is the effect of producing electricity when magnetic field lines
cut a coil of wire.
 The electric current produced by magnetic field lines cutting a conductor is called
Induced Current.

Ways of increasing induced e.m.f

 Moving the coil (or magnet) faster
 Increasing the number of turns in the coil
 Using a stronger magnet
Faraday’s law

 It states that the electromotive force induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux linked to the conductor.
 The size of the induced current in a wire is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cuts the magnetic field lines.

46
Lenz’s law

▪ It states that the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change
producing it.

Fleming’s right hand rule

Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand at right angles to each other. The
thumb points in the direction of motion. The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic
flux and the second finger points in the direction of current. This is applied in a
dynamo/generator.

Generator (dynamo)
A dynamo consists of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The coil of wire is rotated mechanically.
As it rotates it cuts magnetic field lines and produces induced.

E.M.F. A dynamo produces a.c.

Input: Kinetic energy and magnetic field

Energy changes: Kinetic to Electrical
If slip rings are replaced by a commutator a.c. changes to d.c.

As the coil rotates it gives the highest induced current when it is horizontal because it cuts the
magnetic field lines at the greatest rate. When the coil is vertical no magnetic field lines are cut
and induced E.M.F is zero.

Comparing and contrasting a dynamo and an electric motor.

Both an electric motor and a dynamo consist of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The
differences are:

• The input in an electric motor is electrical energy while in a dynamo the input is kinetic
energy.
• The electric motor circuit has a battery.
• Dynamos have slip rings while electric motors have commutators.

47
NOTE: An a.c. generator becomes a d.c. generator if the slip rings are replaced by a
commutator.

A bicycle dynamo
A bicycle dynamo consists of a coil of wire and a magnet. Movement of the bicycle wheel turns
the dynamo. The magnet inside turns as well. As the magnet moves the fixed coil cuts the lines
of force producing electric current in the coil. The current lights the rear lamp and the head
lamp.

Mutual induction – faraday’s iron ring experiment

A primary coil P and a secondary coil S are wound on opposite sides of an iron ring. Coil P is
connected to a battery and a tapping key. Coil S is connected to a galvanometer.

Observation: On pressing the key the galvanometer gives a momentary deflection. When the
circuit is being broken current is induced in the opposite direction.
Explanation: Pressing the key builds up a magnetic flux through the iron ring. The secondary
coil S cuts the magnetic field lines to produce induced current. Breaking the circuit makes the
magnetic flux to collapse and the secondary coil re-cuts the lines of force producing induced
current.

 The magnetic flux must grow out and collapse to produce induced E.M.F. A stationary
magnetic flux cannot produce induced E.M.F.
 A soft iron core is used to increase the strength of magnetism. More lines of force cut the
secondary coil to increase the induced E.M.F.

Transformers
A transformer is a device which steps up or steps down voltage.

48
How a transformer works

 A transformer has a primary coil and secondary coil which are wound on opposite sides
of an iron ring.
 When alternating current flows through the primary coil a magnetic field builds up which
grows out and collapses i.e. moves to and fro.
 The secondary coil cuts and recuts the field lines as they grow out and collapse thereby
producing induced EMF in the secondary circuit.

Types of transformers

a. Step up transformer – has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil

b. Step down transformer – has more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil.

Transformer equations
INPUT POWER = OUTPUT POWER (The assumption is that it is a an ideal transformer with
no power losses)

I. 𝑉𝑝𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝
II. 𝑁𝑝𝐼𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝= 𝐼𝑠
𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝
III. 𝑁𝑠𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠= 𝑉𝑠
𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝

Example 1
A step down transformer has 1200 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns in the secondary coil.
Calculate the voltage in the secondary coil if the voltage in the primary coil is 240 V. (Maneb
2010).

49
Solution:
Ns Vs
=
Np Vp
𝑉𝑝
Vs = 𝑁𝑠 ×
𝑁𝑝

𝑉𝑠 = × 240

𝑉𝑠 = 10𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

Example 2
A step up transformer has 100 turns in the primary coil. The input power is 6kW and current in
the primary coil is 30A. Work out the number of turns in the secondary coil if the output voltage
is 1200V.

Solution:

The Equation
Input Power =
Output power
makes the assumption that there is no power losses in a transformer. This is just ideal because in
reality there is power losses.

Causes of power losses in transformers

i. Leakage of field lines – This happens when the secondary coil does not cut all the
field lines due to poor designing of the transformer
Solution: Proper designing
ii. Eddy currents: The soft iron core is a conductor. The moving magnetic field in the
primary coil induces eddy currents in the soft iron core. The eddy currents have a
heating effect Solutions: Using oil and laminating the iron core.
iii. Resistance of the windings. The coil of wire is not a perfect conductor. It has
resistance of its own and heats up as electric current flows through it.
Solution: Using thick copper wire.

50
 iv. Hysteresis Losses: the magnetization and demagnetization of the core by a magnetic
field requires energy. This energy heats up the core and is lost as heat energy.
Solution: use soft iron core because it is easy ta magnetise.
Efficiency of a transformer
Remember a transformer is not 100% efficient because there are power losses in it.
𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑋 100
𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅

Example
Calculate the efficiency of a transformer that steps down voltage from 240V to 20V if current in
the primary coil is 1A and current flowing through the secondary coil is 10A.

Input power = 240V × 1A = 240V Output power =

20V × 10A = 200W
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency = × 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
200𝑊
Efficiency = × 100
240𝑉

Therefore, the efficiency = 83.33% Answer

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. State and in each case explain with relevant diagrams three ways of
a) Magnetisation b Demagnetisation
2. Explain how you would identify the north and south poles of an unmarked magnet.
3. Describe briefly how you would prove that powers of a magnet are concentrated at the
poles.

4. Give the basic law of magnet.

5. Explain magnetization and demagnetization in terms of a domain theory of magnetism.

51
6. What is the name of the smallest particle of a magnetism?
7. State three applications of an electromagnet.
8. With the aid of a diagram describe and explain the working of a simple electric bell show
how you should connect so that it can be rung from two different points.

9. Draw a diagram of a current-carrying solenoid showing clearly the direction of the current
in and out of the solenoid. Add the magnetic field pattern associated with the solenoid.

10. State two ways of increasing the strength of an electromagnet.

11. Define the following:

a) Mutual induction

b) Electromagnetic induction
12. Explain two types of the transformer.
13. A transformer has 400 turns in the primary winding and 10 turns in the secondary winding.
The primary electromotive force is 250 and the primary current is 2.0A. calculate:

a) The secondary voltage

b) The secondary current assuming 100% efficient

14. Describe the two features in a transformer design which help to achieve the efficiency.

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

• Digital Electronics is a branch of electricity that deals with components that use small
currents.
• It is a branch of electricity that deals with electrical properties of some materials under
specified conditions.

Note: Electronic circuits have microchips and other semiconductor devices.

The band theory
It states that isolated energy levels of atoms in conductors, semiconductors and insulators are
broadened into energy bands that belong to a crystal as a whole. Shells of an atom are known as
energy levels because they are associated with a certain quantity of energy.

52
Valence band is the outermost shell of an atom. This is the only band which may not be
completely full.

Conduction band is an imaginary band outside the valence band into which free electrons move
when they have jumped from the valence band after gaining energy.

The forbidden gap (fixed band) is found between the valence band and the conduction band.

Explaining conductivity of conductors, insulators and semiconductors according to the

band theory.
Conductors: Conductors have a narrow forbidden gap so that the electrons just require a little
energy to move from the valence band to the conduction band. In metals the conduction band is
filled with electrons.

Insulators: In insulators the forbidden gap is very wide and electrons require a lot of energy to
leave the valence band and jump into the conduction band. The conduction band has no
electrons hence insulators cannot conduct electric current.
Semiconductors: In semi-conductors the forbidden gap has an intermediate distance. It is not as
narrow as in metal conductors and not as wide as in insulators. Compared to insulators less
energy is required to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band.

In conductors, the valency and conduction bands overlap so that no energy is needed to
overcome the forbidden gap.

Normally semiconductors are insulators. Under specified conditions semiconductors become

conductors. On the periodic table, semiconductors belong to group 4. Examples are silicon,
germanium and carbon-graphite allotrope. They are metalloids because they are non-metals with
metallic properties.

How to improve conductivity of semiconductors

 Doping – Adding small impurities to a semiconductor to improve its conductivity

 Raising the temperature – Semiconductors require a little added energy for electrons to
jump from the valence band into the conduction band. Increasing the temperature
provides sufficient energy for electrons to move from the valence band into the
conduction band.

53
Classes of semiconductors

1) Pure or intrinsic – They occur naturally. They are made from the same type of element.
To increase their conductivity there is need just to raise the temperature.
2) Impure or extrinsic semiconductors – These are human made by doping. They are of two
types.
(a) N-type – formed when silicon is doped with a group 5 element e.g.
Phosphorous or nitrogen
(b) P-type – when silicon is doped with group 3 elements e.g. boron, indium.

Advantages of using semiconductors in electronic circuits

• It is easy to control the conductivity of the semiconductor material

• They are cheap small and reliable.
• Can be used to make smaller but very effective appliances
Semiconductor devices – resistance components Diode/diode valves/rectifiers
• A diode allows current to flow in one direction only.
• They have extremely high resistance in one direction and low resistance in the
other.
• Diodes are also called diode valves. They are made from specially treated
crystals of silicon.
• They can be forward biased or reverse biased. The diagrams below illustrate
this.

• When the diode is forward biased it has extremely low resistance so that
current flows through it and bulbs light up. The arrowhead in the symbol
points in the same way as conventional current direction.
• The diode is reverse biased by reversing the cell or by reversing the diode
itself.
• Diodes are used for rectification.
• Rectification is the changing of alternating current into direct current.

54
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS) are used as indication light on electronic
equipment and on clocks for digital display. They glow when a small current passes
through them.
Application of p-n junction diodes
 Protecting electrical devices in a circuit: Some devices that operate on direct
current (d.c.) break down when large volume voltages are connected in reverse
opposite order to supply terminals of the devices. To protect such devices, a diode
is usually connected in series with them and in reverse bias. It ensures that the
device is protected by offering very high (almost infinite) resistance to the flow of
the current in the reverse direction when the terminals are interchanged.

 Zener diodes: These are used to protect d.c. devices by regulating the voltage
applied across the devices. When the p.d. (V) increases or abruptly surges to
values that would damage the devices, the zener diode breaks down and conducts.
This protects the device by short circuiting it. When the p.d. falls to normal the
diode returns to normal.

 Rectification: p-n junction diode can be used for rectification. This is the process
of converting alternating current to direct current is called rectification.

Types of Rectification using diodes

a) Half-wave rectification by a single diode o The current flows in both
the circuit in only one direction o Half of the wave has been cut off, and this
process of allowing only half of the wave to produce current that flows in one
direction is called half-wave rectification.
o A varying direct current is obtained across the resistor.
o In half wave rectification, half of the energy is wasted.
o To avoid this waste, full wave-wave rectification is required.
b) Full wave rectification using two diodes
o This corrects problems found in half wave rectification.
o The flow of current in this cycle is shown by the continuous path. o Hence, the
a.c. is fully rectified to d.c.

Variable resistors

a. A rheostat changes current flowing in a circuit by changing the resistance in the

circuit. The resistance in the circuit is changed by varying the length of the resistance
wire. Current changes from maximum to minimum.

55
 Uses of a rheostat

• Acting as a dimmer – controlling the brightness of a bulb by controlling

current.
• Acting as a volume in radios by controlling current
• Protecting the ammeter from large currents that could overload and break the
meter.

b. Resistors as potential dividers

A potential divider is a way of wiring resistors so that only a proportion of a battery’s
voltage is delivered. It also changes the voltage available to a component in a circuit.
The circuit diagrams below illustrate this.

Light dependent resistors (photoresistors)

Photo-resistors are special resistors whose resistance falls when light shines on them. In
darkness their resistance rises.

• Together with a transistor LDRs are used in bulbs which come on automatically at
night.

Thermistors
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

Uses of a thermistor

• As an electronic thermometer in a refrigerator

• Used in automatic fire alarm
Capacitors
A capacitor is a device that stores small amount of charge. The SI unit of capacitance is
FARAD. Commonly microfarads are used because the farad is too big.

Uses of capacitors

• Smoothing out current changes

• Passing on signals from one circuit to another

56
 • Tuning circuits so that they respond to signals of one frequency
• Amplifying a charge.

Transistors

• Transistors are made from specially treated crystals of silicon.

• Transistors are the small semiconductor devices which have revolutionised
electronics. They are made both as separate components and also as parts of
integrated circuits (I.Cs).
• Transistors have three connections called the base (B) the collector (C) and the
emitter (E). In the transistor symbol shown below, the arrow indicates the
direction in which conventional current flows through it when C and B are
connected to battery +, and E to battery -. Below is the diagram of a transistor’s
symbol:

Uses of transistors

• Controlling current as an electronic switch.

• Amplifying current in a circuit
How it works

Condition: There must be a small current in base circuit. The small base current switches on the
transistor and causes large current to pass in the collector emitter circuit. In case of high current
the transistor does not work. When there is no current the transistor does not work as well. There
must be a small current.

57
There are two types of transistors: n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor. The former the
commonly used one.

The n-p-n junction transistor

• Basically, this consists of a semiconductor chip, usually silicon, doped so that two p-n
junction diodes are formed back to back.
• The n-type junction regions are the emitter and collector of the transistor; the thin p-type
region is the base.
• If the battery in the figure below is connected across the transistor as shown, the upper
junction becomes reverse biased, so no current flows.

The following figure shows what happens if a small p.d. is applied across the lower junction so
that it is forward biased. Not only does a current flow through the base, this current greatly
reduces the „current blocking‟ effect of the upper junction. The junction starts to conduct and
current flows between emitter and collector. Typically, a small current in the base or input
circuit can cause a current fifty to a hundred times larger to flow in the collector or output
circuit.

58
Uses of transistors

 An electronic switch: Transistors have many advantages over other electrically operated
switches. They are small, cheap, reliable, have no moving parts, their life is also
indefinite and they can switch on and off millions of times a second.

 An amplifier of electrical current: this means they increase current.

Inductor
• It is an electronic components that stores energy in form of a magnetic field.
• It consist of a wire loop or coil. The inductors measure inductance which is the behaviour
of a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric current through the coil.
Uses of Inductors
• Inductors are used in making traffic light sensors that use loop (coil).
• Inductors are used in the red light cameras that are used to curb traffic violations. This
reduces road accidents.

Photovoltaic cell
• It is an electrical device that converts light energy directly to electrical energy by
photovoltaic effect.
• It is also called solar cell.
• The symbol for the photovoltaic cell is shown below.

59
Working of photovoltaic cell
• When the sunlight fall on the solar cells, a potential is created across the cells.
• When the circuit is completed a current flow through the components connected in the
circuit.

Uses of photovoltaic cell

• Photovoltaic cells are used in the manufacture of solar panels.
• Can be used to power solar powered cars, boats and airplanes.

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT AND SIGNALS

• A number of electronic devices have their output inform of data, sound and video signals.
• Examples are radio (sound signals), computer, television and mobiles (sound data and
video signals).
• The signals are classified as analogue and digital signal found in analogue and digital
circuit respectively.

Analogue circuit
• These are circuits that are built by combining various electronic components such as
diodes, resistors, capacitors and transistors.
• They are electronic circuits that operate with currents and voltages that vary continuously
with time and have no abrupt transitions between levels. Is a circuit with a continuous
variable signal.

Characteristics of analogue signals

• A simple analogue signal is a sine wave characterised by:
• Amplitude (A): is the maximum displacement of wave particles from the position it
shows the highest amount of current or voltage.

60
 • Frequency (f): is the number of complete oscillation per second. It is measured in hertz
(Hz).
• Phase: are two points on a wave-front that appears to be the same.
• Wavelength (γ): is the distance between two successive points in phase.

Digital Circuits and signals

• Digital circuit is a circuit where the signal must be one of the two discrete levels. The
signal must be one or zero (1 and 0).
• These circuits are made by combining transistors and logic gates which help the
electronic device and logical decisions.
• The information in digital circuits appear in combinations of 0s and 1s where a 0 stands
for off or open or low and a 1 stands for on or closed or high.
• The digital circuit produces digital signals. Digital signals are in form of high (+ve) or
low (-ve) and not contiguous.

Characteristics of Digital signals

• Bit intervals: This the time required to send one single bit.
• Digital signals are discrete.
• The signals have limited number of defined values such as 1 and 0.
• Bit rate it’s the number of bit intervals in one second.

Advantages of digital signals

• Digital data can be easily compressed and hence transmitted efficiently. This help in
transmission of large volume of voice, data, and image information.
• Digital signals are secure. There is minimal loss of data.
• Digital data transmission is cheaper compared to analogue data.

NB: The process by which analogue signal is converted into digital signals is called modulation
and the reverse is the demodulation.

Logic gates

61
 • A logic gate is an electronic switching circuit used in computers and other electronic
system to help make logical decisions.
• Logic gates are the switches that turn ON or OFF depending on what the user is doing!
• They are the building blocks for how computers work.
• Logic gates turn ON when a certain condition is true, and OFF when the condition is
false.
• It has one or more inputs but only one output.
• The operation of logic gates is usually shown using tables called truth tables.

Remember:
–True= ON = 1
–False = OFF=0

Types of Logic Gates

Logic gates are electronic circuits with a number of inputs and one output.
There are three basic logic gates, namely
1. OR gate,
2. AND gate,
3. NOT gate
Other logic gates that are derived from these basic gates are
4. NAND gate,
5. NOR gate,

• In a circuit schematic each logic gate is represented by a different picture, like the ones
shown below and their truth table.
Truth Table
• A truth table represents the relation between all inputs and possible outputs of any logic
device or logic circuit in a tabular form.
• The number of inputs may vary from one to many depending upon the device or
complexity of the circuit.
• Number of output also varies in this way and may be one or more. For different digital
circuits, some of the examples of truth table are given below.
• A convenient way to visualize the outputs for the logic gates is through a truth table.
• The truth table depicts the gate’s response to each possible set of inputs.

62
NOT Gate
• A NOT gate, also called an inverter is a one-input, one-output logic circuit whose output
is always the complement of the input.
• That is, a LOW input produces a HIGH output, and vice versa.
• It means that for a positive logic system, a logic ‘0’ at the input produces a logic ‘1’ at
the output, while a logic ‘1’ at the input produces a logic ‘0’ output.
• It is also known as a complementing circuit or an inverting circuit.
The logic symbol and the truth table of an inverter are shown below.

• NOT is the most simple logic gate.

• All it does is take in an input that is either ON or OFF and spits out the opposite.
• So for a 1 it will give a 0, and for a 0 it will give a 1.
• Another name for a NOT gate is inverter, because it inverts (makes opposite) the input

AND Gate
• An AND gate is a logic circuit with two or more inputs and one output that performs
ANDing operation.
• The output of an AND gate is HIGH only when all of its inputs are in the HIGH state. In
all other cases, the output is LOW.
• For a positive logic systems, it means that the output of the AND gate is a logic ‘1’ only
when all of its inputs are in logic ‘1’ state. In all other cases, the output is logic ‘0’.
• The logic symbol and the truth table of a two-input AND gate are shown below.

63
 • Unlike NOT, AND needs two inputs
• It only turns on when both inputs are ON
• If only one input is on, it spits out OFF • If both inputs are off, it spits out OFF

OR Gate
• An OR gate is a logic circuit with two or more inputs and one output that performs
ORing operation.
• The output of an OR gate is LOW only when all of its inputs are LOW.
• For all other possible input combinations, the output is HIGH.
• For a positive logic system, the output of an OR gate is a logic ‘0’ only when all of its
inputs are at logic ‘0’.
• For all other possible input combinations, the output is a logic ‘1’.
• The logic symbol and the truth table of a two-input OR gate are shown below.

64
 • OR also needs two inputs
• OR needs one input to be ON for it to spit out ON
• It is also ON when both inputs are ON • It is OFF when both inputs are OFF

NAND Gate
• The term NAND implies NOT-AND.
• A NAND gate is equivalent to AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
• The standard logic symbol for a 2-input NAND gate is shown below. This symbol is the
same as
• AND gate symbol except for a small circle (bubble) on its output. This circle represents
the NOT function.

• The truth Table of a NAND gate is obtained from the truth Table of an AND gate by
complementing the output entries.
• The output of a NAND gate is a logic ‘0’ when all its inputs are a logic
‘1’.
• For all other input combinations, the output is a logic ‘1’.

65
 • NAND gate operation is logically expressed as

NOR Gate
• The term NOR implies NOT-OR. A NOR gate is equivalent to OR gate followed by a
NOT gate.
• The standard logic symbol for a 2-input NOR gate is shown in Figure 2.7.
• This symbol is same as OR gate symbol except for a small circle (bubble) on its output.
• This circle represents the NOT function

• The truth Table of a NOR gate is obtained from the truth Table of an OR gate by
complementing the output entries.
• The output of a NOR gate is a logic ‘1’ when all its inputs are logic ‘0’.
• For all other input combinations, the output is a logic ‘0’.
• The output of a two-input
• NOR gate is logically expressed as

66
RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Explain the following terms:

a) Semiconductor
b) Intrinsic semiconductor
c) Extrinsic semiconductor
d) Doping
2. Describe how the following semiconductors are made:
a) p-type

b) n-type
3. Explain the statement, “at low temperatures the resistance of silicon is high, but decreases at
high temperatures”.

67
4. Draw the symbol of a p-n junction diode. State one application of the diode.
5. Use the circuit diagrams to distinguish between forward and reverse bias of a p-n junction
diode.

6. Explain the uses of the following electrical components:

a) Photovoltaic cell

b) Inductor

c) Capacitors

d) Transistors
7. Figure below is the logic gates

a) Which type of logic gate is this.

b) Explain the action of the gate.
8. What is the functional difference between the OR gate and the NOT gate?
9. Give any two characteristics of digital signals
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• Electromagnetic wave: is transverse wave that transfers electrical and magnetic energy.
• Electromagnetic radiation: is energy that is transferred through space by electromagnetic
waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
• It is a continuous range of electromagnetic waves in order of increasing wave length.
• It is the continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged according to frequency and
wavelength.

68
 • Electromagnetic waves in the spectrum include; gamma rays, X-rays, ultra-violet rays,
visible light, infra-red, microwaves and radio waves.
• The shorter the wave length the more the energy they will carry, and the longer the
wavelength the less the energy.
• All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum, but they have different
wavelengths
and different
frequencies.

• The frequency of
a wave is the
number of
waves per second.
• The wavelength is the
distance from the peak of
one wave to the next one.

Gamma rays

• Gamma rays are given off

(produced) by stars, and by
some nuclei of radioactive
substances.
• They are extremely high frequency waves, and carry a large amount of energy.
• They pass through most materials, and are quite difficult to stop - you need lead or
concrete in order to block them out.
X-rays

• X-rays are very high frequency waves, and carry a lot of energy. They will pass through
most substances, and this makes them useful in medicine and industry to see inside
things.
• X-rays are given off by stars, and strongly by some types of nebula.
• When we use X-rays, we make them by firing a beam of electrons at a "target". If we fire
the electrons with enough energy, X-rays will be produced.

69
Ultra-violet Radiation
• Ultra-Violet light is made by special lamps, for example, on sun beds.
• It is also given off by the Sun in large quantities.
• We call it "UV" for short.

Visible Light
• White light is actually made up of a whole range of colours, mixed together.
• We can see this if we pass white light through a glass prism - the violet light is bent
("refracted") more than the red, because it has a shorter wavelength - and we see a
rainbow of colours.
• The visible light consists of seven radiations i.e. violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red abbreviated as VIBGYOR. This forms what is referred to as visible
spectrum.

Infra-red Radiation
• Infra-red waves are just below visible red light in the electromagnetic spectrum ("Infra"
means "below").
• You probably think of Infra-red waves as heat, because they're given off by hot objects,
and you can feel them as warmth on your skin.
• Infra-Red waves are also given off by stars, lamps, flames and anything else that's warm -
including you.

Radio Waves
• Radio waves are produced from electrons moving in conductors.
• Radio waves are made by various types of transmitter, depending on the wavelength.
• They are also given off by stars, sparks and lightning, which is why you hear interference
on your radio in a thunderstorm.

Microwaves
• Microwaves are basically extremely high frequency radio waves, and are made by
various types of transmitter.
• In a mobile phone, they're made by a transmitter chip and an antenna, in a microwave
oven they're made by a "magnetron".
• Their wavelength is usually a couple of centimetres. Stars also give off microwaves.

Properties of electromagnetic waves

• They carry no charge.

70
 • They are transverse in nature.
• They can travel through a vacuum. Do not need any material medium to travel.
• Under suitable conditions, they undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction and show
interference effect.
• They obey wave equation 𝑐 = 𝑓 × 𝜆 where 𝑐 is the speed of light, 𝑓 is frequency and 𝜆 is
wave length.
• They travel in free space (vacuum) at a speed of 3.0 ×108 m/s • They transfer energy
from one place to another.
• They can be emitted or absorbed by matter.
• They possess energy E that is directly proportional to its frequency i.e. 𝐸 ∝ 𝑓

Methods of detecting electromagnetic waves

a. Gamma Radiations: can be detected by

 Photographic film
 Ionisation detectors
 Geiger-Muller tube

b. X-Rays: can be detected by

 photographic film
 Ionisation detectors
 Fluorescent screens

c. Ultra Violet Radiation: can be detected by

 Photographic film
 Paint and clothes washed in certain detergents fluorence by reradiating the UV radiation
they absorb.

d. Visible Radiation: can be detected by

 The eye, the glow of hot objects can be seen with our eyes.
 Photographic film.
 Semi-conductor devices

e. Infrared Radiation: can be detected by

 Infrared radiation is detected by our bodies by the heading effect of the skin.
 Photographic films.

71
  A thermopile

f. Radio waves: can be detected by

 Radio aerials or antenna of an electrical equipment.
 Diodes
 Earphones

Applications of electromagnetic waves

a. Gamma rays
 Used as tracers: Gamma rays are used in medicine to locate internal body organs that are
not functioning as expected.
 Used for sterilising: Gamma rays can kill bacteria, mould and insects or worms in food.
 They are used to control thickness of sheets of steel in the manufacture of sheets.
 They are used to detect flaws and cracks in weak points

b. X-rays
 They are used by doctors to check on teeth and bones.
 They are also used by engineers to check the welded metal joints.
 They are also used in hospitals in the management and treatment of skin disorder.
 They are used to check that food manufactured does not have foreign objects like metal
and stones.

c. Ultra-violet radiation
 They are used in dental and skin treatment.
 They are used for sterilisation.
 They are used in security markings invisible signatures on very important documents.

d. Visible light
 It is used in photography.
 It is used in laser printing.
 It is used in aiming systems of weapons and other machinery

e. Infra-red
 They are used in remote controls for television and video recorders.

72
  Green houses allow infrared to pass through hence making it possible for plants to be
grown in very cold weather.
 Burglar alarms use beams of infrared to detect intruders. If an object passes it breaks the
beam and an alarm rings.

f. Radio waves
 They are used in the transmission of radio and television signals.
 They are used in radio communication.

Velocity of the wave (c) = frequency (f) × wavelength (λ)

𝑐=𝑓×𝜆

Example
Calculate the frequency of the red light of wavelength 7×10-7m given that the speed of
electromagnetic wave in the free space is 3×108m/s.

Solution:
𝑐=𝑓×𝜆

𝑐
𝑓=
𝜆
3 × 108

= 3 × 10−7

= 4.3 × 1014𝐻𝑧

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Explain how electromagnetic waves come about.

2. Which waves in the electromagnetic spectrum are:
a) The most massive

b) The lightest

c) Most dangerous to people

73
3. A broadcasting station sends out radio waves of wavelength 1500m. Calculate the frequency
of the wave. (Take c=3x108m/s).

4. State one difference between ultra-violet and X-rays.

5. Explain the meaning of electromagnetic spectrum.
6. Draw an electromagnetic spectrum and indicate the:
a) Regions of the spectrum that ionize air.

b) Region that cause fluorescence.

7. Explain two uses of Gamma rays.
8. Mention two ways of detecting infrared radiation.

LIGHT AND LENSES

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS

I. Transparent Materials
These allow light to pass through them and objects can be seen through them e.g.
water, air and glass.
II. Translucent Materials
These allow light to pass through them but objects cannot be seen through them. E.g.
frosted glass, oiled paper. Windows of toilets use translucent glass because light must
pass through but the object inside need not be seen.
III. Opaque Objects
Do not allow light to pass through and objects cannot be seen through them.

Path of light
A light wave is called a ray. It is the direction of path of light. On paper it is represented using a
straight line with an arrow. A group of light rays is called a BEAM. Beams can either be
parallel, divergent or convergent. Converging rays meet and cross each other.

74
Convex Lenses and Concave Lenses

Difference

 A convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner in the edges while a concave lens is
thinner in the middle.
Similarity

 Both lenses produce images by refracting light rays.

 Light rays bend when entering and leaving the lenses.
• In a convex lens light rays bend towards the principal axis.
• In concave lens they bend away from the principal axis.
Terms associated with convex lenses
OBJECT (o) is the real thing while

IMAGE (i) is the picture of the real thing.

OBJECT DISTANCE (u) is the distance between the object and lens.

IMAGE DISTANCE (v) is the distance between the image and the lens.

OPTICAL CENTRE is the centre of a lens where light rays are not refracted. A light ray passing
through the optical centre is never bent because the sides of the lens are almost parallel in the
middle.

PRINCIPAL AXIS is an imaginary line passing through the optical centre which is also
perpendicular to the plane of the lens.

PRINCIPAL FOCUS or FOCAL POINT (F) It is the meeting point of a beam of light rays
passing through a convex lens.

FOCAL LENGTH (f) is the distance between the focal point and the optical centre.

75
FOCAL PLANE is a line perpendicular to the principal axis passing through focal point.

Characteristics of an image

 An image can either be upright/erect or upside down/inverted.

 An image can either be real or virtual. A real image forms where light rays meet and
cross. A real image is cast on a screen and is upside down. A virtual image forms where
light rays appear to meet and cross. A virtual image cannot be cast on a screen and is
upright.
 An image can be magnified, diminished or same size as the object.
Formula for magnification

a. 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(ℎ2)
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(ℎ1)

This is called LINEAR MAGNIFICATION: the number of times in which the image is
bigger than the object.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑣)
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑢)

How to construct light ray diagrams geometrically – finding image distance by scale
drawing.
 Three light rays always start from the source point object.
 The ray that passes through the optical centre is not refracted.
 The point at which the rays meet is where a real image forms. NOTE ON
SCALE: Use same scale for f, u and v. h1 and h2 should also have same scale which may be
different from that of f, u and v. Example

Use scale drawing to find image distance and in each case state characteristics of image for the
following instances. (scale for h₁ and h₂ should be 1:10, for f, u and v the scale should be 1:5)

i. An object 10cm high is placed 20cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm.

76
 ii. An object 10cm high is placed 30cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm.

iii. An object 10cm high is placed 10cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm

iv. An object 10cm high is placed 5cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 10cm.

NB: Question
(i) is for an
abject at
2F, question
(ii) is for an
object
outside
2F, question (iii) is for an object at F and question (iv) is for an object between F and the lens.

77
 SUMMARISING IMAGE POSITION AND IMAGE
CHARACTERISTICS

OBJECT IMAGE POSITION IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS

PDistOSaITnt IONinf At F Real, diminished, inverted. M
inity
Outside 2F Between F and <Rea 1.l, d iminished, inverted. M
At 2F 2At 2FF <Rea 1.l, same size, inverted. M =
Between F and Outside 2F 1R eal, magnified, inverted. M >
2At FF At infinity 1Virtu al, magnified, erect. M >
Between F and Same side as 1Virtu al, magnified, erect. M >
lens object 1

The lens formula – finding image distance by calculation.

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Example
Use calculation to find image position and characteristiscs. An object 10cm high is placed 10cm
in front of a convex lens of focal length 15cm.

Solution:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1
= −
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢
1 1 1
= −
𝑣 15 10
1 2−3
=
𝑣 30
𝑣 = −30𝑐𝑚

78
The answer is negative to show that it is a virtual image.

NOTES:
A negative sign in an answer means the image is virtual. Virtual images are upright. An image
is magnified if image distance is greater than object distance.

How to determine focal length of a lens

a) Focussing an image of a distant object e.g. a window across a large room.

Procedure: Holding a lens a short distance from a wall (function as a screen) trying to produce a
clear image of the window on the opposite wall. The lens is moved forward and backward until a
sharp image is produced. The distance from the wall to the lens is the focal length of the lens.
Explanation: Light rays from a distant object travel parallel to each other. On being incident on
a convex lens they are refracted. On emerging they meet and cross each other at the principal
focus or in the focal plane.

b) Graphical method
Materials: A candle, matches, meter ruler, lens holder, lens and a screen.

Procedure:

a. Set up the apparatus as shown below and light the candle

b. With the candle at 22.5cm from the lens produce a well focussed image
of the flame on the screen.
c. Measure and record the image distance in the table of results
d. Repeat steps (c) and (d) for the object distances shown in the table
below

U cm V cm 1/u cm 1/v cm u+v cm

22.5 45 0.044 0.022 67.5
28.0 32 0.035 0.031 60
37.5 23 0.026 0.043 60.5
45.0 22.5 0.022 0.044 67.5
52.5 21 0.019 0.047 73.5
1

79
 Draw a graph of against 1
𝑢 𝑣
1
1
𝑣
Using the graph of against .
𝑢

(1). Extend the graph line to

cut the y axis at D. 1
At D, = 0. This means image
distance is infinity and the
object
𝑣
1 1 must
be at F. = 0.066 cm. 𝑢 = = 15.1𝑐𝑚
𝑢 0.066𝑐𝑚
1
(2) Extend the graph line to cut the y axis at N. At N, = 0. This
𝑢
1
means object distance is infinity and the image must form at F. =
𝑣
0.067. 𝑣 = 1/0.067 = 14.9𝑐𝑚v. The answers are very close.

f. Another graph which may be drawn is of u+v against u.

Shape of
graph line =
curve upwards Important point is the lowest point, L.
At the lowest point (1) u = 2F. From the graph u = 31 = 2F. F = 31/2 = 15.5cm.

80
At the lowest point (2) u+v = 4F.
From the graph u+v =58 = 4F. F = 58/4 = 14.5.
The graphical method cannot be very exact but must be close. This also applies where one finds
an answer by scale drawing unlike calculation.
c) Plane mirror method

Procedure: Set up the apparatus as shown below. Light the candle.

Move the lens forward and backwards until a sharp focussed image is formed on the
screen. The image distance is equal to the focal length.

Principles obeyed here

 Rays of light incident on a plane mirror at right angles are reflected in the
same path.
 For an object placed at F, light rays become parallel after striking a
convex lens.
 Rays of light that are parallel to each other before striking a convex lens
converge at F.

Reflection in a plane mirror

A plane mirror follows regular reflection.

81
On being reflected the rays become divergent. Image forms where the rays appear to meet and
cross.

Properties of an image formed by a plane mirror

 It is virtual because it cannot be cast on a screen since light rays do not meet.
 It is upright.
 It is inverted sideways – lateral inversion.
 It is found at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Applications of lenses in optical devices A. Slide Projector
Principle: An object placed between F and 2F of a convex lens forms its image outside 2F.
The image is real, inverted and magnified.

82
Parts and functions
Film: it is the object. It contains small pictures. It is placed upside down in order for the upside
down image to appear upright to the viewer.
Projector lens: It has long focal length. It produces a focused real magnified and inverted image
on a screen.
Lamp: Illuminates the film.
Condenser lens: It is a convex lens of short focal length. Converges and focuses light
onto the film.

Curved mirror: Sends back wasted light onto the film.

B. Magnifying Glass
Placing and object inside F of a convex lens makes the lens a magnifying glass. The image
appears on the same side as the object. It is upright, virtual and magnified.

C. Astronomical Telescope
An instrument used to look at stars, the moon or any distant object.

Principle

 A distant object focuses a real, inverted and diminished image at principal focus, F.
 An object placed at focal point produces a virtual, upright and magnified image at

infinity.

Light rays from a distant object are striking the objective lens, Lo. The rays are travelling
parallel to each other but not parallel to the P.A. of the lens. The rays emerge from the lens to
cross in the focal plane of the lens. The rays continue to the eyepiece lens.

83
Parts and functions
Objective lens: Has long focal length. It focuses a real inverted diminished image at focal point.

Eyepiece lens: Has short focal length. It focuses a virtual magnified upright image at infinity. It
acts as a magnifying glass.

Notes

 Image of the objective lens becomes an object of the eyepiece lens.

 When compared to the original object the final image is upside down.
 Length of the telescope is equal to the sum of the focal lengths of the objective lens and
eyepiece lens.

▪ Magnification for telescope =𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜

𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑒

D. Lens Camera

Parts and their function

Film: It is a plastic material
that is coated with silver
bromide (light sensitive material). It has to be kept in the dark
Camera Lens/Glass Lens: Refracts light rays and focus them onto the film to produce a real,
inverted and diminished image.
Aperture: Allows light rays to enter the camera.
Shutter: Controls the amount of light entering the camera. When light is not needed the shutter
prevents light from entering the camera.

Diaphragm: Controls size of the aperture thereby controlling the amount of light entering the
camera.

Threads: They move the lens forward and backward in order to produce a clear image on the
film. This process is called focusing.

Camera Box: Acts as a container. It is dark inside to prevent damaging the film.

84
E. The human eye

Parts and functions

The parts of the eye
discussed here are those
having to do with focusing an image.
 Eye lens: Used to focus an inverted real image on a screen called retina.
 The special ability of the eye lens is that it can change its shape. The shape of the lens
decides the focal length of the lens.
 Retina: The screen on the back of the eye where the image is formed.
 Contains one hundred million light sensitive cells.
 Pupil: A black hole in the front of the eye. It admits light.
 Eyeball: Contains parts of the eye.
 Iris: Muscles that control the size of the pupil and control the amount of light entering the
eye.
 Ciliary muscles: They are connected to the eye lens. They change the shape of the eye
lens so that light rays entering the eye are made to cross on the retina. Changing the
shape of the eye lens changes the focal length too.
 Cornea: Forms a tough and protective transparent outer cover of the eye. It allows light to
enter the eye and helps in some refraction of light rays.
 Eye lids: Opens and closes to allow light in and to block light it is not needed.
 Optic nerve: Connected to retina at the back of the eye. ▪ Carries visual messages to the
brain for the body to act.

Accommodation: It is the ability of the eye to change the shape of the eye lens and so change the
focal length. It is achieved by contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles.

Similarities between the camera and the eye

• Eyelid in the eye and shutter in the camera open and close to control entry of light.
• Pupil in the eye and aperture in the camera are holes through which light enters.
• Retina in the eye and film in the camera are light sensitive parts.
• Ciliary muscles in the eye control the shape of the eye lens and threads in the camera
make the camera lens move forwards or backwards.
• Eye lens and camera lens both have convex lens for production of real images.

85
 • Eye ball and camera box are containers that protect the parts inside
• Image distance in the eye is fixed while in the camera image distance changes.
• Eyes are open while the common namely closed except when taking a picture.

Differences between the human eye and camera

• Human eye has fluids while the camera does not contain fluids.
• The camera lens is a rigid glass while the eye lens is a soft tissue.
• The eye produces a clear image by accommodation while the camera produces clear
images by focusing.
• The eye has an optic nerve while the camera does not have an optic nerve
• The image in the camera is formed on different parts of the film while in the eye the
image is formed on the same spot of the retina.

Defects of vision

1. Myopia – short sightedness

A person sees near objects clearly but cannot see distant objects clearly

Cause:
• Eye lens being too thick
• Inelastic ciliary muscles • Eye ball being too long.
• Cornea lens being extremely powerful
• Focal length of the lens being too short

Effect
• Light rays meet and cross before they reach the retina.
• Image forms inside the retina.

Correction of myopia
• Wearing concave lenses.

86
2. Hypermetropia/long sightedness
A person sees distant objects clearly but cannot see near objects clearly.
Causes:
• Eye ball being short.
• Eye lens being too thin • Focal length being too long.

Effect: Light rays meet and cross outside the

retina.

Correction of hypermetropia: Wear converging

lenses.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Name the instrument, an optical device that resembles the working of the eye.
2. Describe the three similarities and three differences between the instrument you have
mentioned in question 1 above and the eye.

3. a) Identify the eye defect represented by the diagram below and explain how it comes about.

87
 b) Explain with relevant diagram how this can be corrected.

4. An object 6cm high is placed 30cm from the diverging lens of focal length 15cm with the
help of a scale diagram, determine the:

a) Position of the image

b) Magnification produced by the lens

c) Size of the image

5. An object 3cm high is placed 150cm from the screen. Calculate the focal length of the object
and the screen so as to produce a real image 6cm high on the screen.

6. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain briefly how a projector works.
7. Define the following:
a) Focal length

b) Principal axis
8. Explain two types of lenses.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR PHYSICS is the study of vast amount of energy that can be obtained from the
nucleus of an atom and which can be released in nuclear reactions.

• Define matter, an atom and an element.

• An atom has a centre called nucleus. The particles found in the nucleus are protons
and neutrons. Electrons rotate around the nucleus at very high speeds. Protons and
neutrons are collectively together called NUCLEONS.
• The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
NUCLEON NUMBER or MASS NUMBER or ATOMIC MASS or ATOMIC
MASS NUMBER.
• NUCLIDES are atoms which have different nucleon number whether the
difference is in the number of neutrons, the number of protons or both protons and
neutrons are bonded together in the nucleus by the binding energy.
• ISOBARS are nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic numbers e.g.
I-131 and Xe -131, C-14 and N-14. Isobars have different chemical properties
because they have different electron configuration.

88
 • ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but
different mass numbers because of the difference in the number of neutrons in the
nuclei. Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have the same
electron configuration.

Examples of isotopes
Isotopes of carbon are C-12 (with 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons),
C-13 (with 6 protons, 6 electrons and 7neutrons) and C-14 (with 6 protons
6 electrons and 8 neutrons). Isotopes of hydrogen are H-1 called a proton
(with 1 proton, 1 electron and 0 neutrons), H-2 called deuterium (with 1 proton, 1 electron and 1
neutron) and H-3 called tritium (with 1 proton, 1 electron and 2 neutrons)

Standard notation of elements

• X represents the Symbol of the element.

• A represents the Mass Number while Z represents the Atomic number of the
element

The diagram above showing standard notation of elements

Naming the element and giving its mass number e.g. C-12. Standard notation for a proton, an
electron and a neutron

Stable and unstable isotopes

Stable nuclei generally have similar or same the same number of protons as neutrons in them
E.g. C-12, C-13 Unstable nuclei have many more neutrons in them than protons. As atomic
number increases instability increases because elements with higher atomic numbers have many
more neutrons than protons in their nuclei. When the mass of an atom becomes large, the
nucleus is unstable and the atom disintegrates.

Note: Unstable heavy nuclei find stability by RANDOM SPONTANEOUS DISINTEGRATION.

Radioactivity
It is the random spontaneous disintegration of certain atomic nuclei with the emission of
different types of radiation such as alpha, beta and gamma rays.

89
Spontaneous emission
When an atom splits the nucleus divides and the protons and neutrons in it form two new
species. The electrons divide themselves between the two new species. This is called
RADIOACTIVE DECAY. Elements that decay spontaneously are called Radio nuclides,
radioactive elements or radioisotopes. No external energy is given to the atom.

Binding energy is the energy required to break the nucleus.

Radiation is the emission of energy in form of infrared light, ultraviolet light, heat or x – rays.

A photon is a packet of light energy.

Transmutation is when a radioactive substance changes to a new element.

Radioactive emission is the breakdown of nucleus to produce new nuclides and particles.

Types of radioactivity

I. Natural: occur naturally

II. Artificial or Induced
Characteristics of radioactive substances

• They have unstable nuclei.

• They can be transmuted to different elements
• They release vast amount of energy in form of radiation
Types of radiation
These include alpha, beta and gamma radiation. They are called ionising radiation because they
cause ionisation of gases. IONISATION means the removal of electrons from an atom to form
positive ions.

A. Alpha Radiation
- Alpha particles consist of a nucleus of a helium atom.
- They have two protons and two neutrons.
- Atomic number decreases by 2.
- Mass number decreases by 4.
- New element forms.
- Alpha particles are emitted at a speed of about 6% the speed of light

90
 General Equation

Examples of alpha decay

Properties of alpha radiation

• They have slight penetrating power. They are easily stopped by paper.
• They are emitted with the same velocity.
• They are highly ionizing.
• They are deflected by an electric or magnetic field.

B. Beta Particles
They are electrons that move at very high speeds comparable to the speed of light. Where do
the electrons come from?

A neutron in the nucleus of an atom breaks up into an electron and a proton. The proton
remains in the nucleus while the electron is emitted as a beta particle. Atomic number
increases by 1. A new element is formed. Mass number remains the same.

General Equation

Examples of beta decay

Properties of beta radiation

• They are deflected by magnetic or electric field. Why are beta rays deflected towards
a positive plate?

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 • They are negatively charged being electrons. Why are beta rays deflected more than
alpha particles despite having a smaller charge?
• They are lighter.
• Have intermediate penetrating power. Beta rays can go through paper but are stopped
by aluminium sheets.
• Have varying velocities in air.
• They have intermediate ionizing power
C. Gamma Rays
Nuclei that are unstable because they have too much energy emit gamma rays to discard the
excess energy. Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by a nucleus
when it also emits alpha and beta radiation. Particles in the nucleus remain unchanged

Properties of gamma rays

• They cannot be deflected by an electric or magnetic field. WHY? They have no

charge.
• They have greatest penetration power because they carry no charge. They are
absorbed by thick lead or concrete.
• In air they cause little ionisation.
• They have shorter wavelength than x-rays.
Diagram summarizing properties of alpha, beta and gamma rays

HALF LIFE
• It is the time taken for radioactivity of a radioactive substance to fall to half of its
initial value.
• It is also the time taken for a given mass of a radioactive element to be reduced to
half.
• It is the average time taken for the activity to decrease to half of the initial value.

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Half-life varies from a fraction of a second to millions of years.

Example
A radioactive source has a half-life of 30 minutes. The initial count rate is 228. How long is it
going to take for the count rate to be 57? Show your working.

Solution:

From 228 to 114 (its half) = 30𝑚𝑖𝑛

From 114 to 57 (its half) = 30𝑚𝑖𝑛

∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 228 𝑡𝑜 57, 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 = 30 + 30 = 60

It will take 60 minutes.

Nuclear Fission

- It is a nuclear process where heavier nuclei are broken into lighter ones and energy is
given out.
- An example is bombarding U-235 with a slow moving neutron

• The U-235 becomes U-236. Being heavy and unstable it splits into 2 neutrons.
• What are the other products from the equation?
• A vast amount of energy in form of heat is given out.
• The two neutrons produced further react with other U-235 nuclides to produce four
electrons. The four neutrons hit and split
4 uranium nuclides to produce 8 neutrons. This is a chain reaction.
Advantage: Releasing vast amount of energy.

Disadvantage: Results into an atomic bomb if not controlled.

How to control chain reactions

• Using neutron absorbing boron rods.

• Using graphite

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Nuclear Fusion

• It is a nuclear process in which lighter nuclei combine into heavier nuclei releasing vast
amount of energy.
• Nuclear fusion reactions take place at very high temperatures to overcome electrical
repulsions between the nuclei. Hence nuclear fusion is a thermonuclear reaction.

Example
Three deuterium atoms combine to produce a helium atom, a proton, a neutron plus vast amount
of energy.

Detectors of radiations

A. Photographic film
When a photographic plate is exposed to radiation it goes foggy (darkens). People
working with radioactivity wear badges with photographic film in them. When developed
the photographic film fogs up. The more the film fogs up the more the radioactivity they
have been exposed to.

B. Gold leaf electroscope

Works on the principle that, “radiation is ionising”.
When a radiation source is brought close to a charged gold leaf electroscope the
electroscope neutralises. The gold leaf of the electroscope falls. Supposing the metal cup
is negatively charged, positive ions are attracted to it. This neutralises the charge on the
electroscope. The leaf falls.

C. The Geiger Muller Tube (Gm Tube)

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 - It is the commonest way of detecting ionising radiation. It contains argon at low pressure
inside the Geiger Muller tube.
- Alpha and beta particles enter through the thin mica window. Gamma rays can enter even
through the tube walls. Radiation ionises the argon gas inside. Electrons go to the wire
anode. Positive argon ions go to the cathode. This creates an electrical impulse. The
impulse is amplified and radioactivity is measured by the number of counts per minute.

D. Cloud Chambers Principles:

Radiation causes ionisation. Supersaturated vapour easily condenses to form a line of
cloud.
Expansion cloud chamber

- The piston is moved downwards. The volume increases. Pressure drops. Temperature drops
too. The gas vapour mixture inside becomes supersaturated. Incoming radiation causes
ionisation to produce ions. The ions act as nuclei of condensation to produce a line of
cloud (a trail).

E. Diffusion Cloud Chamber

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 • It has two liquid reservoirs. Round the top of the chamber is a felt strip soaked in ethanol.
The liquid at the top is heated to produce vapour.
• The liquid at the bottom is cooled to make the gas mixture become supersaturated. There
is solid carbon dioxide at -78oC
• When radiation enters the chamber it ionises the gas vapour mixture. The ions produced
act as a nuclei of condensation resulting into a trail.
• Alpha particles produce straight and thick tracks.
• Beta particles produce thinner and fainter tracks.
• Gamma rays leave no clear tracks

F. Spark Counter

A spark counter has two metal plates which are several meters long. A PD voltage is applied
between the 2 plates A and B until there is sparking. The PD is then reduced until the sparking
just stops. Incoming radiation causes ionisation and the sparks occur again. To determine the
range of radiation the source is raised above the chamber until sparking stops. G. Ionisation
Detector

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It has two plates, one is positively charged and the other negatively charged. Incoming radiation
ionises the air. Electrons go to the positively charged plate. The positive ions go to the
negatively charged plate. This flow of charges generates an electric current. This is registered by
a sensitive ammeter in an electric circuit.

H .Scintillation Counter

A scintillater is any material that produces flashes of light when radiation falls on it. Radiation
causes ionisation by knocking off the electrons from the atoms. When the electron vacancies are
refilled there are flashes of light. The flashes of light strike the photomultiplier. The
photomultiplier produces electrons at the cathode. Electrons go to the anode and flow as pulses
of electric current. The current is amplified and measured.

Uses of radioactivity

a. Automatically controlling paper thickness

When paper is manufactured it is important to make it to a particular thickness. Beta
radiation is passed through paper and there is radiation detection on the other side. The
thicker the sheet of paper, the weaker the radiation that will be detected. If the thickness
of paper changes then the operator will know and be able to adjust the manufacturing
process appropriately.

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b. Nuclear power generation: This uses carefully controlled chain reactions to produce heat
energy. The heat vapourises water at high pressure. The steam drives the turbine and the
generator produces electrical energy.
c. Carbon-14 dating is an accurate means of determining the age of organic matter. Plants
and animals contain C-14 isotope and the level of radioactivity is constant. At death
plants and animals stop absorbing C-14 isotope from the atmosphere. Radioactivity
decreases as C-14 isotope decays. The half-life of C-14 isotope is known. (It is 5570
years). Therefore we can determine the level of radioactivity in organic matter and
determine its age.
d. Investigating the thyroid gland, detecting brain tumours, internal bleeding, metabolic
disorders and blocked kidneys: Iodine 131 is injected into the blood vessels and GM
tubes point at the part to be diagnosed. If radiation decreases it will indicate that there is
blockage in the system.
e. Checking welds in pipes and machine wear: Radiation is put inside the welds in pipes. A
radioactive isotope is injected into the pipes. If there is a breakage in the pipe it will lead
to a leakage. GM tubes placed outside the leaking spot or photographic film wrapped
around the leaking spot can detect the radiation and engineers can tell exactly where the
fault is.
f. In agriculture to study the uptake of fertilizer by plants and also to study plant uptake of
nutrients.
g. In industry to measure fluid flow in pipes.
h. Radiotherapy for treating cancer. Cancer cells are more easily killed than normal body
cells. Radiation is aimed very accurately at the cancer cells to kill them without killing
too many healthy body cells.
i. Reducing insect population by sterilisation of male insects
j. Sterilising medical items by irradiating them with gamma rays from cobalt
k. Also used in food preservation. Gamma radiation can be used to kill bacteria in order to
preserve food
l. Detecting smoke in manufacturing industries. Alpha particles are stopped by smoke. This
sets off the detector and triggers the fire bell sound.

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Dangers of radioactivity

 Causes cancer, loss of hair, skin burns and ulceration, redness and eye cataracts.
 Weakening of the immune system.
 Radiation sickness which has vomiting, fever and diarrhoea as symptoms.
Safety precautions in handling radioactive substances

a. When using radioactive substances an authorised person must be in attendance.

b. Using forceps and no bare hands.
c. Holding a radioactive substance away from eyes.
d. Wash hands before touching anything after handling a radioactive substance.
e. Handle radioactive substances so that they point away from the body.
f. Keeping radioactive substances in boxes that are well labelled.
g. Radiographers must operate machines behind lead screens.
How to dispose of radioactive substances

• Dump them in containers made of thick concrete or thick lead and sink them deep in
oceans and earth.
• Reprocessing: This involves carefully controlled nuclear reactions to recycle the nuclear
waste.

NB Pregnant women should be exposed to minimum radiation.

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE

1. Draw the atomic structure showing the three sub-particles of the atom.
2. Define the following terms:
a) Radioactivity

b) Half-life

c) Radioisotope

d) Radiation

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3. A fresh sample of a tree gives 120 counts/minute and a sample under test gives 15
14
counts/minute. What is the age of the sample, if half-life of C is 5540 years? Show your
working.

4. A radioactive substance has decayed to of its original activity after 64 days. What is its
half-life?
5. Explain how radioactivity is used in carbon dating.
6. a) Two radioactive samples showed the following characteristics

Sample Effect of magnetic field on Effect of paper on

the sample sample

A deflect sample blocked

B no effect sample passes through

(i). Identify particles omitted by samples B

(ii). Give a reason for your answer in question 9a.(i) above

(b) The half-life of a radioactive substance is 3 hours. What mass of the substance would remain
after 12 hours if the initial mass was 40g?
7. Describe the two types of radioactivity.
8. Distinguish between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
9. What are the three properties of beta radiation?

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