The Sacrament Of Eucharist in the West Syrian Sacramental

Theology

1. Introduction and definition

The holy Eucharist serves as the culmination of Christian initiation. Individuals who have
been elevated to the esteemed status of the royal priesthood through Baptism and have been
further united with Christ through Confirmation engage in the Lord's sacrifice with the entire
community through the Eucharist.

2. Sacrament of Eucharist and its Old Testament Prefiguration

The Sacrament of the Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments of the Orthodox Church and is
considered the "source and summit" of Christian life. In the Eucharist, the Orthodox believe
they receive the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ under the appearances of bread and wine.
This sacrament is rooted in the Last Supper, where Jesus instituted it as a means for believers
to participate in His sacrifice, remembering His death and resurrection, and sharing in His
divine life.

However, the Eucharist is not just a New Testament reality; it also has deep roots in the Old
Testament, with many events, figures, and rituals prefiguring or foreshadowing the reality of
the Eucharist. Below are some significant Old Testament prefigurations of the Eucharist:

2.1. The Manna in the Desert (Exodus 16)

After the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt, they wandered in the desert, and God
provided them with manna, a miraculous food that appeared every morning to nourish them.
It was described as "bread from heaven" (Exodus 16:4). Jesus, in the Gospel of John (John
6:31-35), explicitly connects the manna with Himself. He refers to Himself as the "bread of
life" and compares the manna that the Israelites ate to the true Bread from Heaven, which is
His own Body. Just as the manna was necessary for the Israelites’physical survival, so too the
Eucharist is necessary for the spiritual sustenance of Christians.

2.2. The Passover Lamb (Exodus 12)

The Passover commemorates the final plague in Egypt, where the Israelites were instructed to
sacrifice a lamb, spread its blood on their doorposts, and eat the lamb as part of a ritual meal.
This was done in anticipation of their liberation from slavery in Egypt. Jesus is described as
the Paschal Lamb (1 Corinthians 5:7; John 1:29), and His sacrifice on the cross, during the
time of the Passover, fulfills the symbolism of the lamb. Just as the Israelites were saved from
death by the blood of the lamb, Christians believe they are saved from eternal death by the
sacrifice of Christ. The Eucharist, celebrated during the Passover season, makes present this
Paschal sacrifice.

2.3. Melchizedek’s Offering (Genesis 14:18-20)

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Melchizedek, the king of Salem and priest of God Most High, offered bread and wine in
thanksgiving for Abraham's victory in battle. This mysterious figure is significant because he
blesses Abraham and is described as both a priest and a king. The offering of bread and wine
by Melchizedek is often seen as a type or foreshadowing of the Eucharistic offering. The
letter to the Hebrews (Hebrews 7) speaks of Jesus as a priest "according to the order of
Melchizedek," indicating that the offering of bread and wine by Melchizedek is a symbol of
Christ’s own Eucharistic offering.

2.4. The Sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22)

God commands Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac on Mount Moriah. However, at the last
moment, God provides a ram to be sacrificed in place of Isaac. This story foreshadows the
sacrifice of Christ, the Son of God, on the cross. Just as Abraham was willing to offer his
beloved son, God the Father offered His Son, Jesus, for the salvation of the world. The bread
and wine of the Eucharist point to this sacrifice, and the ram in the story can be seen as a type
of Christ, the Lamb who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29).

2.5. The Tree of Life (Genesis 2:9; Revelation 22:2)

The Tree of Life was placed in the Garden of Eden. Its fruit was meant to give eternal life.
After the Fall, Adam and Eve were expelled from the garden, and access to the tree was lost.
The Eucharist is often referred to as the Tree of Life in Christian tradition because it offers
eternal life. In the Eucharist, Christians partake in the Body and Blood of Christ, the true
"Fruit" of the Tree of Life, which gives eternal life and restores what was lost through sin.

2.6. The Sacred Banquet in the Temple

In the Old Testament, there were various types of sacrificial meals, especially the peace
offerings (Leviticus 3) and Thanksgiving offerings (Leviticus 7), in which a portion of the
sacrificial meat was eaten by the priests or the offerers, symbolizing communion with God.
These sacrificial meals can be seen as prefiguring the Eucharistic banquet, where the faithful
partake in the sacred meal that unites them with Christ. The concept of "communion" is
emphasized in the New Testament Eucharist, where believers receive Christ's Body and
Blood as a means of union with Him.

2.7. The Bread of the Presence (Leviticus 24:5-9)

The Bread of the Presence (also known as the showbread) was placed in the Tabernacle as an
offering to God, and it was regularly replaced by fresh loaves. This bread was meant to
symbolize the ongoing covenant relationship between God and His people. The Bread of the
Presence is often viewed as a precursor to the Eucharist, where Christ Himself is the true
"Bread" that sustains the covenant between God and humanity. In John 6:51, Jesus declares,
"I am the living bread that came down from heaven," connecting Himself to the Old
Testament bread offerings.

The Eucharist is deeply rooted in the Old Testament, with many events, figures, and
rituals serving as types or prefigurations of the ultimate sacrament of the Body and Blood of
Christ. Through the manna, the Passover lamb, Melchizedek’s offering, and other Old
Testament themes, the Eucharist is seen as the fulfillment of God’s plan to nourish, sanctify,

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and save His people. It is not just a memorial but a participation in the saving action of
Christ, who offers Himself as the true bread of life for all believers.

3. Sacrament of Eucharist and Lord Jesus Christ

The Sacrament of the Eucharist is central to the life and worship of Christians, especially
within the Catholic, Orthodox, and many Protestant traditions. It is considered the most
profound and sacred of all Christian sacraments because it directly involves the Body and
Blood of Jesus Christ. To understand the relationship between the Eucharist and Jesus Christ,
it's essential to delve into both its theological significance and its biblical foundation.

3.1. The Institution of the Eucharist by Jesus

The Eucharist was instituted by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, which was a Passover meal
shared with His disciples before His Passion. This event is described in the Synoptic Gospels
(Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:14-20) and in Paul’s first letter to the
Corinthians (1 Corinthians 11:23-26). During the meal, Jesus took bread, blessed it, broke it,
and gave it to His disciples saying: "Take, eat; this is my body" (Matthew 26:26). He then
took a cup of wine, gave thanks, and shared it with them: "Drink from it, all of you; for this is
my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins"
(Matthew 26:28). These actions and words were not just symbolic; Jesus instituted the
Eucharist as a sacramental presence of His Body and Blood. In doing so, He connected the
offering of His body on the cross to the sacrament that He was establishing. The Eucharist is
thus a memorial of His Passion, Death, and Resurrection, and an ongoing means by which
Christians participate in the saving work of Christ.

3.2. The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist

One of the core beliefs of the Eucharist is that, through the words of consecration spoken by
the priest, the bread and wine truly become the Body and Blood of Christ. This belief is
known as the Real Presence, and it is a central tenet of Catholic, Orthodox, and some
Protestant doctrines (e.g., Anglicanism, Lutheranism).

In the Gospel of John (John 6:51-58), Jesus speaks of Himself as the "bread of life", and He
emphasizes that unless one eats His flesh and drinks His blood, they have no life in them.
This discourse is foundational for understanding the Eucharistic theology of many Christian
traditions. It is not just a metaphorical expression but an invitation to partake in the very life
of Christ through His sacramental presence.

3.3. The Eucharist as a Sacrifice

Another critical aspect of the Eucharist is that it is not just a meal or celebration, but also a
sacrifice. In the Last Supper, Jesus prefigures His sacrifice on the cross. He offers His Body
and Blood as the new covenant (Luke 22:20), replacing the old sacrificial system and
establishing a new way for humanity to commune with God. Catholics and Orthodox
Christians believe that the Eucharist makes present the one eternal sacrifice of Jesus on the
cross. The Mass is not a re-sacrifice of Christ, but a re-presentation (making present) of the
same sacrifice. The priest, acting in the person of Christ (in persona Christi), offers the Body
and Blood of Christ to God the Father, just as Jesus offered Himself for the salvation of

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humanity. In the Eucharist, Christians are invited to unite their own lives with the sacrifice of
Jesus. As He offered Himself for the forgiveness of sins, believers participate in this offering
through the Eucharist. It becomes a spiritual offering of gratitude, praise, and union with
Christ’s redemptive work.

3.4. Eucharist as Communion with Christ

The Eucharist is also a means of communion with Christ. The term "communion" signifies
both union with the Body of Christ and fellowship with one another as the Body of Christ, the
Church. By partaking of the Eucharist, Christians believe they are united with the very life of
Jesus. In John 6:56, Jesus says, "Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood remains in me,
and I in them." This union is not just symbolic but is considered a profound spiritual and
mystical reality. The Eucharist nourishes and strengthens the soul, helping Christians to grow
in holiness and to deepen their relationship with God. The Eucharist also signifies the unity of
believers in the Body of Christ (the Church). As the bread is one loaf, so the many believers
are united in Christ (1 Corinthians 10:17). This aspect of communion underscores the
communal nature of the Eucharist, where individual Christians come together to form the
Church, the living Body of Christ.

3.5. The Eucharist as a Memorial

The term “memorial” in the context of the Eucharist is not just a remembrance but a making
present of the event of Christ’s death and resurrection. In 1 Corinthians 11:26, Paul writes,
"For as often as you eat this bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until He
comes." The Eucharist does not merely recall the past; it participates in the present reality of
Christ’s sacrifice. The Church believes that, in the celebration of the Eucharist, Jesus is truly
present and His work of salvation is made accessible to the faithful in each celebration of the
sacrament.

3.6. The Eucharist and the New Covenant

Jesus, in His institution of the Eucharist, speaks of the blood of the covenant (Matthew
26:28). This references the covenant God made with His people, which was ratified by the
blood of the sacrificial lambs in the Old Testament (Exodus 24:8). Jesus, as the Lamb of God,
offers His own blood as the true and final sacrifice that seals the New Covenant (Luke
22:20). In the Eucharist, Christians participate in this New Covenant, which brings
forgiveness of sins and eternal life.

3.7. The Eucharist and Eternal Life

In John 6:54-58, Jesus promises that those who eat His Body and drink His Blood will have
eternal life. The Eucharist is a means of receiving eternal life because it unites the believer
with the life of Christ, who is the source of eternal life. The sacrament points to the future
fulfillment of the kingdom of God, when all believers will be united with Christ in the eternal
banquet of heaven.

The Sacrament of the Eucharist is deeply intertwined with the person and work of Jesus
Christ. It is through this sacrament that believers encounter Christ in a unique, real, and life-
giving way. The Eucharist is a memorial of His sacrifice, a real presence of His Body and

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Blood, a communion that unites believers with Christ and each other, and a participation in
the new covenant that brings salvation and eternal life. In the Eucharist, Christians do not
simply recall a historical event; they are invited to enter into the mystery of Christ’s love,
sacrifice, and resurrection, and to be transformed by it.

4. Sacrament of Eucharist and the Apostles

The Sacrament of the Eucharist is intrinsically linked to the Apostles, both as the recipients of
its institution and as the primary agents through whom it was first transmitted to the Church.
The Eucharist is not only a memorial of Christ’s passion, death, and resurrection but also a
living sacrament that connects Christians to the Apostles’ mission and their role in continuing
Christ’s saving work.

4.1. The Institution of the Eucharist by Jesus

The Eucharist was instituted by Jesus Christ during the Last Supper, which He shared with
His twelve Apostles on the night before His crucifixion. This is recorded in the Synoptic
Gospels (Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:14-20) and by St. Paul (1 Corinthians
11:23-26). At the meal, Jesus took bread and wine, declared them to be His Body and Blood,
and commanded the Apostles to do this in remembrance of Me (Luke 22:19). The Apostles
were the first to receive the Eucharist directly from Christ, becoming the initial recipients of
the sacrament. Jesus’ words, "Take and eat; this is my Body," and "This is my Blood of the
covenant," were given to the Apostles as part of the institution of the Eucharist, entrusting
them with this sacred mystery. By receiving the Eucharist from Christ Himself, the Apostles
were not only blessed to participate in the Eucharist but were also commissioned to celebrate
the Eucharist themselves. This is consistent with the priestly ministry that Jesus would later
entrust to them, particularly on the evening of His Resurrection (John 20:21-23) when He
breathed on them and said, "Receive the Holy Spirit. Whose sins you forgive are forgiven
them, and whose sins you retain are retained."

4.2. The Apostles' Role in the Early Church

After Jesus’ Resurrection and Ascension, the Apostles became the primary ministers of the
Eucharist in the early Church, and the Eucharist was central to their ministry. In Acts 2:42,
the early Christians are described as "devoted to the apostles' teaching and to the fellowship,
to the breaking of bread and to prayer." The "breaking of bread" is a term used in the Acts of
the Apostles to describe the celebration of the Eucharist (Acts 2:42, 46). It emphasizes the
communal aspect of the Eucharist, where the Apostles and the early Christian community
gathered to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, remembering Christ’s sacrifice and sharing in His
Body and Blood. The Apostles did not only pass down the Eucharist as a ritual act but also
exercised their apostolic authority to teach about its deep significance, guiding the early
Church in its celebration and understanding. The Eucharist, in their hands, became a means
by which the Church was spiritually nourished and grew in faith.

4.3. The Eucharist and Apostolic Succession

The Church believes that the Eucharist has been handed down through apostolic succession.
This means that the authority to celebrate the Eucharist is passed down from the Apostles to
their successors, the bishops, and particularly to the pope (in Catholicism) and to the patriarch

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(in Orthodox Churches), through the laying on of hands. This unbroken chain of ordination
ensures that the Eucharist, in its full apostolic authenticity, is celebrated with the same power
and authority that Jesus granted to His Apostles. Jesus, in establishing the Eucharist,
entrusted the Apostles with the priestly role of offering His Body and Blood. In this way, the
Apostles were the first priests of the New Covenant, and their successors (priests and
bishops) continue this mission. The Eucharistic ministry is, therefore, inextricably linked to
the apostolic ministry. The Apostles, having been instructed by Christ Himself, were the first
to believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Jesus’ words at the Last Supper
were not meant to be understood symbolically but as an actual transformation of bread and
wine into His Body and Blood. This doctrine of the Real Presence has been passed down
through the Apostles to the Church, and it remains one of the central beliefs of Catholic and
Orthodox Christianity.

4.4. The Eucharist as a Memorial and a Means of Grace

The Apostles were charged with remembering and proclaiming Christ’s death and
resurrection through the Eucharist. In 1 Corinthians 11:23-26, St. Paul reiterates the words of
Jesus at the Last Supper, emphasizing that the Eucharist is "a proclamation of the Lord’s
death until He comes." The Eucharist, as instituted by Jesus and passed down by the
Apostles, is not simply a symbolic meal but a memorial (anamnesis) that makes Christ’s
sacrifice and presence truly accessible to the faithful. The Apostles, through their preaching
and celebration of the Eucharist, kept this memory alive for the early Church, ensuring that it
was not forgotten or distorted. The Apostles also taught that the Eucharist is a means of
grace. In receiving the Body and Blood of Christ, Christians are not only remembering
Christ’s sacrifice but are also receiving divine grace, which strengthens their faith, unites
them with Christ, and builds up the Church. The Apostles made this grace accessible through
the celebration of the Eucharist in the early Christian communities.

4.5. The Eucharist and the Apostles' Mission

The Apostles were called to go forth and make disciples of all nations (Matthew 28:19-20),
and they accomplished this, in part, through the celebration of the Eucharist. By breaking
bread with others and preaching the Gospel, they extended Christ’s presence to the world. For
the Apostles, the Eucharist was more than just a communal meal; it was an act of mission.
Every celebration of the Eucharist was a witness to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ,
a proclamation of the Gospel, and a means by which the apostles reached out to convert and
nourish new disciples. The Eucharist also served as a bond of unity within the early Christian
communities. It was a sign of their fellowship with one another and with Christ. As the
Apostles travelled and established new Christian communities, they ensured that the
Eucharist was celebrated regularly, a tangible expression of the unity of faith and the
missionary work of the Church.

4.6. The Eucharist and the Apostolic Letters

The Apostles, especially St. Paul, wrote many letters to early Christian communities, offering
instructions on how the Eucharist should be celebrated. One notable example is 1 Corinthians
11:17-34, where Paul provides corrective teaching about the way the Eucharist should be
observed, warning the Corinthians against abuses such as divisions, unworthy reception, and
failing to honor the sacredness of the meal. The Apostles emphasized the need for reverence
and faith when approaching the Eucharist. In 1 Corinthians 11:27-29, Paul warns that anyone

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who receives the Eucharist in an unworthy manner brings judgment upon themselves. The
Eucharist is a holy mystery that requires proper discernment and respect for its sacramental
nature.

4.7. The Apostles’ Final Commission: "Do This in Memory of Me"

When Jesus said, "Do this in remembrance of Me" (Luke 22:19), He gave the Apostles and
their successors the responsibility to continue the celebration of the Eucharist. This command
is understood to be both a commission and a promise—a commission to celebrate the
Eucharist until the end of time, and a promise that Christ will be truly present in the
sacrament. The Apostles’ role in the Eucharist did not end with their lifetimes. By passing on
the authority to celebrate the Eucharist to the bishops and priests in apostolic succession, the
Church believes that the Eucharist continues to be celebrated in continuity with the Apostles’
ministry.

The Sacrament of the Eucharist is deeply connected to the Apostles—from its institution
by Jesus during the Last Supper to its transmission and celebration by the Apostles in the
early Church. The Apostles were the first to receive and celebrate the Eucharist, and they
passed on the responsibility for the sacrament through apostolic succession. Through their
teaching, their example, and their authority, the Apostles ensured that the Eucharist would
remain a central sacrament in the life of the Church, uniting believers with Christ and with
each other

5. Sacrament of Eucharist and the Early Church Fathers

The Sacrament of the Eucharist holds a central place in Christian worship and theology, not
only in the New Testament but also in the writings and teachings of the Early Church Fathers.
The Eucharist is a vital part of the Christian tradition that was handed down from the
Apostles and deeply shaped the faith and practices of the early Christian communities.

The Early Church Fathers—those Christian writers and theologians from the late 1st century
to the early 8th century—helped define and defend the essential doctrines of the Christian
faith, including the theology and significance of the Eucharist. Their writings provide crucial
insights into how the Eucharist was understood, celebrated, and defended in the early
centuries of Christianity.

5.1. Didache (c.70-120 AD)

Early Christian authors identified the elements of the Eucharist as the body and blood of
Jesus.12 The Didache, a brief text that may represent the earliest Christian writing outside the
New Testament addressing the Eucharist, states, "Let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist,
unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord
has said, 'Give not that which is holy to the dogs'."3

1
"CHURCH FATHERS: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans". www.earlychristianwritings.com.
https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html
2
"Church Fathers: On the Mysteries (St. Ambrose)". New Advent. https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3405.htm
3
https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didache-roberts.html

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 5.2. St. Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD)

St. Ignatius of Antioch was an important early Christian bishop and martyr. His letters,
written while he was on his way to Rome to face martyrdom, provide some of the earliest
theological reflections on the Eucharist. In his letter to the Smyrnaeans (chapter 6), Ignatius
strongly affirms the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist:

"Take note of those who hold heterodox opinions on the grace of Jesus Christ which
has come to us, and see how contrary their opinions are to the mind of God. They
abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer because they do not confess that the
Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins and which
the Father, in His graciousness, raised from the dead."

Ignatius refutes the idea that the Eucharist is merely symbolic. He explicitly affirms that the
Eucharist is the actual Body and Blood of Christ, emphasizing the Real Presence in the
sacrament. For him, the Eucharist is a tangible link to the redemptive work of Christ on the
Cross. Ignatius also links the Eucharist with the unity of the Church. In his letter to the
Ephesians (chapter 20), he writes:

"Take care to practice one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ,
and one cup for the unity of His Blood; one altar, as there is one bishop, with the
presbyters and deacons, my fellow servants."

For Ignatius, the Eucharist symbolizes the unity of the Church. It is through sharing in the
Eucharist that believers are united to Christ and to one another in a living, communal bond.
He, writing around AD 106 to the Christians in Rome, expresses:

"I desire the bread of God, the heavenly bread, the bread of life, which is the flesh of
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who became afterwards of the seed of David and
Abraham; and I desire the drink of God, namely his blood, which is incorruptible love
and eternal life."4

In a letter addressed to the Christians of Smyrna during the same year, he cautioned them to
"remain distant from such heretics," citing various reasons, including the fact that "they
abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the
flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of his
goodness, raised up again."5

5.3. St. Justin Martyr (c. 100–165 AD)

St. Justin Martyr was an early Christian apologist who sought to explain and defend
Christianity against both Roman authorities and philosophical critics. In his First Apology
(chapter 66–67), written around 155 AD, he provides one of the most important early
Christian descriptions of the Eucharist. Justin describes the Christian Eucharistic liturgy as a
“thanksgiving” (Greek: eucharistia), a word from which the sacrament takes its name. He

4
https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-roberts.html
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https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html

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explains around the year 150 in his First Apology, that after the bread and wine are
consecrated, they become the Body and Blood of Christ:

"This food is called among us the Eucharist. ... We do not receive these as common
bread or common drink; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior was made
incarnate by the Word of God, and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so also
we have been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and
from which our blood and flesh are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who
was made flesh." "6

Justin clearly teaches that the Eucharist is not simply symbolic but that the bread and wine
truly become the Body and Blood of Christ. This understanding is foundational for later
theological developments concerning the Real Presence. He also speaks of the Eucharist as a
fulfillment of the Old Covenant in Christ, representing the New Covenant sealed by Jesus'
sacrifice. The Eucharist is the continuation of the Passover meal, but now it is transformed
into the sacrificial meal of the Church.7

5.4. St. Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–200 AD)

St. Irenaeus, a bishop and theologian, is known for his work Against Heresies, in which he
defends orthodox Christian teaching against Gnostic heresies. Irenaeus offers significant
insights into the nature of the Eucharist. In Against Heresies (Book 5, Chapter 2), Irenaeus
speaks of the Eucharist as the Body and Blood of Christ:

"Our bodies, being nourished by it, are no longer corruptible, for they have the hope
of the resurrection to eternal life. The Eucharist is the Body and Blood of Christ, and
this is not merely a symbolic food. The food that was given to us by the Father
through His Son has the power of transforming us into the likeness of God."

Irenaeus argues that the Eucharist nourishes Christians not just spiritually but also physically,
as it brings hope of the resurrection. The Eucharist, therefore, is more than a symbol; it is a
real participation in the Body and Blood of Christ, sustaining the believer in both body and
soul.

He wrote in his work Against Heresies:

“For as the bread from the earth, receiving the invocation of God, is no longer
common bread but the Eucharist, consisting of two elements, earthly and heavenly, so
also our bodies, when they receive the Eucharist, are no longer corruptible but have
the hope of resurrection into eternity.”

He also describes the Eucharist as a means of overcoming death and bringing eternal life. In
Irenaeus’ view, the Eucharist is a life-giving mystery, a participation in the incarnation, and a
sign of the new creation.
6
https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html
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A fresco from the 3rd century located in the Catacomb of Callixtus, interpreted by
archaeologist Joseph Wilpert, depicts on the left Jesus performing the miracle of multiplying
bread and fish, symbolizing the Eucharistic consecration, while on the right, it illustrates the
deceased who, through their participation in the Eucharist, has attained eternal joy.
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 5.5. Tertullian (c. 155–240 AD)

Tertullian, an early Christian apologist from Carthage, is known for his writings on theology,
ethics, and Christian practice. His understanding of the Eucharist reflects the teachings of the
earlier Fathers but also introduces some distinct emphases. He, in his work Apology (chapter
39), explains the Eucharist as a sacrifice of thanksgiving:

"We offer to God, in the Eucharist, bread and wine, and we do this to give thanks for
His gifts to us. ... The bread and wine, when they are consecrated, become a spiritual
offering to God."

While Tertullian does not explicitly delve into the metaphysical nature of the Eucharist in the
same way as later theologians, he affirms that the Eucharist is a sacrifice of thanksgiving that
recalls the redemptive work of Christ.

Approximately in AD 200, he stated:

"Having taken the bread and given it to his disciples, He made it his own body, by
saying, This is my body, that is, the figure of my body. A figure, however, there could
not have been, unless there were first a veritable body. An empty thing, or phantom, is
incapable of a figure. If, however, (as Marcion might say) He pretended the bread was
his body, because He lacked the truth of bodily substance, it follows that He must
have given bread for us."8

The content presented does not pertain to the essence of the bread or the wine; it is merely a
straightforward assertion that ultimately remains enigmatic. Like other Fathers, Tertullian
sees the Eucharist as a sign of unity and a means by which Christians are spiritually
nourished and bound together in love.

5.6. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313–386 AD)

St. Cyril of Jerusalem, a bishop and doctor of the Church, wrote a series of catechetical
lectures to instruct Christians in the doctrines of the Church. In his Catechetical Lectures,
particularly Lecture 22, he provides a clear exposition of the Eucharist. Cyril explicitly
affirms the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, teaching that the bread and wine are no
longer mere elements but have been transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ:

"Do not see in the bread and wine merely a symbol; for the Lord, who said, 'This is
my Body' and 'This is my Blood,' has confirmed the truth of the statement. You will
not then be able to say that the bread is not His Body, but, as He Himself has said,
'This is My Body.'"

Cyril teaches that the Eucharist is a mystery that should be approached with reverence and
faith, affirming the Real Presence of Christ in the sacrament.

5.7. The Apostolic Constitutions (380 AD)

The Apostolic Constitutions, compiled around 380, states:

8
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03124.htm

10
 "Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ; and let him that
receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup; and when he gives it, say, The
blood of Christ, the cup of life; and let him that drinketh say, Amen."9

5.8. St. Ambrose of Milan (333–397 AD)

Ambrose of Milan, who passed away in 397, composed:

Perhaps you will say, "I see something else, how is it that you assert that I receive the
Body of Christ?" ... Let us prove that this is not what nature made, but what the
blessing consecrated, and the power of blessing is greater than that of nature, because
by blessing nature itself is changed. ... For that sacrament which you receive is made
what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such power as to bring
down fire from heaven, shall not the word of Christ have power to change the nature
of the elements? ... Why do you seek the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing
that the Lord Jesus Himself was born of a Virgin, not according to nature? It is the
true Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the Sacrament of
His Body. The Lord Jesus Himself proclaims: "This Is My Body." Before the blessing
of the heavenly words another nature is spoken of, after the consecration the Body is
signified. He Himself speaks of His Blood. Before the consecration it has another
name, after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true. Let the heart
within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what the voice speaks.10

5.9. St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD)

St. Augustine, one of the most influential Church Fathers, wrote extensively on a variety of
theological topics, including the Eucharist. In his Sermons and Letters, he reflects on the
significance of the Eucharist for the Church. Augustine often speaks of the Eucharist as a sign
of unity in the Body of Christ. In Sermon 272, he writes:

"The Eucharist is the Body of Christ, and it is a sign of the Church. We are all united
in this Body of Christ when we receive the Eucharist."

Augustine emphasizes that the Eucharist not only symbolizes Christ's Body but also the unity
of the Church. By receiving the Body and Blood of Christ, Christians are united to one
another as members of Christ’s Body.

The Early Church Fathers played a crucial role in shaping the Christian understanding.

Various Christian authors from the fourth century assert that the Eucharist involves a
"change"11, "transelementation"12, "transformation"13, "transposing"14, or "alteration"15 of the
9
https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.ix.ix.ii.html
10
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3405.htm
11
Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat. Myst., 5, 7 (Patrologia Graeca 33:1113): μεταβολή
12
Gregory of Nyssa, Oratio catechetica magna, 37 (PG 45:93): μεταστοιχειώσας
13
John Chrysostom, Homily 1 on the betrayal of Judas, 6 (PG 49:380): μεταρρύθμησις
14
Cyril of Alexandria, On Luke, 22, 19 (PG 72:911): μετίτησις
15
John Damascene, On the orthodox faith, book 4, chapter 13 (PG 49:380): μεταποίησις

11
bread into the body of Christ. Augustine states that the bread consecrated during the
Eucharist truly "becomes" (in Latin, fit) the Body of Christ, emphasizing that "The faithful
know what I'm talking about; they know Christ in the breaking of bread. It isn't every loaf of
bread, you see, but the one receiving Christ's blessing, that becomes the body of Christ."16

6. Various Eucharistic Theories

The theological discourse surrounding the Eucharist is significantly influenced by the person
of Jesus, particularly in how the act of consuming the Eucharist enhances the communicant's
personal relationship with God. Nevertheless, discussions regarding Eucharistic theology in
the Western tradition have predominantly focused on the metaphysical dimensions of Christ's
presence within this sacrament.

6.1. Real Presence

The doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist asserts that Jesus Christ is
genuinely present in the Eucharist, not merely in a symbolic or metaphorical sense, but in a
true, real, and substantial manner.

Several Christian denominations uphold the belief in the true presence of Christ in the
Eucharist, including Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Church of the
East, the Moravian Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Methodism, and Reformed
Christianity. The primary distinctions among these churches relate to the understanding of the
manner in which Christ is present during the Lord's Supper.

6.1.1. Transubstantiation

According to the substance theory of the Eucharist, the substances of bread and wine are
transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Jesus, while the accidents (the
physical characteristics, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine are believed
to remain unchanged. This perspective is upheld by the Roman Catholic Church.17 The
Catholic belief of Transubstantiation explained in the Catechism of the Catholic Church is
as follows:
1376 The Council of Trent summarizes the Catholic faith by declaring: “Because Christ our Redeemer
said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the
conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the
bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the
body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This
change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation.”

1413 By the consecration the transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ is
brought about. Under the consecrated species of bread and wine Christ himself, living and glorious, is
present in a true, real, and substantial manner: his Body and his Blood, with his soul and his divinity (cf.
Council of Trent: DS 1640; 1651).18
16
Sermons (230-272B) on the Liturgical Seasons (New City Press 1994), p. 37 https://books.google.co.in/books?
id=A2GyOPOqp-4C&redir_esc=y
17
"Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText". vatican.va.
18
Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd Ed. (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 2000), p. 347,356

12
Put differently, transubstantiation is defined by Roman Catholics as the "change" that takes
place in the "whole substance" of the bread and wine designated for the Eucharistic mystery.
This is a transformation that occurs at the words of consecration or institution (e.g., “This is
My Body”).

The bread and wine are substantially transformed into the actual Body and Blood of Christ
through the power of the Holy Spirit, though the appearance (or "accidents") of bread and
wine remain. This transformation is referred to as Transubstantiation in Catholic theology.
This means that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist, not symbolically or metaphorically,
but in a real, though mysterious, way.

The Catholic Church declares that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is true, real, and
substantial.19 By saying Christ is truly present in the Eucharist, it excludes any understanding
of the presence as merely that of a sign or figure. By stating that his presence in the Eucharist
is real, it defines it as objective and independent of the thoughts and feelings of the
participants, whether they have faith or not: lack of faith may make reception of the
sacrament fruitless for holiness, but it does not make his presence unreal. In the third place,
the Catholic Church describes the presence of Christ in the Eucharist as substantial, that is,
involving the underlying substance, not the appearances of bread and wine. These maintain
all their physical properties as before: unlike what happens when the appearance of
something or somebody is altered but the basic reality remains the same, it is the teaching of
the Catholic Church that in the Eucharist the appearance is quite unchanged, but the basic
reality has become the body and blood of Christ.20

The change from bread and wine to a presence of Christ that is true, real, and
substantial is called transubstantiation.21 The Catholic Church does not consider the term
"transubstantiation" an explanation of the change: it declares that the change by which the
signs of bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ occurs "in a way surpassing
understanding".22

The Catholic Church also holds that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is entire: it does
not see what is really in the Eucharist as a lifeless corpse and mere blood, but as the whole
Christ, body and blood, soul and divinity; nor does it see the persisting outward appearances
of bread and wine and their properties (such as weight and nutritional value) as a mere
illusion, but objectively existing as before and unchanged.

In the view of the Catholic Church, the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is of an order
different from the presence of Christ in the other sacraments: in the other sacraments he is
present by his power rather than by the reality of his body and blood, the basis of the
description of his presence as "real".

19
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Canons_and_Decrees_of_the_Council_of_Trent/Session_XIII/Sacrament_of_the_Eucharist
20
Avery Cardinal Dulles (25 August 2009). Church and Society: The Laurence J. McGinley Lectures, 1988–2007. Fordham
Univ Press. pp. 455
21
Trent, the Council of, "Session XII. Decree touching the most holy Sacrament of the Eucharist", Canons and Decrees of
the Council of Trent,
22
https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3Z.HTM

13
 6.1.2. Definitive Change Theory (μεταβολή)

In contrast, Eastern Orthodox Christians tend to avoid strict adherence to the defined doctrine
of transubstantiation, although they concur with its conclusion regarding the real presence of
Christ in the Eucharist. They prefer the term "change" (μεταβολή) to describe the
transformation of bread and wine into the actual body and blood of Jesus.23, as articulated in
the epiclesis of the Divine Liturgy. The terminology of transubstantiation was acknowledged
by the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672 within the Eastern Orthodox Church, yet it lacks the
recognition of an Ecumenical Council and has faced criticism for its inclination towards
Latinization.

The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Oriental Orthodox Churches, as well as the
Churches of the East, believe that in the Eucharist the bread and wine are objectively changed
and become in a real sense the Body and Blood of Christ.24 Orthodoxy rejects philosophical
explanations of the change that occurs in the elements during the Divine Liturgy.25

While the Orthodox Church has often employed the term transubstantiation, Kallistos
Ware claims the term "enjoys no unique or decisive authority" in the Orthodox
Church. Nor does its use in the Orthodox Church "commit theologians to the
acceptance of Aristotelian philosophical concepts". ...Ware also notes that while the
Orthodox have always "insisted on the reality of the change" from bread and wine
into the body and the blood of Christ at the consecration of the elements, the
Orthodox have "never attempted to explain the manner of the change."26

The Greek term metousiosis (μετουσίωσις) is sometimes used by Eastern Orthodox Christians
to describe the change since this term "is not bound up with the scholastic theory of substance
and accidents", but it does not have official status as "a dogma of the Orthodox
Communion."27 Similarly, Coptic Orthodox Christians, a denomination of Oriental Orthodox
Christianity, "are fearful of using philosophical terms concerning the real presence of Christ

23
Ware, Timothy (1964). The Orthodox Church. London: Penguin Books. pp. 290ff
24
Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East – Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and
Lebanon. https://www.assyrianchurch.org.au/about-us/the-sacraments/oblation/
25
Džalto, Davor (11 May 2016). Religion and Realism. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 52; Harvey, Graham (8 April
2016). Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices. Routledge. Orthodoxy rejects
transubstantiation but contends that something real takes place. However, what happens is a mystery and hence does not
admit of precise explanation.
26
Harper, Brad; Metzger, Paul Louis (1 March 2009). Exploring Ecclesiology. Brazos Press. pp. 312
27
Moss, Claude B. (11 April 2005). The Christian Faith: An Introduction to Dogmatic Theology. Wipf & Stock Publishers.
p. 363. The Greek term corresponding to transubstation is metousiosis, which, however is not bound up with the scholastic
theory of substance and accidents. It was accepted by the Synod of Bethlehem, 1672, during the reaction against the
Calvinizing movement of the Patriarch Cyril Lucaris, but it was never accepted formally by the Russian Church, and it is not
a dogma of the Orthodox Communion; Azkoul, Michael (1994), Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, The Orthodox
Christian Witness, Vol. XXVII (48), Vol. XXVIII (6) and (8), At the same time, the Latins interpret the Sacraments in a
legal and philosophical way. Hence, in the Eucharist, using the right material things (bread and wine) and pronouncing the
correct formula, changes their substance (transubstantiation) into the Body and Blood of Christ. The visible elements or this
and all Sacraments are merely "signs" of the presence of God. The Orthodox call the Eucharist "the mystical Supper." What
the priest and the faithful consume is mysteriously the Body and Blood of Christ. We receive Him under the forms of bread
and wine, because it would be wholly repugnant to eat "real" human flesh and drink "real" human blood; McGuckin, John
Anthony (9 December 2010). The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture. John
Wiley & Sons. p. 360. But it does not care to dwell much on the scholastic theories of 'transubstantiation'.”

14
in the Eucharist, preferring uncritical appeals to biblical passages like 1 Cor. 10.16; 11.23–29
or the discourse in John 6.26–58."28

In the Orthodox tradition, you will find it taught variously that this change takes
place anywhere between the Proskomedia (the Liturgy of Preparation)—which is now a
separate service prior to both Orthros and the Divine Liturgy on a typical Sunday, though
traditionally it is done during Orthros—and the Epiklesis (“calling down”), or invocation
of the Holy Spirit “upon us and upon these gifts here set forth” (as in Chrysostom’s
liturgy).29 As such, the gifts should be treated with reverence throughout the entirety of the
service. We don’t know the exact time in which the change takes place, and this is left to
mystery. This view is common among those such as the reposed Fr. Alexander
Schmemann and others, although many in the Orthodox tradition will also insist the change
does actually take place at the words of institution.

The key point of emphasis in the Eastern tradition, then, is not whether or not a
change takes place (even if we can’t understand or describe it precisely), but that
it does emphatically take place.

During the iconoclasm controversy (eighth–ninth centuries), the change in the

Eucharist was used to refute the arguments of iconoclasts who claimed the Eucharist was
the only true icon of Christ. In these debates, the iconodule St. Theodore the Studite wrote,
“We confess that the faithful receive the very body and blood of Christ, according to the
voice of God himself.” The reality of transubstantiation was a refutation of iconoclasm.
The Eucharist was not an icon of Christ, but was the real and true presence of the person
Jesus Christ in the bread and wine of the Eucharist; or rather, a true symbol.

There have been at least three confessional documents in recent Orthodox memory that
refer to the doctrine of transubstantiation by name. Some excerpts:

28
Houlden, James Leslie (2003). Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 185. The Copts
are fearful of using philosophical terms concerning the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, preferring uncritical appeals
to biblical passages like 1 Cor. 10.16; 11.23–29 or the discourse in John 6.26–58.
29
Martini, Gabe (14 August 2013). "The Doctrine of Transubstantiation in the Orthodox Church". Orthodoxy and
Heterodoxy. In other words, Roman Catholics believe that transubstantiation is the 'change' that occurs in the 'whole
substance' of the bread and wine set apart for the Eucharistic mystery. This is a change that takes place at the words of
institution or consecration (i.e. 'This is My Body,' etc.). There's some Scholastic language here, of course, but that's the basic
gist. In the Orthodox tradition, you will find it taught variously that this change takes place anywhere between the
Proskomedia (the Liturgy of Preparation)—which is now a separate service prior to both Orthros and the Divine Liturgy on a
typical Sunday, though traditionally it is done during Orthros—and the Epiklesis ('calling down'), or invocation of the Holy
Spirit 'upon us and upon these gifts here set forth' (as in Chrysostom's liturgy). As such, the gifts should be treated with
reverence throughout the entirety of the service. We don't know the exact time in which the change takes place, and this is
left to mystery. As Orthodox Christians, we must be careful to balance and nuance our claims, especially with regards to the
Latins or 'the West.' The last thing we want to do is oversimplify matters to the extent of seeming deceptive or—perhaps
worse—misinformed. After all, this is typically what gets thrown our way from those unfamiliar with Orthodoxy (beyond
literature), often justly putting us on the 'defensive' (an important distinction from 'triumphalism') in response to such
misrepresentations.

15
 Fourthly, attention must be paid that the priest have, at the time of consecration, the intention that the real
substance of the bread and the substance of wine be transubstantiated into the real body and blood of
Christ through the operation of the Holy Spirit.

He makes this invocation when he confects this mystery by praying and saying: “Send your Holy Spirit
upon us and upon these gifts here offered and make this bread the precious body of your Christ, and that
which is in this chalice the precious blood of your Christ, changing them by your Holy Spirit.”

Transubstantiation occurs immediately with these words, and the bread is transubstantiated into the real
body of Christ and the wine into the real blood of Christ, with the visible appearances alone remaining.

Orthodox Confession of Faith, Peter Mogila, Metropolitan of Kiev (1633-1647)

In Metropolitan Peter’s confession—which was widely adopted and sanctioned by

multiple patriarchates in the seventeenth century—the change is said to occur at the time of
the Epiklesis. This is in agreement with Roman Catholics. The use of the word
μετουσίωσις here means that the bread, water, and wine are truly become the Body and
Blood of Christ at the invocation of the Holy Spirit. They are not merely so in our
imagination or as a bare symbol, but in the true, “Greek” sense of συμβολον, which means
to bring two things together (in this case, the real presence of the person of Jesus Christ
with the elements in the chalice).
He is not present typically, nor figuratively, nor by superabundant grace, as in the other Mysteries, nor by
a bare presence, as some of the Fathers have said concerning Baptism, or by impanation, so that the
Divinity of the Word is united to the set forth bread of the Eucharist hypostatically, as the followers of
Luther most ignorantly and wretchedly suppose.

But truly and really, so that after the consecration of the bread and of the wine, the bread is transmuted,
transubstantiated, converted and transformed into the true Body itself of the Lord, Which was born in
Bethlehem of the ever-Virgin, was baptized in the Jordan, suffered, was buried, rose again, was received
up, sits at the right hand of the God and Father, and is to come again in the clouds of Heaven; and the
wine is converted and transubstantiated into the true Blood itself of the Lord, Which as He hung upon the
Cross, was poured out for the life of the world.

Orthodox Confession of Dositheus, Patriarch of Jerusalem (1672)

In this confession of faith enjoying wide acceptance throughout the seventeenth century
Orthodox Church, Patriarch Dositheus teaches that Christ is “truly and really” present in
the Eucharistic elements. He does not mention here the timing of the change, but simply
that the bread and wine are “transubstantiated” (again, μετουσίωσις) into the “true Body”
and “true Blood” of the Lord.

How are we to understand the word transubstantiation?

In the exposition of the faith by the Eastern Patriarchs, it is said that the word
transubstantiation is not to be taken to define the manner in which the bread and wine are
changed into the Body and Blood of the Lord; for this none can understand but God; but
only thus much is signified, that the bread truly, really, and substantially becomes the very
true Body of the Lord, and the wine the very Blood of the Lord. In like manner John
Damascene, treating of the Holy and Immaculate Mysteries of the Lord, writes thus:
16
 “It is truly that Body, united with Godhead, which had its origin from the Holy Virgin; not as though
that Body which ascended came down from heaven, but because the bread and wine themselves are
changed into the Body and Blood of God. But if thou seekest after the manner how this is, let it
suffice thee to be told that it is by the Holy Ghost; in like manner as, by the same Holy Ghost, the
Lord formed flesh to himself, and in himself, from the Mother of God; nor know I aught more than
this, that the Word of God is true, powerful, and almighty, but its manner of operation
unsearchable.” (J. Damasc. Theol. lib. iv. cap. 13, § 7.)

Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church by St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow
(1830)

In St. Philaret’s catechism, we are given the first distinction between the Eastern and
Western description of transubstantiation.

Writing in the nineteenth century, Philaret says that transubstantiation is not a reference to the
change itself—since none can possibly understand exactly how/when this takes place—but that it is
merely a reference to our Lord being “truly, really, and substantially” present in the Eucharist. In
other words, it is not a reference to metaphysical or nominalist philosophy (as with Aristotle, for
example), but is speaking to the reality of the change, albeit as beyond our comprehension. 30

6.1.3. Divine Mystery Theory

The "divine mystery" Theory or the perspective of "objective reality, yet pious silence about
technicalities" is embraced by the ancient Eastern Churches, as well as by numerous
Anglicans, including those aligned with Anglo-Catholic traditions, and Methodists.3132 While
there is consensus that the bread and wine in the sacrament are genuinely transformed into
the body and blood of Jesus, these groups tend to refrain from using the term "substance" to
describe this change. They view such terminology as reminiscent of scholasticism, which
they believe presents speculative metaphysics as doctrine and excessively examines the
nature of the transformation.

6.1.4. Consubstantiation

Consubstantiation posits that "the bread retains its substance while Christ's glorified body
descends into the bread during consecration, coexisting with the natural substance of the
bread, present wholly and completely in every part of the sacramental bread, yet without
quantity." This view was held by the Lollards,33 and certain Irvingian Churches, such as the
New Apostolic Church.34 Some High Church Anglicans also align with this belief.35 It is

30
(See more in, https://blogs.ancientfaith.com/orthodoxyandheterodoxy/2013/08/14/the-doctrine-of-transubstantiation-in-
the-orthodox-church/)
31
Poulson, Christine (1999). The Quest for the Grail: Arthurian Legend in British Art, 1840–1920. Manchester University
Press. p. 40.
32
"This Holy Mystery: Part Two". The United Methodist Church GBOD.
33
Bengt Hägglund, History of Theology, Gene J. Lund, trans., (St. Louis: CPH, 1968), 194
34
"The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church: 8.2.12 The real presence of the body and blood of Christ in Holy
Communion". New Apostolic Church.
35
Rigg, James Harrison (1895). Oxford High Anglicanism and Its Chief Leaders. C. H. Kelly. p. 293.

17
important to note that the term is often mistakenly associated with the Lutheran Church,
which instead upholds the doctrine of sacrament.36

The Latin Church opted for the term "transubstantiation" to describe the transformation of
bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. In contrast, Martin Luther, drawing upon
Augustinian philosophy, which diverges from the views of Aquinas and the Dominicans,
advocated for what is referred to in Latin as "consubstantiation," asserting that both the bread
and Christ coexist fully. However, the philosophical foundations of these concepts are foreign
to Eastern thought.

6.1.5. Impanation

Impanation, derived from the Latin term impanatio meaning "embodied in bread," represents
a high medieval theological perspective regarding the real presence of Jesus Christ's body in
the consecrated bread of the Eucharist. This theory posits that there is no alteration in the
substance of either the bread or the body.37 It appears to be influenced by the concept of
Christ's Incarnation, which asserts that "God is made flesh" in the person of Jesus Christ,
leading to the belief that "God is made bread" during the Eucharist. In this framework, the
divine attributes of Christ are imparted to the eucharistic bread through his body. While this
perspective shares similarities with the doctrine of consubstantiation linked to Lollardy, it
remains distinct in its assertions.

6.1.6. Sacramental union

The sacramental union perspective asserts that during the "use" of the sacrament, in
accordance with Jesus' words and through the power of His speech, the consecrated bread
becomes united with His body, and the consecrated wine with His blood, available for all
communicants, regardless of their belief. This position, held by the Lutheran Church,
resonates with the notion of "objective reality, yet a respectful reticence regarding technical
details," as it similarly avoids philosophical terms such as "consubstantiation."

While views differ among Protestant traditions, many believe that the Eucharist is symbolic
or that Christ is present in the sacrament spiritually rather than materially. For example,
Lutheran theology maintains the doctrine of the "sacramental union", where Christ’s Body
and Blood are present alongside the bread and wine, though the bread and wine remain in
substance.

6.1.7. Pneumatic presence

The concept of "real spiritual presence," also referred to as "pneumatic presence," posits that
both the spirit of Jesus and His true body and blood are received through the sovereign,
mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit, but only by those who possess faith.
36
The Evangelical Quarterly Review - Volume 18. 1867. p. 67.
37
Wm. A. Neilson, ed., Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, second edition, (Springfield, MA:
G. & C. Merriam Co., pub., 1936), 1247 sub loco: "the inclusion of the body of Christ in the Eucharistic bread and wine,
conceived of as a union without change in any substance

18
This view aligns closely with the "respectful reticence" perspective, as it refrains from
detailing how the Holy Spirit facilitates the presence of Jesus, while explicitly rejecting
symbolism as well as trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical
presence" view and is upheld by certain Low Church Reformed Anglicans and other
Presbyterian Christians.38 This interpretation is frequently termed "receptionism."

6.2. Memorialism (Zwinglianism)

Memorialism posits that the bread and wine serve as symbols representing the body and
blood of Jesus Christ. In consuming these elements, believers honour the sacrificial
atonement of Jesus on behalf of all humanity. The presence of Jesus in this sacrament is
understood to reside within the minds and hearts of the participants, rather than in any
tangible form. This perspective, often referred to as "Zwinglianism" in recognition of
Huldrych Zwingli, is predominantly embraced by various Anabaptist groups39 and Jehovah's
Witnesses.

6.3. Suspension Theory (Adeipnonism)

Suspension asserts that Jesus did not intend for the act of consuming bread and wine to be
established as a lasting ordinance, nor did he mean for it to be observed as a religious ritual or
ceremony. This viewpoint, also known as adeipnonism, translates to "no supper" or "no
meal."40 It is held by Quakers, the Salvation Army, and certain hyperdispensationalists,
including E. W. Bullinger.41

7. Eucharistic Theology of the West Syrian Church fathers

The West Syrian Church Fathers, particularly those associated with the Antiochian and
Mesopotamian traditions, cultivated a unique and profound Eucharistic theology. This
theological framework is intricately linked to the liturgical practices of the early Syrian
Church and highlights the significant mystery of the Eucharist, which embodies the real
presence of Christ and serves as a means of communion with God.

Prominent figures among the West Syrian Fathers, including St. Ignatius of Antioch,
St. Ephrem the Syrian, St. Severius of Antioch, St. Philexinose of Mabbug, St. Jacob of
Serugh, etc, placed considerable emphasis on the incarnation of Christ, His sacrificial death,
and the harmonious union of heaven and earth within the Eucharist. Their understanding of
the Eucharist is characterized by both mystical and sacramental elements, showcasing the
richness and profundity of the Syriac liturgical heritage.

7.1. Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306–373 AD)

St. Ephrem the Syrian asserts that the Eucharist currently brings us into the Paradise that
embodies the life of God:
38
Prahlow, Jacob J. (19 October 2017). "A Brief History of Communion: Five Reformation Views". Pursuing Veritas.
Retrieved 19 July 2018.
39
Willis, Wendell (6 January 2017). Eucharist and Ecclesiology. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 52.
40
Idealism and Christian Theology, John R. Farris, S. Mark Hamilton, Editors. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016, p.
211
41
Holding Fast the Faithful Word, Cornelius Richard Stam, Germantown, WI: Berean Bible Society, pp. 93-95

19
 The spiritual Bread of the Eucharist
makes light and causes to fly:
the Peoples have been wafted up
and have settled in Paradise. […]
By means of the Spiritual Bread
everyone becomes
an eagle who reaches as far as Paradise.
Whoever eats the Living Bread of the Son
flies to meet Him in the very clouds. (Hymns on Unleavened Bread 17:9, 11–12)[6]

This acknowledgment ought to inspire us with profound reverence and joy. Ephrem looked
upon the Eucharist with a sense of sacred delight, viewing it through his biblical lens,
particularly emphasizing the presence of the divine "consuming fire" within the Eucharist (cf.
Deut. 4:24; Heb. 12:29). This same fire was present in the coal that the seraph used to cleanse
Isaiah's lips (Isa. 6:6–7). However, Ephrem encouraged contemplation of the striking
contrasts between that moment and our own experience of receiving the Eucharist.

The Seraph did not touch the coal with his fingers.
It touched only the mouth of Isaiah.
[The Seraph] did not hold it, and [Isaiah] did not eat it.
But to us our Lord has given both. (Hymns on Faith 10:10)

While the Bible describes numerous instances where divine fire consumes the unrighteous, it
is stated, “The fire inside the bread you [Christians] have consumed and lived.” Similarly,
while divine fire consumed Elijah’s sacrifice on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:38), it is
proclaimed, “Your fire, O our Lord, we have eaten in your offering” (Hymns on Faith 10:12–
13).

Ephrem frequently referred to the Eucharist as the Medicine of Life. He did caution
against the perilous consequences of receiving Communion unworthily. However, when the
Eucharist is approached with reverence and in a state of grace, rather than leading to our
demise (as it could), the fire of God himself heals us and imbues us with his own life.

Let us consume in holy fashion that Body

which the People pierced with their nails;
let us drink, as the Medicine of Life,
the Blood which flows from His side. (Armenian Hymns 48:1)[8]

Due to the ineffable love and humility of God, Ephrem perceives the Holy Eucharist as a
profound embodiment that conveys the complete mystery of Christ. This mystery is
abundantly scattered throughout the world and the Scriptures, beckoning us to partake in the
intimate life of the Trinity.

He describes the Eucharist as a mystery of transformation. In his hymn "On the Nature of the
Bread" (Hymn 19), Ephrem writes:

20
 "It is not simply bread which is offered, but the Body of the Word, which was born of
the Virgin. The wine is not merely wine, but the Blood of the Lamb who was
sacrificed for the life of the world."

This reflects a deep belief in the mystical transformation of the Eucharistic elements into the
actual Body and Blood of Christ. For him, the Eucharist is not merely symbolic but truly
involves the Real Presence of Christ. The bread and wine are transformed by the Holy Spirit
into the Body and Blood of Christ, even though the outward appearances of bread and wine
remain. This change is understood as a mystical and sacramental reality.

He often describes the Eucharist as a "Sacrament of Unity", through which the faithful are
united with Christ and with each other in a spiritual bond.

"The faithful eat the Body of the Son of God and drink His Blood, and in this
way, they are united with Him as branches are united to the vine." (Hymn 73,
On the Church)

For him, the Eucharist is a participation in the divine life of Christ. By receiving the Body
and Blood of Christ, the faithful are drawn into a deep communion with Christ Himself and
with one another in the Church. The Eucharist is the means by which Christians are united to
Christ and to the mystical Body of the Church.

St. Ephrem reflects this theme in his hymnology, where he connects the Eucharist to the Tree
of Life in the Garden of Eden. Just as the Tree of Life was the source of life for Adam and
Eve, so the Eucharist is the new Tree of Life for the faithful:

"This bread is the Tree of Life, which was planted in the Garden of Eden; its fruit has
been taken and offered to the faithful." (Hymn 33, On the Church)

In his works, St. Ephrem the Syrian often spoke of the Eucharist as a source of eternal life,
linking it to the promise of immortality given by Christ in the Gospel of John. The Eucharist
is the means by which Christians receive the spiritual nourishment needed for eternal life.

St. Ephrem the Syrian compares Christ's Body and Blood to the Passover Lamb,
noting that just as the blood of the lamb marked the houses of the Israelites during the
Exodus, so Christ’s Blood marks the faithful for salvation:

"The Lamb of God has been sacrificed for us, and His Blood has marked the
doorposts of our hearts." (Hymn 71, On the Passover)

He also saw the Eucharist as the fulfillment of the Old Covenant sacrifices. The Passover
meal, with its sacrificial lamb, was understood as a prefiguration of the Eucharist. Christ, the
Lamb of God, fulfills the Old Covenant sacrifices in His sacrifice on the Cross, and the
Eucharist is the New Passover.

St. Ephrem writes about the action of the Holy Spirit in the consecration:

"O Spirit, who sanctifies this bread and wine, make them the Body and Blood
of Christ for the salvation of Your people." (Hymn 41, On the Holy Spirit)

21
The Holy Spirit plays a crucial role in the Eucharistic transformation, as the Epiclesis
(invocation of the Holy Spirit) in the liturgy is central to the belief that the bread and wine are
transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ. The Holy Spirit is seen as the agent of
transformation in the Eucharist, bringing about the change of substance while retaining the
appearance of bread and wine.

7.2. Severius of Antioch

Severus of Antioch articulates with clarity that the holy Mass represents the same
sacrifice as that of Christ on the cross42. He further elucidates that while the Eucharist
appears as bread, we know by faith that it is the body of God.43

In a correspondence to the priest Victor, Severus of Antioch discusses the

transformation of nature: “The bread consecrated on the holy altar, completed in a mysterious
manner, is indeed the body of the one in whose name it was consecrated. ...What is perceived
is bread. Yet, through faith, we comprehend and believe that it is the body of God, which was
made flesh for our sake. Through this faith, we acknowledge and profess that it is also
immortal and devoid of suffering. For He who allowed it to be broken and divided, as it was
necessary for us to partake of it, also, by the same mercy, permitted that which has already
become the body of God to manifest as bread (‫)ܐܫܬܡܠܝ‬.”44 In his letter to the deacon
Misael, Severus emphasizes that it is not by the priest's own power that the bread is
transformed into the body of Christ, but Christ Himself.45 In short, he stated clearly that the
Eucharist is bread in a visible sense, yet the body of God in an invisible sense46.

Severus unequivocally teaches the doctrine of real presence. However, he does not
explicitly state that the bread has ceased to exist. While it has become the body of God, this
does not necessarily imply that its substance has ceased to exist.

7.3. St. Jacob of Serugh (c. 451–521 AD)

Jacob of Sarug cautions in one of his homilies that individuals must vigilantly observe
and reflect upon their souls, as it is prescribed. Subsequently, he partakes of the living body
and consumes the blood.47 In his homily, Jacob of Sarug emphasizes the necessity of
believing in Christ, who proclaims: “This is my body.” The Lord, with His own hands,
distributed His body during the Last Supper. Who among us would dare to contest this
truth?48 Furthermore, He broke the bread, and made it his body, and gave it to his apostles,
and the taste of the body, in which is life, was in their mouths. As soon as he touched it and
42
BROOKS V. II. P. I. S. 201.
43
Brief an den Priester Victor. P. O. XII. S. 262/63.
44
BROOKS, A collection of letters. P. O. XII. S. 262/63. Severius even stated that individuals offered bleeding
flesh instead of the bread that had been placed upon the altar. In the Plerophories, or "Reassurances,"
authored by John Rufus in the early 6th century, accounts of miracles are also documented, indicating that
genuine flesh and blood were observed on the altar in place of bread and wine. These miraculous reports lend
support to the notion that, at that time, individuals genuinely believed in the transformation of the elements,
provided they did not engage in deeper contemplation of the subject.
45
BROOKS V. II. P. II. S. 238. vergl. auch: Brief an Ammian und Epagathus. a. a. O. S. 234.
46
a. a. O. S. 239.
47
BEDJAN, Homiliae 11. Hom. 42. S. 217.
48
BEDJAN, Homiliae. 11. Hom. 53. S. 484.

22
called it body, it was no longer bread but his body. And they ate it with amazement. They eat
his body, and he sits at the table with them, and they drink his blood, and they hear the voice
of his teaching.”49 Moreover, within the bread and wine, which undergo a mysterious
transformation into flesh and blood, all other sacrifices are spiritually encompassed. “The
belief of the Church, O wise one, is that bread and wine are transformed into the body and
blood. When she breaks the bread she only sees the body in it and when she mixes the wine
she fills the mixing vessel with the blood.”50 In another passage, he notes: “Behold, He lives
in the bread and is blended with the wine.” 51 Scholars considers it as a poetic expression and t
is likely that Jacob of Sarug did not even contemplate the profound question of whether the
essence of the bread and wine persists or not.52

He, in his famous homily "On the Body of Christ", explains that in the Eucharist, Christ’s
Body is broken and His Blood is poured out for the salvation of the faithful, just as it was on
the Cross. Jacob refers to the Eucharist as the "living Sacrifice", which offers Christ’s body
and blood for the life of the world.

"In the Eucharist, we offer not just bread and wine but Christ Himself, who was
broken and poured out for us."

He understood the Eucharist as the continuation of Christ's once-for-all sacrifice on the

Cross. They did not view the Eucharist as a new sacrifice but as a re-presentation of the one
sacrifice of Christ, made present in a real and living way to the faithful.

St. Jacob of Serugh speaks of the Eucharist as a divine banquet where the faithful are invited
to partake in the heavenly feast:

"The Church is the Bride of Christ, and in the Eucharist, she receives the Body and
Blood of her Bridegroom in a union that surpasses all understanding."

49
a. a. O. S. 455.
50
LANDERSDORFER, Ausg. Schriften: Jakod v. Sarug, Ober die Messe für die Verstorbenen. (BEDJAN L. S. 535 ff.)
S. 57; 66.
51
a. a. O. Vol. IV. Hom. 125. S. 607.
52
The Latin term "transubstatiation" describes no more than the Greek term - metousiosis.
Neither of those terms are legitimately used by Orthodox theologians. From Fr. Meyendroff’s book Byzantine
Theology:
“…one never finds the term "essence" (ousia) used by Eastern Orthodox theologians in a Eucharistic context. A
term like "transubstantiation" (metousiosis) would be considered improper in designating the Eucharistic mystery;
generally the concept of metabole would be used, and it is found in the canon of John Chrysostom...”
Furthermore, Fr. Michael Pomazansky in his book Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, writes:
"The term "transubstantiation" is derived from Latin scholasticism of the medieval period: following the
philosophical categories of Aristotle, "transubstantiation" refers to a change of the "substance"…of the Holy Gifts
with the "accidents" or appearance of bread and wine, remaining constant. Orthodox theology, in contrast, does
not attempt to "define" this Mystery in terms of such philosophical categories, and hence prefers the simple word
"change." (page 280)
I would furthermore like to refer to St Cyril of Alexandria who is quoted on page 68 of the book
Lectures on the Christian Sacraments (SVS Press: 1995):
"Thus with complete assurance let’s partake of the Body and Blood of Christ: for in the figure of Bread
is given to you His Body, and in the figure of Wine is given to you His Blood; that you, by partaking of
Christ’s Body and Blood might be made of the same body and same blood with Him.” (See more in,
https://tasbeha.org/community/discussion/3069/the-doctrine-of-transubstantiation)

23
The Eucharist, for him, is a mystical meeting of heaven and earth. The sacramental act is a
union of the earthly elements (bread and wine) with the divine (the Body and Blood of
Christ). This meeting takes place in the liturgy, where the earthly Church is united with the
heavenly realm.

He explains the Eucharist as a living memorial, where the faithful participate in the real
sacrifice of Christ, as they commemorate His death:

"This is the sacred memorial of the Cross, which is perpetuated through the ages,
bringing the grace of salvation to the faithful."

He often used the term "memorial" (Greek anamnesis) to describe the Eucharist. They
understood this term not as a simple remembrance of a past event but as a living and active
participation in the mystery of Christ's death and resurrection. The Eucharist makes present
the saving action of Christ, which is celebrated by the Church.

7.4. Philoxenus of Mabbug (c. 440–523 AD),

The Eucharistic theology of Philoxenus of Mabbug (‫ܐܟܣܢܝܐ ܡܒܘܓܝܐ‬, Aksenāyâ Mabûḡāyâ

(c. 440–523 AD), a prominent Syriac theologian and bishop of Mabbug (a town in modern-
day Syria), is an essential part of the West Syrian theological tradition. Known for his
profound works on the nature of Christ, the Eucharist, and the Church, Philoxenus' thought
reflects the rich theological environment of the Syriac-speaking Church, particularly in its
focus on the mystical presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

Philoxenus' theological contributions to the understanding of the Eucharist are

grounded in his deep devotion to the incarnation of Christ, the real presence of Christ in the
sacrament, and the sacrificial nature of the Eucharist. His writings exhibit a powerful
emphasis on the sacramental mystery, the communion with Christ, and the transformative
nature of the Eucharist for the faithful.

Like many other Syriac Fathers, Philoxenus held that in the Eucharist, the bread and
wine are transformed into the true Body and Blood of Christ, though they retain their outward
appearances. This transformation is understood as a mystery that goes beyond human
comprehension, but is accepted by faith.

Philoxenus emphasizes that in the Eucharist, Christ is truly present in a mystical

manner. The Eucharist is not merely symbolic or a memorial, but the real participation of the
faithful in the Body and Blood of Christ. This reflects the Syriac tradition's strong belief in
the Real Presence and the powerful efficacy of the sacrament for salvation.

“It became His own flesh which He took from us and not that of another man who is considered
separate from Him. For this reason also, we confess that we take the living body of the living God, and
not the simple body of a man who is mortal. And we receive the living blood of life in every holy sip
and not the simple blood of a man subject to decay such as one of us—-as is thought by the heretics….
He called the bread, body and the wine, blood. It was not that of someone else but His very own. And
who is it that says these things? He who, after a short while, was about to be crucified…. He whose
side was pierced by the lance of the soldiers, and it is written that blood and water fell from it—

24
 baptism and at the same time atoning blood. For through water, baptism was indicated and through
blood, the divine mysteries.”53

Philoxenus of Mabbug charges his adversaries with blasphemously asserting that the
Eucharist merely serves as a remembrance of the Lord's body rather than being the body
itself54. In another context, he articulates: We perceive the invisible, we grasp the
untouchable, we consume the inedible, and we drink the undrinkable.55

Philoxenus interprets the transformation of bread, paralleling the transformation of

Christ's human nature into the divine: “Bread and wine become () the body and blood of the
inhuman God.” 56 He states, "The mystery he is about to receive is not merely bread and
wine, but the body and blood of God." 57 Furthermore, he asserts, "He did not refer to the
sanctified bread as his body, nor did he call the wine his holy blood, which is merely
accumulated through blessing; rather, he declared that each was truly his body and blood, as
written." 58 This is followed by the words of institution. Even more explicitly, he advises:

"Do not instruct him to believe that the body is concealed in the bread and the blood in the wine, nor
that the new man resides within the old; instead, encourage him to accept that the visible bread is the
body and the tasted wine is the blood, and that he who is immersed has become a new man. You will
compel him to experience false perceptions and visions, leading him to disregard the evidence of his
external senses... so that he tastes the body instead of bread and the blood instead of wine." 59

The parallel transformation of bread into the body of Christ is indeed remarkable:

"The ordinary elements of bread and wine are typically placed upon the sacred altar. However, when
the Spirit descends upon her, as He does upon the Virgin, He transforms both the body and blood of the
one who is dehumanized. While there, the Spirit enveloped the Word with a body and made that body
visible; here, He transforms bread and wine into the body and blood of the Word."60

This transformation of bread into Christ's body is mirrored by the change of the old man into
the new. Philoxenus explicitly acknowledges this: "Just as a man retains his original natural
53
St. Philoxenos of Mabbug, Letter to the Monks of Senun (CSCO 231), 5-6;
https://alexandrianorthodoxy.com/2019/06/28/st-philoxenos-on-the-eucharist/#more-709
54
M. BRIKRE, Dissertationes decem de uno e SS. Trinitate incorporato et passo. Diss. I. II. P. O. XV. N 35, S. 465.
55
A. VASCHALDE, Three letters of Philoxenus, S. 101.
56
VASCHALDE, Tract. de Trin. S. 91.Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: “Panis et vinum fiunt (
) corpus et sanguis Dei inhumanati”
57
a. a. O. S. 95. Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: “Mysterium, quod suscepturus est, non
esse ut videtur panem et vinum, sed corpus et sanguinem Dei”(
58
LAMY S. 32/33. Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: “Non enim panem sanctificatum
corpus suum appellavit neque vinum solummodo benedictione cumulatum sacrum sanguinem suum
nuncupavit, sed dixit unumquodque eorum vere suum corpus et sanguinem suum esse sicut scriptum est.”
59
VASCHALDE а. а. О. S. 96. The translation provided is my own, and the original text is as follows:“Praeterea
ne doceas eum credere, quod corpus in pane et sanguis in vino abscondita sunt, et homo novus in vetere
habitat, sed urgeas, ut credat panem, qui videtur, esse corpus et vinum, quod gustatur, esse sanguinem et
illum , qui immergitur vincendit, esse hominem novelty. A te cogetur ut falsos habere gustum et visa et reicere
testimonium sensuum externorum........, ita ut loco panis corpus gustet et loco vini sanguinem”
60
a. a. O. S. 94. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as follows: “Elementa enim
communia panis et vini super altare sanctum de more ponuntur. Sed Spiritus, cum super ea descendit,
quemadmodum etiam illuc ad Virginem venit, ambo facit (Anzeige) corpus et sanguinem illius, qui
inhumanatus est. Et dum ibi Spiritus Verbum corpore induit et corpus manifestavit, hic panem et vinum facit
corpus et sanguinem Verbi”

25
form even after becoming a new man through baptism, so too does God remain unchanged in
His nature despite becoming a man like us." 61 Philoxenus draws a clear parallel between the
transformation of bread into the body and the transformation of the old man into the new, as
well as the incarnation. "Just as bread and wine do not become flesh and blood through
alteration ( ‫ ) ܠܐ ܒܝܕ ܫܘܚܠܦܐ‬... nor does the old man become the new man, but through
union with the Spirit ... so too did God the Word become flesh and take on humanity not
through change, but by partaking of our flesh and blood." 62

In all three instances, there exists a genuine agreement rather than mere juxtaposition.
He asserts that sensory testimony is unreliable and that we must depend entirely on faith, he
indicates that it is not merely bread anymore; rather, it is bread that has become the body of
Christ, signifying a true unity akin to the union of God with man, and the transformation of
the old man into the new.

He writes: “The transformation of bread and wine into body and blood does not occur
through mere alteration, nor does oil become power, nor water the spiritual womb, nor does
the old man become the new man. Rather, it is through a union with the Spirit that they
acquire the power we profess“63.

The physical senses perceive bread, wine, oil, and water, yet faith urges one to
perceive spiritually that which is not visible to the eye. This signifies that we consume the
body in place of bread, drink the blood instead of wine, recognize the baptism of the Spirit in
lieu of water, and discern the power of Christ instead of oil. 64 Ultimately, it is made
abundantly clear: "For you hold in your hands the glowing coals of the mysteries, which, by
their essence, are simply ordinary bread. Yet, faith discerns in them the body of the only
begotten." 65

7.5. George, the Arabian Bishop

George, Bishop of the Arabs (c. 6th century), often referred to as George of the Arabs,
was an influential figure in the Syriac Christian tradition, particularly in the West Syrian
Church. His contributions to Eucharistic theology are significant within the context of the
Syriac Fathers and the early Christian church. His theology emphasizes the Real Presence of
Christ in the Eucharist, the sacrificial nature of the sacrament, and the mystical union that
occurs between the faithful and Christ through the Eucharist. While detailed writings
specifically from George of the Arabs are limited, his influence is seen through his

61
a. a. O. S. 110. English Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: “Et quemadmodum homo in
naturali aspectu suo primo manet etiam postquam factus est homo novus ex baptismo, ita et Deus in natura
sua absque mutatione permansit etiamsi homo sicut nos factus est.”
62
a. a. O. S. 100. English Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: “Et quemadmodum panis et
vinum non per mutationem ( ‫ ) ܠܐ ܒܝܕ ܫܘܚܠܦܐ‬fiunt corpus et sanguis ... nec homo vetus homo novus , sed
per unionem cum Spiritu ... ita et Deus Verbum factus est caro et inhumanatus est non per mutationem, sed
quia participavit carni et sanguini nostro” .
63
a. a. O. S. 100. Translation is mine and the original text is as follows: Et quemadmodum panis et vinum non
per mutationem fiunt corpus et sanguis nec oleum virtus, nec aqua uterus spiritualis, nec homo vetus homo
novus, sed per unionem cum Spiritu obtinuerunt virtutem illam, quam credimus .
64
Budge, Discourses S. 53. (Dritte Predigt über den Glauben)
65
Ibid

26
participation in the theological discussions of his time, particularly the debates surrounding
Christology and the understanding of the Eucharist.

For George, the bread and wine of the Eucharist are not simply symbols of Christ's
Body and Blood, but are truly transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ. This belief is
consistent with the Syriac Church’s tradition, which stresses that the Eucharist is not merely a
symbolic representation but involves a mystical transformation of the bread and wine into
Christ’s actual Body and Blood.

In his initial poem concerning the anointing oil, he states: “And when bread and wine
are placed upon one of them (specifically on one of the altars consecrated with Myron), they
are transformed into the body and blood of the Son of God.” 66 This assertion is quite
compelling. However, in his subsequent poem on the anointing oil, he asserts: “Faith
consumes the Son of God in the bread, and drinks the wine as a type of his blood.” 67
Similarly, in his explanation of the sacraments, he notes: “But the altar reveals to us
Immanuel, who is the tree of life. The bread and wine upon it symbolize the body of the God-
Logos, in which the blood was also present.” 68 These passages indicate that George remains
ambiguous regarding whether the bread and wine retain their original substance.

While George, Bishop of the Arabs, does not have as many surviving writings as some other
Fathers, his Eucharistic theology would have been deeply consistent with the Syriac Christian
tradition and its emphasis on the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the sacrificial
nature of the sacrament, and the spiritual nourishment and communion with Christ it
provides. For George, as with other Syriac Fathers, the Eucharist is the means by which
believers are united with Christ, partake in His life, and receive eternal life. His theology
underscores the centrality of the Eucharist as a mystical and sacramental means of grace,
salvation, and communion with God.

7.6. Moses Bar Kepha (c. 813–903 AD)

Moses Bar Kepha was an influential Syriac theologian, bishop, and writer who played a
crucial role in the development of Syriac Christian theology during the Medieval period. He
is particularly known for his writings on Christology, Eucharistic theology, and church
liturgy. As a prominent figure in the Syriac Orthodox tradition, Bar Kepha's theology reflects
the deep understanding of the mystical and sacramental nature of the Eucharist, focusing on
Christ's Real Presence, the sacrificial dimension of the Eucharist, and its role in uniting the
Church with Christ.

Moses Bar Kepha articulates the concept of the union of Christ's body and blood with
the elements of bread and wine, akin to the union of divine and human natures. He also
asserts that the eucharistic body of Christ is the same as that which was born of the Virgin
Mary.69 Furthermore, Bar Kepha teaches that in Holy Communion, the body of the Lord,
which is impervious to suffering,70 is received. The Lord's body, which is fundamentally
united with the bread, remains unchanged, just as the divine nature, united with humanity,
retains its essence post-union. Jugie references a passage from Bar Cephas's liturgical
66
RYSSEL (Über das Salbot I.) S. 11.
67
RYSSEL (6. d. S. II.) S. 19.
68
RYSSEL (Erl. d. Sakr. S. 40.
69
JUGIE V. S. 677.
70
CONNOLLY, Two commentaries. S. 88.

27
commentary71: “The son comes down upon the bread and wine and is united to them
hypostatically ( ‫)ܩܢܘܡܐܝܐ‬. The father willed that the son should become incarnate, but the
son came down into the womb of the Virgin and became incarnate, and the Spirit also came
down to the Virgin and caused the Son to be incarnated of her. So here also, in the case of the
altar, the Spirit also comes down that he may unite them to him."72 This illustrates the perfect
parallel between the transformation of bread into the body of the Lord and the Incarnation.

Bar Kepha inquires about the significance of the bread and wine on the altar, to which
the answer is: "Bread is the body of the Word of God, and wine signifies its blood."73 In other
writings, Bar Kepha makes a comparable assertion in his treatise De Paradiso: “Some believe
that this tree (the tree of the knowledge of good and evil) was corn, thus Christ offered His
body in bread... Others argue that it was a vine, and therefore Christ offered His blood in
wine.”74

In the discourse concerning Myron, it is stated: “We comprehend and perceive

through the eyes of the soul: the Word of God, which becomes one with the bread, wine, and
oil of Myron.” 75 Thus, this indicates a union with the bread and wine rather than a
transformation of their essence. It is noteworthy that the Eucharist and Myron are positioned
in such close proximity to one another.

The Eucharistic theology of Moses Bar Kepha is deeply rooted in the mystical and
sacramental understanding of the Eucharist, in which the faithful encounter the Real Presence
of Christ through the transformation of the bread and wine into His Body and Blood. His
thought highlights the Eucharist as a continuation of Christ's sacrifice, a source of eternal life,
a means of communion with Christ and the Church, and a foretaste of the heavenly banquet.
Through his writings, Bar Kepha contributes to the rich Syriac theological tradition,
emphasizing the Eucharist’s central role in the spiritual life of the Church and its power to
unite believers with Christ and one another.

7.7. Dionysius Bar Salibi

Dionysius Bar Salibi (c. 12th century) was a prominent Syriac Christian theologian, bishop,
and scholar in the Syrian Orthodox Church. He is especially recognized for his contributions
to biblical exegesis, liturgical studies, and theology, with his works providing deep insights
into the religious and theological practices of his time. Among his many theological
contributions, Dionysius Bar Salibi made significant strides in the development of Eucharistic
theology, particularly within the context of the Syriac tradition.

Bar Salibi’s views on the Eucharist are marked by a strong emphasis on Christ's real presence
in the sacrament, the transformative power of the Eucharist, and the mystical and sacrificial
nature of the Eucharistic celebration. His writings provide a glimpse into the theological
understanding of the Eucharist within the Syriac-speaking Christian world of the Syrian

71
JUGIE V. S. 677.
72
CONNOLLY, Two Comm. S. 60.
73
a. a. O. S. 35.
74
P. G. III. col. 504. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as follows: “Censent ergo
alii frumentum fuisse hanc arborem (the tree of the knowledge of good and evil), atque ideo quoque Christum
suum corpus in pane dedisse..... Rursus alii vitem fuisse contendunt et idcirco sanguinem suum dedisse
Christum in vino”.
75
Hdschr. C. fol. 129 r.

28
Orthodox Church and its emphasis on the mystery and grace conveyed through the
sacrament.

Bar Salibi articulates that the Mystery of the New Covenant serves as a type of the Body of
Christ, which is indeed the true Body itself, far more revered than the altar, which symbolizes
the Tomb of the Son76. The well-documented debate regarding the inclusion of the phrase
panem caelestem frangimus (we break the heavenly bread ) in the prayer during the breaking
of the host underscores a firm belief that the Eucharist contains the genuine body of Christ
rather than merely heavenly bread.77

The emphasis on treating even the tiniest fragments of the Holy Host and the Holy Blood
with utmost reverence and care clearly reflects a belief in the enduring presence of Christ. In
the writings of John of Tella, there is a cautionary note regarding the need to search for any
fallen particle (likened to a pearl) that may touch the ground. Should a drop of Holy Blood
fall, it is necessary to place glowing coals on that spot. Sacred vessels and linens must be
handled with the highest respect78.

A text that supports the transformation of nature can be found in the Gospel commentary:
“He made him his body. How can he refer to this bread as his body when his body is
animated by flesh and endowed with intellect? The power of the Holy Spirit, which resided in
the Virgin and formed a body from her, sanctified and made the body of God the Word. (This
same power) now descends upon the bread placed on the altar, sanctifying it and
transforming it into the body of God.” He further elaborates: “We must possess two types of
vision, the eyes of the soul and the eyes of the body. With the eyes of the body, we perceive
the bread, while with the eyes of the soul, we recognize this bread as the true (‫)ܕܐܝܬܘܗܝ‬
flesh of God the Word, born of the Virgin.”79 This text adequately explains the vision of the
genuine transformation of nature. The parallelism between the incarnation and the Eucharistic
transformation is also evident here. In other place, Bar Salibi explains it as follows: “Once
the sacrifice has been sanctified, the Word resides within it, akin to how, after the Virgin has
been sanctified, God the Word resides within her through the Holy Spirit. Ultimately, from
the bread and the power of the Father, a single heavenly body is formed, symbolically
representing one incarnate nature derived from both divinity and humanity.”80 In the same
76
VASCHALDE, D. B. Şalibi. Comm. in Ev. S. 26.
77
ARBELOOS I. 332. 346. 352. В. О. II. 341/342.
78
LAMY can. 2-6, S. 65-67.
79
VASCHALDE, D. B. Şalibi. Comm. in Ev. S. 62. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is
as follows: “Fecit eum corpus suum. Quomodo panem hunc vocat corpus suum, cum corpus eius sit caro
animata et mente praedita? Virtus Spiritus Sancti, quae habitavit in Virgine et formavit ex ea corpus, quod
sanctificavit et fecit corpus Dei Verbi, hodie descendit in panem super altare positum et sanctificavit facitque
eum corpus Dei”
80
a. a. O. S. 678. LABOURT, Expos. Lil. S. 82. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as
follows: “Quod postquam sanctificata est hostia habitat in ea Verbum, simile est ei, quod postquam
sanctificata est Virgo per Spiritum Sanctum habitavit in ea Verbum Deus. Quod denique de pane et virtute

29
manner that the divinity and humanity of Christ remain distinct and unaltered while forming
one nature, the bread and body of Christ in the Eucharist also remain unchanged and
untouched, yet they are united. This perspective does not negate the assertion that the body of
Christ in the Eucharist is the same as the body born of the Virgin.

The text appears to reinforce his doctrine of impanation: “The same one who took the flesh of
the lamb in Egypt, transformed it, and commanded it to serve as the redemption for the
Hebrews, ... he transformed (‫ )ܫܚܠܦܗ‬this bread and commanded it to be the very body that
originated from the Virgin. The Holy Spirit, who descended into the Virgin's womb and
directed the flesh that emerged from her to become the body and blood of the Word of God,
likewise descends upon the altar and orders the bread and wine presented to become the body
and blood of the Word of God.” 81 The parallelism between transformation and incarnation is
once again evident in the following quote too: “And just as Jesus was perceived as a man
while being God, so what appears to be bread and wine is, in fact, body and blood.” 82 Bar
Salibi in his commentary on the Gospels, he elucidates it with another comparison. The
Eucharist is likened here to iron that glows when subjected to fire; while the iron retains its
substance, it also acquires the characteristics of fire.83 In another place, he further illustrated:
“For God the Word, when he united with the flesh, made it divine, not by nature, but by
operation: similarly, the body we consume is said to have been born of the Virgin, and thus it
is, not by nature, but by union (‫ )ܠܘ ܒܟܝܢܐ ܐܠܐ ܒܚܕܝܘܬܐ ܕܥܡ ܡܠܬܐ ܐܠܗܐ‬with the
Word of God.”84 In his commentary on the sixth chapter of the Gospel of John, Bar Salibi
elaborates the idea as follows: “Christ is perceived by the eyes as an ordinary man. The holy
mysteries are perceived by the senses as mere bread and wine.”85 In Bar Salibi's Treatise
against the Nestorians, there is a statement that clearly indicates that the nature of the bread
remains unchanged during the transformation86.

7.8. Jacob Bar Shakko (‫ܫܟܟܐ‬ ‫) ܝܥܩܘܒ ܒܪ‬

Patris unum corpus caeleste efficitur, symbolice repraesentat ex divinitate et humanitate unam efficinaturam
incarnatam” .
81
JUGIE V. S. 679. LABOURT S. 74/75. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as
follows: “Idem, qui sumpsit carnem agni in Aegypto et mutavit eam et jussit eam fieri redemptionem
Hebraeorum, ...... ille mutavit (‫ )ܫܚܠܦܗ‬panem hunc et jussit esse corpus ipsum, quod ex Virgine prodierat.
Spiritus Sanctus, qui descendit in uterum Virginis et jussit carnem, quae ex ea prodiit, corpus et sanguinem fieri
Verbi Dei, idem ipse descendit super altare et jubet panem et vinum, quae sunt proposita, corpus et
sanguinem fieri Verbi Dei.”
82
JUGIE S. 679. LABOURT S. 76. . The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as follows:“Et
sicut ipse Jesus videbatur homo esse, cum esset Deus, ita, quae esse videntur panis et vinum, sunt corpus et
sanguis” .
83
JUGIE S. 680. SEDLACEK, In Evang. S. 13.
84
Ibid. The English translation provided is mine, and the original text is as follows:“Deus enim Verbum, cum
carni se univit, fecit eam Deum non natura, sed operatione: ita et corpus, quod comedimus, dicitur natum esse
e Virgine, et (ita) est, non natura, sed unione“(‫ )ܠܘ ܒܟܝܢܐ ܐܠܐ ܒܚܕܝܘܬܐ ܕܥܡ ܡܠܬܐ ܐܠܗܐ‬Verbo Deo”
85
JOGIE 5. 660. RENAUDOT, Perpétuité de la foi de l'Eglise cath. liber II. cap. VI. col. 128.
86
NAU, Analyse du traité c. les Nest. R. O. C. XIV. (1909) S. 311. The English translation provided is mine, and
the original text is as follows: “De même que la salamandre s'unit au feu sans être changée par la combustion ,
que le pain devient corps sans que sa nature soit changée, ainsi le Verbe fut chair sans que Dieu qu'il était fût
change“

30
Jacob Severus bar Shakko was a West Syriac theologian born in Bartella, near Mosul. 87 In his Book of
Treasures, 88 he states: “Just as fire, when it combines with iron, imparts effectiveness to the iron,
causing it to glow and burn like the fire, so too Christ, upon taking bread and wine, transformed them
into His body and blood in truth, endowing them with power and holiness. The Word became the
flesh of God through its union with Him, rendering it divine not by its essence, but through its action.
Similarly, the body we consume is said to be born of the Virgin, which is true not by nature, but
through its union with the Word.”89 Thus, the Word became the flesh of God, and the flesh does not
cease to exist. The Word made the bread His body, and the bread does not cease to exist. In another
passage, the same author notes: “Physical food consists of bread and wine. When sanctified, these
elements become the body and blood of Christ God, allowing man to partake of them, thereby
nourishing the soul spiritually. Both body and soul find satisfaction—one through the nature of the
bread, and the other through the hidden spirituality. The two forms of food consist of body and spirit
for a man who is made of both. Likewise, the blood comprises water, wine, and spirit.” 90 This
statement articulates directly what is conveyed more subtly in other contexts.

7.9. Gregory Bar Hebraeus

Gregory II Abu 'l-Faraj bar Ahron, also known as Bar Hebraeus [ or Bar 'Ebroyo]
was the Jacobite Maphrian from 1264 until his death in 1286. He was a prominent medieval

87
He received his education under the East Syriac scholar John bar Zobi at the monastery of Beth
Qoqe. Following this, he pursued studies in dialectics and philosophy under the Muslim scholar
Kamal al-Din Musa ibn Yunus in Mosul. Initially a monk, he later became the abbot and bishop of the
monastery of Mar Mattai, adopting the episcopal name Severus. He passed away in 1241 AD.
88
His Book of Treasures (Ktobo d-Simoto) is a theological compendium which divided into four sections: 1) on
the triune God, 2) on the incarnation, 3) on divine providence, and 4) on the creation of the world, which
encompasses discussions on angels, stars, geography, natural history, and concludes with reflections on human
nature, the soul, the anti-Christ, the resurrection of the body, and the final judgment. This work remains
unpublished. Bar Shakko’s “Book of Dialogues” (Ktobo d-Dialogu) consists of two volumes. The first volume
addresses grammar, rhetoric, poetry, meter, eloquence, and the richness of the Syriac language. The second
volume delves into logic and syllogisms, philosophy (which is further divided into five sections: definitions and
divisions of philosophy; philosophical life and conduct; physics and physiology; arithmetic, music, geometry,
mathematics; and metaphysics and theology). Only excerpts from this work have been published. From Book 1:
On grammar: edited by A. Merx, Historia artis grammaticae apud Syros (1889), pages 2*-48*. On poetry: J. P.
P. Martin, De la métrique chez les Syriens (Deutsche morgenländische Gesellschaft, Abhandlungen 7:2; 1879);
M. Sprengling, Severus bar Shakko's Poetics, Part II, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and
Literatures 32 (1915/6), pages 293-308. From Book 2: Part 1 (translation only): G. Furlani, La Logica nei
Dialoghi di S. bar S., Atti del Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti 86:2 (1927), pages 289-348; Part
2: J. Ruska, Das Quadrivium aus Severus Bar Shakku's Dialoge (Diss. Leipzig, 1896). His other works are “Two
verse letters addressed to physicians”.He may also have wrriten a creed of faith and some other works, now lost;
these included a commentary on the liturgical services. A Bibliography for further studies is given below:Merx,
Historia, 209-29; J. Ruska, Studien zu Severus bar Shakku's "Buch de Dialoge", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und
verwandte Gebiete 12 (1897), 8-41, 145-61; F. Nau, Notice sur le Livre des Trésors de Jacques de Bartela,
Journal asiatique IX.7 (1896), 286-331. [Resumé of Part 4]; O. Schrier, The name and function of Jacob bar
Shakko, in V Symposium Syriacum (OCA 236; 1990), 215-28; C. A. Havard, Jacob bar Shakko, on the faculties
of the soul, in VI Symposium Syriacum OCA 247; 1994), 259-68; Sebastian Brock, A brief outline of Syriac
Literature (1997), p.74-5.
89
Hdschr. A. Kap. 37. fol. 59 v.
90
a. a. O. fol. 59 r. 59 v.

31
Syrian scholar recognized for his extensive knowledge in science and philosophy, as well as
for his contributions to Syriac literature through the integration of Arabic cultural elements 91.

Bar Hebraeus articulates his fundamental teaching on Eucharist as follows:

"Regarding the bread, which is not of flesh, and the wine, which is not of blood, they are
referred to as the body and blood. We assert that just as the human nature of the Lord is
termed God, not by its essence but due to its union with the divine nature, similarly, this
bread and wine, while not in their essence (‫)ܟܝܢܐ‬, are designated as Body and Blood,
through the grace of the Spirit that descends upon them, thus being called the Body and
Blood of Christ. An objection arises: It is stated that if the bread and wine are considered the
body and blood of God due to the grace of the Spirit, and if the body and blood of God are
divine because of their union with God, then it follows that this bread and wine must also be
divine. In response to this objection, we clarify: If it were claimed that bread and wine are, by
their essence, body and blood, and that body and blood are, by their essence, God, then your
conclusion might hold validity. However, since this is not the case, and we refer to bread and
wine as body and blood solely due to the grace of the Spirit, while we designate God's body
and blood not by their essence but by their unity with God, the conclusion does not stand.” 92

“This perfection is characterized as participation in God, with divine elements being

communicated through participation in the body and the cup, which are flesh and blood by
grace rather than by nature, and are united with God the Word through this union." "93

In the Book of Rays, Bar Hebraus articulates a similar doctrine: “Just as we affirm
that the human nature of our Lord is divine due to its unity with the divine nature, we also
regard the bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ, attributed to the descent of the
Spirit.” 94

91
Bar Hebraeus relocated to Antioch (present-day Antakya, Turkey) and embraced a hermitic lifestyle at the age
of 17. He was appointed bishop at 20 and archbishop at 26, eventually becoming the Maphrian of the Syrian
Orthodox church by 1264. His extensive travels to libraries across Syria and Armenia allowed Bar Hebraeus to
gather classical Arabic texts in philosophy and theology, which he preserved through his own copies,
summaries, and translations into Syriac. He authored numerous treatises covering grammar, astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, philosophy, theology, and history, thereby revitalizing the Syriac language and making
Islamic scholarship accessible to his fellow Syrian Orthodox Christians. Among his notable works is an
encyclopaedia of philosophy titled Ḥēʾwath ḥekkmthā (“The Butter of Wisdom”), where he provided
commentary on various fields of human knowledge within the Aristotelian framework. Another significant work
is his Chronography, which presents a secular history from creation and an ecclesiastical account of the
patriarchate of Antioch and the Eastern branch of the Syrian Orthodox church.
92
Candelaber fol. 198 r.
93
a. a. O. fol. 197 v.
94
Vat. Sir. 169. cap. 3. fol. 140 г.

32
 In the Book of Rays, Bar Hebraus presents the same teaching: “As we believe that the human
nature of our Lord is God because of the unity with the nature of God, so we also take the bread and
the wine as the body and that because of the descent of the Spirit Blood of Christ" 95. In the Gospel
commentary, he explains the words of institution. He takes the opportunity to address the question
of whether Judas communicated or not. Ephrem and Jacob of Sarug say that our Lord gave
communion to Judas, but after depriving the bread of holiness by dipping it in water. Others say, on
the other hand, that the mysteries are not deprived of holiness by dipping them in water. Severus
thinks that Judas partook of the bread, although it was not deprived of its holiness. Philoxenus thinks
that Judas did not communicate at all; the monk David, the son of Paul, states that he
communicated the elements which were indeed sanctified, but since Judas had no faith, he ate them
as if they were ordinary bread“96. These statements are also not very favourable to the
transformation of nature.

As the above explanations have probably shown, this doctrine of impanation is not, as
Assemani would have it, an innovation, but rather the traditional doctrine among the Syrians. What
is the current Jacobite view on this point?

Conclusion

The Oriental Orthodox doctrine of the Eucharist is more simple and less
developed than the Western Churches. Its essence is that in the Holy
Eucharist, by the descent of the Spirit, the elements of bread and wine are
transformed into the true Body and Blood of Christ. This Body and Blood,
united hypostatically with the Incarnate Word, is Life-Giving. It is the very
same Body and Blood which was born of the Virgin Mary, was crucified,
and rose again. While it appears under the form of bread and wine, the
Body and Blood themselves may be visible to those whose eyes God
opens.

Concerning whether bread and wine are still actually present, the Orthodox
Fathers both before and after Chalcedon disagree. St. Cyril denied there
was anything left of bread and wine, the Eucharist only looks like bread and
wine so we will not be frightened; but it is just Body and Blood. Saint Cyril
95
Vat. Sir. 169. cap. 3. fol. 140 г.
96
EARDLEY, Comm, on the Gospels. S. 63.

33
of Jerusalem and St. Dionysius Bar Salibi believed the same. Saint
Phlioxenus of Mabbug, St. Jacob of Sarug, Cyrillona, the Liturgy of St.
Gregory, and others speak of the bread and wine as still present and Body
and Blood being Incarnate in them. St. Philoxenus wrote in his Communion
Prayer, “I carry you, living God, who is incarnate in the bread…You are
holy, God incarnate in my hands in a fiery coal which is a body.”

The Oriental Orthodox Church, in affirming the real presence of Christ in

the form of bread and wine affirms Miaphysite Christology. Since the Flesh
of Christ is a property of His Person it is not confined to one location. He is
an Infinite Person and can be hypostatically united with His Body and Blood
on the Altar, it being the same Flesh which died on the cross. In affirming
the Flesh as Life-Giving we affirm it is united without mingling or separation
to the Word. The flesh, if belonging properly to the human nature cannot be
Life-Giving as humanity is not in itself Life-Giving. But being united
hypostatically and naturally to the Word, thus being God’s flesh, it is Life-
Giving, though it is still true flesh. This eating may be called spiritual
inasmuch as it is a spiritual act; the Spirit working salvation through matter
being a Sacrament. Spiritual is not opposed to physical in this sense, but
rather includes it.

The Eucharistic theology of the West Syrian Church Fathers is deeply rooted in the
mystery of Christ’s Real Presence, the continuation of His sacrifice, and the spiritual
nourishment that the Eucharist offers to the faithful. The Eucharist is seen as the means of
communion with Christ, the sacrifice of the Church, and the source of eternal life. Through
the mystical union of heaven and earth in the Eucharist, the faithful are invited to partake in
the divine life, receiving Christ's Body and Blood as their true spiritual food.

The doctrine of the Eucharist within the Oriental Orthodox tradition is characterized by its
simplicity and less intricate development compared to that of the Western Churches. At its
core, the belief is that during the Holy Eucharist, through the descent of the Holy Spirit, the
elements of bread and wine are transformed into the genuine Body and Blood of Christ. This
Body and Blood, which are hypostatically united with the Incarnate Word, possess Life-
Giving properties. It is the same Body and Blood that were born of the Virgin Mary,
crucified, and resurrected. Although they manifest in the forms of bread and wine, the true
essence of the Body and Blood may be perceived by those whom God chooses to enlighten.

Regarding the actual presence of bread and wine, there exists a divergence of opinion among
the Orthodox Fathers both prior to and following the Council of Chalcedon. St. Cyril asserted
that nothing of the bread and wine remains; the Eucharist merely appears as bread and wine
to prevent fear, while it is solely the Body and Blood. This view is shared by St. Cyril of
Jerusalem and St. Dionysius Bar Salibi. Conversely, figures such as St. Philoxenus of
Mabbug, St. Jacob of Sarug, Cyrillona, and the Liturgy of St. Gregory, among others,
maintain that the bread and wine remain present, with the Body and Blood being incarnate
within them. In his Communion Prayer, St. Philoxenus expressed, “I carry you, living God,

34
who is incarnate in the bread…You are holy, God incarnate in my hands in a fiery coal which
is a body.”

The Syrian Orthodox Church, by affirming the real presence of Christ in the forms of bread
and wine, upholds Miaphysite Christology. Since the Flesh of Christ is an inherent attribute
of His Person, it is not limited to a single location. As an Infinite Person, He can be
hypostatically united with His Body and Blood on the Altar, which is the same Flesh that
suffered on the cross. By recognizing the Flesh as Life-Giving, we affirm its union with the
Word without mingling or separation. While the flesh, when considered solely in relation to
human nature, cannot be Life-Giving, its hypostatic and natural union with the Word—
thereby being God’s flesh—renders it Life-Giving, even as it remains true flesh.

The Eucharistic theology of the West Syrian tradition reflects their deep reverence for the
sacredness of the sacrament and its role in the life of the Church. The West Syrian tradition
continues to offer rich insights into the profound mystery of the Eucharist, encouraging the
faithful to approach this sacrament with awe, reverence, and thanksgiving.

8. What Is This Sacrament Called?

The boundless depth of this sacrament is reflected in the various names attributed to it, each
of which highlights distinct facets of its significance. The Church Fathers often referred to
the Eucharist using various names and titles, each emphasizing different aspects of its
theological, spiritual, and liturgical significance. These names reflect the deep understanding
of the Eucharist as a sacred mystery that encompasses Christ's sacrifice, the Real Presence,
and its role in uniting the Church. . In the Syriac tradition, various titles are employed,
including:

a) ‫( ܩܘܪܒܢܐ‬Qurbono --oblation to God, sacrificial offering)

b) ‫( ܩܘܪܒܐ‬Qurobo --approach)
c) ‫( ܫܘܬܦܘܬܐ‬Shawtofutho --Communion)
d) ‫( ܟܢܘܫܝܐ‬Knushyo -- Assembly, Sacrament of Community)
e) ‫( ܐܘܟܪܣܛܝܐ‬Eucharistia -- Thanksgiving)
f) ‫ ܕܒܚܬܐ‬Debehtho (Sacrifice)
g) (Rozé qadeeshé -- the Holy Mysteries)
h) ‫( ܦܬܘܪ‬Pothur hayé -- Table of Life giving)
i) ‫( ܦܬܘܪܐ ܩܕܝܫܐ‬Pothuro Qadeesho --the Holy Table of the Lord)
j) ‫( ܓܡܝܪܘܬ‬Gmiruth gmirwotho -- completeness of perfections)
k) ‫( ܚܫܡܝܬܐ ܐܪܙܢܝܬܐ‬Hshomitho rozonoyto --The Mysterious Supper)

In addition to that, we can add other expressions, albeit slightly modified from their original
meanings: "Agape" (ἀγάπη -- love / Love-Feast), "Eulogia" (εὐλογία -- Blessing), "Breaking
of Bread," among others. However, the ancient term "Eucharistia, (εὐχαριστία --
lit. 'thanksgiving') " which appears in the writings of early figures such as Ignatius of
35
Antioch, has become the predominant designation in the technical language of the Church
and its theologians.

8.1. The Holy Communion -- ‫( ܫܘܬܦܘܬܐ‬Shawtofutho --Communion)

This name reflects the union or communion of the faithful with Christ and with one another
through the sacrament. The Eucharist is a means of participating in the Body and Blood of
Christ, creating a deep spiritual bond between believers and their Lord. St. Ignatius of
Antioch (c. 35–107 AD) emphasized the unity brought about through the Eucharist, where
believers, by partaking of the one Body of Christ, are united in a common faith. In his Letter
to the Smyrnaeans (6), he writes:

"Take note of those who hold heterodox opinions on the grace of Jesus Christ... They
abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer because they do not confess that the
Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ."

8.2. The Body and Blood of Christ

This title emphasizes the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The bread and wine are
believed to truly become Christ's Body and Blood during the consecration, not merely
symbols or representations. St. Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–200 AD) is one of the first Fathers
to clearly articulate this teaching. In his Against Heresies (Book 5, Chapter 2), he writes:

"Our bodies, being nourished by it, are no longer corruptible, for they have the hope
of the resurrection to eternal life. The Eucharist is the Body and Blood of Christ, and
this is not merely a symbolic food."

This name draws attention to the altar as the sacred space where the Eucharist is celebrated. It
underscores the idea that the Eucharist is offered to God through the altar and is the primary
sacrament of the liturgy. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313–386 AD) referred to the Eucharist as
the Sacrament of the Altar in his Catechetical Lectures, emphasizing its connection to the
offering made on the altar during Mass.

"Do not consider the bread and wine to be ordinary; for they are the Body and Blood
of Christ."

8.3. The Eucharistic Feast -- ‫( ܐܘܟܪܣܛܝܐ‬Eucharistia -- Thanksgiving)

This name highlights the Eucharist as a celebration of thanksgiving and the sacrificial meal
that commemorates the death and resurrection of Christ. It represents an act of gratitude
towards God. The Greek terms eucharistein (Cf. Lk 22:19; 1 Cor 11:24) and eulogein (Cf. Mt
26:26; Mk 14:22) evoke the Jewish blessings that proclaim God's deeds—particularly during
a meal—encompassing creation, redemption, and sanctification. St. Justin Martyr (c. 100–
165 AD) used this name to describe the Eucharistic meal in his First Apology (Chapter 66-
67), emphasizing that the Eucharist is more than just a meal:

36
 "This food is called among us the Eucharist. We do not receive these as common
bread or common drink; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior was made
incarnate by the Word of God, and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so also
we have been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word... is the
flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."

8.4. The Sacrifice – ‫ܕܒܚܬܐ‬ Debehtho (Sacrifice)

This name emphasizes the sacrificial nature of the Eucharist, in which the Church offers
Christ's one eternal sacrifice of Himself to God the Father. The Eucharist is not a new
sacrifice but the re-presentation of Christ’s once-for-all sacrifice on the Cross. St. Irenaeus (c.
130–200 AD) and Tertullian (c. 155–240 AD) both highlighted the Eucharist as a sacrifice of
thanksgiving. Irenaeus, in Against Heresies (Book 4, Chapter 18), referred to the Eucharist as
a sacrifice offered to God in the Church:

"The Eucharist is the offering of the Church, which is made through the sacrifice of
the altar."

8.5. The Breaking of the Bread

This title reflects the ritual act of breaking the bread, which was a key part of the early
Christian Eucharistic practice. It also highlights the brokenness of Christ’s Body, as
symbolized by the breaking of the bread. The Breaking of Bread, as Jesus employed this rite,
integral to a Jewish meal, when he, as the host, blessed and distributed the bread (Cf. Mt
14:19; 15:36; Mk 8:6, 19), especially during the Last Supper (Cf. Mt 26:26; 1 Cor 11:24).
This action enabled his disciples to recognize him following his Resurrection (Cf. Lk 24:13-
35), and it became the term used by the early Christians to refer to their Eucharistic
gatherings (Cf. Acts 2:42, 46; 20:7,11), signifying that all who partake of the one broken
bread, Christ, enter into communion with him and constitute one body in him (Cf. 1 Cor
10:16-17).

St. Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD) mentions this act in his writings, where he refers to
the Eucharistic meal as the "breaking of the bread" and connects it with the unity of believers:

"Take care to practice one Eucharist... For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ,
and one cup for the unity of His Blood."

8.6. The Mystical Supper --- ‫( ܚܫܡܝܬܐ ܐܪܙܢܝܬܐ‬Hshomitho rozonoyto --

The Mysterious Supper)

This name emphasizes the mystical or sacramental nature of the Eucharist. It refers to the
mystery of Christ’s Real Presence in the sacrament and the mysterious way in which
believers partake of His Body and Blood. The Lord's Supper, due to its association with the
meal that the Lord shared with his disciples on the eve of his Passion, and because it
foreshadows the wedding feast of the Lamb in the heavenly Jerusalem (Cf. 1 Cor 11:20; Rev
19:9).

37
St. John Chrysostom (c. 349–407 AD) frequently referred to the Eucharist as the "Mystical
Supper" in his homilies. He often emphasized the deep mystery of how Christ, though
invisible, is truly present in the bread and wine:

"When we receive the Mystical Supper, we receive Christ Himself."

8.7. The Spiritual Food

This name highlights the nourishing aspect of the Eucharist. Just as physical food sustains the
body, the Eucharist is the spiritual food that sustains and strengthens the soul. St. Ambrose (c.
340–397 AD) frequently referred to the Eucharist as spiritual food. In his work On the
Sacraments (Book 4), he writes:

"Christ is the spiritual food of our souls, and by receiving Him, we are strengthened to
live according to His will."

8.8. The Bread of Life

This title is directly tied to Christ’s teaching in the Gospel of John, where He calls Himself
the Bread of Life (John 6:35, 48). It emphasizes that the Eucharist is a means of receiving
eternal life and spiritual sustenance. St. Augustine (354–430 AD) uses the title "Bread of
Life" in his writings, particularly in relation to John 6:51, noting that by partaking of the
Eucharist, the faithful receive eternal life:

"The Eucharist is the Bread of Life, and whoever eats this bread will live forever."

8.9. The Cup of Blessing

This name refers to the chalice of wine, which is consecrated in the Eucharist and becomes
the Blood of Christ. It emphasizes the blessed nature of the wine and the spiritual benefit of
receiving it. St. Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 313–386 AD) refers to the "Cup of Blessing" in his
Catechetical Lectures (Lecture 22):

"Do not see in the bread and wine merely a symbol; for the Lord, who said, 'This is
my Body' and 'This is my Blood,' has confirmed the truth of the statement."

8.10. The Wedding Feast of the Lamb

This title links the Eucharist to the eschatological feast that will take place at the end of time,
the heavenly banquet where Christ, the Lamb of God, will share His eternal meal with His
bride, the Church. St. Augustine (354–430 AD) frequently referred to the Eucharist as the
"Wedding Feast of the Lamb", especially when speaking about the heavenly fulfillment of the
Eucharist:

"In the Eucharist, we are partakers of the Wedding Feast of the Lamb that has been
prepared for us."

8.11. The memorial of the Lord's Passion and Resurrection

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The Holy Sacrifice is significant as it brings forth the singular sacrifice of Christ the Savior
and encompasses the offering of the Church. It is referred to by various terms such as the
holy sacrifice of the Mass, "sacrifice of praise," spiritual sacrifice, and pure and holy sacrifice
(Heb 13:15; cf. 1 Pet 25; Ps 116:13, 17; Mal 1:11), as it fulfills and transcends all sacrifices
of the Old Covenant.

The Holy and Divine Liturgy is characterized by the fact that the entirety of the Church's
liturgical practices culminates in the celebration of this sacrament; in this context, the
celebration is also referred to as the Sacred Mysteries..

Holy Communion is named as such because this sacrament allows us to unite with Christ,
who shares His Body and Blood with us, creating a unified body (Cf. 1 Cor 1016-17). It is
also referred to as the holy things (ta hagia; sancta)97 — the initial interpretation of the term
"communion of saints" found in the Apostles' Creed — as well as the bread of angels, bread
from heaven, medicine of immortality98, and viaticum.

Holy Mass (Missa) is designated as such because the liturgy, through which the mystery of
salvation is realized, concludes with the sending forth (missio) of the faithful, empowering
them to carry out God's will in their everyday lives.

The Eucharistic assembly (synaxis), as the Eucharist is celebrated in the presence of the
faithful, serving as the visible manifestation of the Church (Cf. 1 Cor 11:17-34).

The Early Church Fathers used various names for the Eucharist, each of which reflected a
different facet of the sacrament. These names helped to articulate the mystery of Christ's
presence, the sacrificial nature of the Eucharist, and its role as spiritual nourishment for the
Church. They conveyed the profound theological significance of the Eucharist as the Body
and Blood of Christ, the real food for eternal life, and a foretaste of the heavenly banquet.

9. Importance of Eucharist
The Eucharist holds a central place in Christian theology and practice. It is often referred to
as the "source and summit" of the Christian life, particularly in Catholic and Orthodox
traditions. Understanding its importance requires looking at its theological, spiritual,
communal, and sacramental dimensions. The Eucharist is a profound mystery that both
symbolizes and actualizes the presence of Christ, sustaining the Christian community in its
journey of faith.

9.1. The Eucharist as the Real Presence of Christ

One of the most important aspects of the Eucharist is the Real Presence of Jesus Christ.
Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians believe that,
through the consecration of bread and wine, they truly become the Body and Blood of Christ.
This is not merely symbolic, but an actual transformation.

97
Apostolic Constitutions 8,13,12:PG 1,1108; Didache 9,5; 10:6:SCh 248,176-178.
98
St. Ignatius of Antioch, Ad Eph. 20,2:SCh 10,76.
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 9.2. A Memorial of Christ's Sacrifice

The Eucharist is a memorial of Christ's sacrifice on the Cross. In the Last Supper, Jesus
instructed His disciples to "do this in memory of me" (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24). The
term "memorial" (Greek: anamnesis) used in the Scriptures does not merely mean
remembering an event, but rather making that event present. In the Eucharist, Christ’s
sacrifice is made present to believers, who participate in His saving act of death and
resurrection. As Paul wrote in 1 Corinthians 11:26, "For as often as you eat this bread and
drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until He comes." In this way, the Eucharist is
both a proclamation of Christ's death and a participation in the ongoing work of salvation.

9.3. The Eucharist as a Sacrifice

The Eucharist is not only a meal but also a sacrifice. Catholic and Orthodox Christians
believe that the Eucharist makes present the one eternal sacrifice of Christ on the cross. This
is not a re-sacrifice of Christ, but a re-presentation of the same sacrifice that Christ offered to
the Father for the salvation of the world. The Church offers the Eucharist as a thanksgiving
offering to God the Father, acknowledging Christ’s redemptive work and offering up all the
lives of the faithful as a spiritual sacrifice. This is rooted in the Old Testament idea of a
covenant meal (Exodus 24:8) that is fulfilled in the death and resurrection of Christ. In the
Eucharist, the priest (in persona Christi) acts as a mediator between the people and God,
offering Christ’s Body and Blood to God in union with the Church’s prayer. It is the sacrifice
of the New Covenant, replacing the Old Testament sacrifices.

9.4. The Eucharist and the Church's Unity

The Eucharist is also a sign and instrument of unity within the Church. As believers partake
of the one Body and Blood of Christ, they are spiritually united not only with Christ but also
with one another. In 1 Corinthians 10:17, Paul writes: "Because there is one bread, we who
are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread." The Eucharist signifies the unity
of the Church, bringing all Christians together as members of Christ’s Body, regardless of
their differences. The Eucharist strengthens the communion of saints, the unity between the
living and the dead, and between all Christians—past, present, and future. It is a sign of the
Church's universal mission, extending throughout time and space.

9.5. Spiritual Nourishment and Strength

The Eucharist is spiritual food for the soul. Just as physical food nourishes the body, the
Eucharist nourishes the Christian soul, providing spiritual strength for the journey of faith. In
John 6:35, Jesus says, “I am the bread of life. Whoever comes to me will never go hungry,
and whoever believes in me will never be thirsty." Through the Eucharist, Christ offers
Himself as spiritual sustenance to His followers, helping them to grow in holiness and virtue.
The Eucharist strengthens Christians to live out their faith more fully and to resist temptation.
By receiving Christ’s Body and Blood, believers are united with Christ’s divine life,
receiving His grace to overcome sin and live in charity.

9.6. A Source of Grace

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The Eucharist is a means of receiving God’s grace. Catholics and Orthodox Christians
believe that the Eucharist is an effective means of sanctification, bestowing grace upon those
who receive it with faith and devotion. The Eucharist works within the believer, helping them
to become more like Christ. By partaking of the Eucharist, Christians open themselves to the
transformative power of God’s grace, which purifies, strengthens, and enables them to live
more faithfully. While not a sacrament of reconciliation, the Eucharist has a purifying effect
on the soul. Orthodox Christians believe that receiving the Eucharist can forgive sins and
help prevent the accumulation of spiritual barriers to full communion with God.

9.7. A Participation in the Heavenly Banquet

The Eucharist points to the future fulfillment of God’s promises. It is a foretaste of the eternal
banquet in heaven, where all believers will be united with Christ in glory. The Eucharist is
the “pledge” or “down payment” of the future feast (Revelation 19:9), a participation in the
heavenly liturgy. The Eucharist sustains Christians with the hope of eternal life. In receiving
Christ’s Body and Blood, Christians are strengthened in the hope of the resurrection and the
life of the world to come (John 6:54).

9.8. A Call to Love and Service

The Eucharist not only unites believers with Christ but also calls them to imitate Him in His
love and self-sacrifice. Jesus washed His disciples' feet at the Last Supper and commanded
them to love one another as He has loved them (John 13:34-35). By participating in the
Eucharist, Christians are called to live out the love that Christ showed through His Body and
Blood. The Eucharist challenges Christians to serve others, especially the poor, the sick, and
those in need, reflecting the love that Christ extended to all humanity.

9.9. A Memorial of the Resurrection and the Second Coming

The Eucharist is not just a reflection on Christ’s death, but also a celebration of His
Resurrection and an anticipation of His Second Coming. In 1 Corinthians 11:26, Paul states:
"For whenever you eat this bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until He
comes." Every celebration of the Eucharist anticipates the final fulfillment of God’s kingdom.
It is an act of hope, looking forward to the return of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and
the establishment of God's eternal reign.

9.10. A Gift of Community and Belonging

The Eucharist is a gift not just to individuals, but to the Church as a whole. It is a communal
act that forms and strengthens the body of believers. Belonging to the Church: By receiving
the Eucharist, Christians acknowledge their belonging to the Church, the Body of Christ, and
express their participation in the communal life of faith. It is an act of belonging to the
broader Christian community, with shared values, worship, and mission.

9.11. The Eucharist - Source And Summit Of Ecclesial Life

The Eucharist represents the "source and summit of the Christian life."99 All other
sacraments, as well as every ecclesiastical ministry and apostolic work, are intrinsically
99
LG 11.
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linked to the Eucharist and directed towards it. Within the blessed Eucharist resides the
entirety of the Church's spiritual wealth, which is Christ himself, our Passover.100

Furthermore, the Eucharist serves as the effective sign and profound cause of communion in
divine life and the unity of the People of God, which sustains the Church's existence. It marks
the apex of God's sanctifying action in the world through Christ and the worship that
humanity offers to Christ, and through Him, to the Father in the Holy Spirit.101 Ultimately,
through the celebration of the Eucharist, we connect with the heavenly liturgy and
foreshadow eternal life, when God will be all in all ( Cf. 1 Cor 15:28). In summary, the
Eucharist encapsulates the essence of our faith: "Our way of thinking is attuned to the
Eucharist, and the Eucharist in turn confirms our way of thinking."102

The Eucharist is of profound importance in Christian life because it is the means by which
Christians encounter the living Christ, share in His sacrifice, receive spiritual nourishment,
and are united to one another in the Body of Christ. It is the source of grace that strengthens
believers for Christian living, a proclamation of hope for eternal life, and a call to love and
serve others as Christ did. Ultimately, the Eucharist is not just a sacrament; it is the heart of
Christian life, uniting the faithful with Christ and with one another in the journey toward

10.The Eucharist In The Economy Of Salvation

10.1. The signs of bread and wine

At the core of the Eucharistic celebration lie the elements of bread and wine, which,
through the words of Christ and the invocation of the Holy Spirit, transform into the Body
and Blood of Christ. In adherence to the Lord's command, the Church faithfully continues to
perform, in His memory and until His glorious return, the actions He undertook on the eve of
His Passion: "He took bread. . . ." "He took the cup filled with wine. . . ." The elements of
bread and wine, in a manner that transcends human comprehension, become the Body and
Blood of Christ; they also continue to represent the goodness of creation. Therefore, during
the Offertory, we express gratitude to the Creator for the bread and wine (Cf. Ps 104:13-15),
which are the fruits of the "work of human hands," but more importantly, as the "fruit of the
earth" and "of the vine"—gifts bestowed by the Creator. The Church recognizes in the actions
of the king-priest Melchizedek, who "brought out bread and wine," a foreshadowing of her
own offering (Gen 14:18).

In the Old Covenant, bread and wine were presented as sacrifices among the first
fruits of the earth, symbolizing a grateful acknowledgment to the Creator. However, they also
acquired a new significance within the context of the Exodus: the unleavened bread
consumed by Israel during Passover commemorates the urgency of their departure from
Egypt; the memory of the manna in the desert serves as a reminder to Israel that it sustains
itself by the bread of the Word of God (Cf. Deut 8:3); their daily bread represents the bounty
100
PO 5.
101
Congregation of Rites, instruction, Eucharisticum mysterium , 6.
102
St. Irenaeus, Adv. haeres. 4,18,5:PG 7/l,1028.
42
of the promised land, affirming God's faithfulness to His promises. The "cup of blessing" (1
Cor 10:16) at the conclusion of the Jewish Passover meal adds an eschatological dimension
to the celebratory joy of wine, embodying the messianic hope for the restoration of
Jerusalem. When Jesus established the Eucharist, He imparted a new and definitive meaning
to the blessing of the bread and the cup.

The miracles involving the multiplication of the loaves, wherein the Lord blesses,
breaks, and distributes the loaves through his disciples to nourish the multitude, serve as a
foreshadowing of the abundant nature of the singular bread found in the Eucharist (Cf. Mt
14:13-21; 15:32-39). The transformation of water into wine at Cana heralds the moment of
Jesus' glorification, revealing the consummation of the wedding feast in the Father's
kingdom, where the faithful will partake of the new wine that has been transformed into the
Blood of Christ (Cf. Jn 2:11; Mk 14:25).

The initial proclamation of the Eucharist caused division among the disciples, much
like the announcement of the Passion provoked their scandal: "This is a hard saying; who can
listen to it?"( Jn 6:60). Both the Eucharist and the Cross present challenges. They embody
the same mystery and consistently serve as a source of division. The Lord's question, "Will
you also go away?" resonates through time, serving as a heartfelt invitation to recognize that
only He possesses "the words of eternal life," and that receiving the gift of His Eucharist in
faith is to embrace the Lord Himself.

10.2. The institution of the Eucharist

The Lord, having cherished those who belonged to him, extended his love to them until the
very end. Aware that the time had arrived for him to depart from this world and return to the
Father, he washed their feet during a meal and imparted to them the commandment of love.
To provide a lasting testament of this love, ensuring he would never be separated from his
own and to include them in his Passover, he established the Eucharist as a memorial of his
death and Resurrection, instructing his apostles to celebrate it until his return; thus, he
appointed them as priests of the New Testament.

The accounts of the institution of the Eucharist have been preserved in the three
synoptic Gospels and by St. Paul. St. John, on the other hand, recounts the words of Jesus in
the synagogue of Capernaum, which foreshadow the institution of the Eucharist, where Christ
identifies himself as the bread of life that has come down from heaven.

Jesus selected the Passover period to realize what he had foretold at Capernaum: the
offering of his Body and Blood to his disciples.

When the day of Unleavened Bread arrived, the time for the sacrifice of the Passover
lamb, Jesus instructed Peter and John, saying, "Go and prepare the Passover meal for us, that
we may partake of it." They complied and made the necessary preparations. When the hour
arrived, he reclined at the table with the apostles. He expressed to them, "I have fervently
desired to share this Passover with you before I endure suffering; for I assure you, I will not
partake of it again until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." Then he took bread, and after

43
giving thanks, he broke it and distributed it to them, saying, "This is my body, which is given
for you. Do this in remembrance of me." Similarly, after the meal, he took the cup, stating,
"This cup, which is poured out for you, is the New Covenant in my blood."

Through the commemoration of the Last Supper with his apostles during the Passover
meal, Jesus imparted a profound significance to the Jewish Passover. His transition to the
Father through his death and Resurrection, representing a new Passover, is foreshadowed in
the Supper and is celebrated in the Eucharist. This act not only fulfills the Jewish Passover
but also looks forward to the ultimate Passover of the Church in the glory of the kingdom.

10.3. "Do this in memory of me"

The command from Jesus to commemorate his actions and teachings "until he comes"
extends beyond mere remembrance of his life and deeds. It specifically pertains to the
liturgical observance conducted by the apostles and their successors, which serves as a
memorial of Christ, encompassing his life, death, Resurrection, and ongoing intercession
before the Father.

From its inception, the Church has adhered faithfully to this command. Concerning the
Church of Jerusalem, it is noted: “They committed themselves to the teachings of the
apostles, to fellowship, to the breaking of bread, and to prayers. . . . Daily, they gathered in
the temple and shared meals in their homes, enjoying food with joyful and generous hearts.”

Particularly on "the first day of the week," Sunday—the day of Jesus' resurrection—
Christians convened "to break bread." This practice has persisted from that time to the
present, with the celebration of the Eucharist remaining a constant presence throughout the
Church, characterized by a fundamental structure that is universally recognized. It continues
to be the focal point of the Church's existence.

Thus, through each celebration, as they proclaim the Paschal mystery of Jesus "until he
comes," the pilgrim People of God progresses, "following the narrow way of the cross,"
towards the heavenly banquet, where all the chosen will gather at the table of the kingdom.

11.The Liturgical Celebration Of The Eucharist

11.1. The Mass of all ages

In the second century, St. Justin Martyr provides testimony regarding the fundamental
structure of the Eucharistic celebration. This structure has remained consistent across all
major liturgical traditions up to the present day. In approximately 155, St. Justin addressed a
letter to the pagan emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161), elucidating the practices of Christians
as follows:

On the day we call the day of the sun, all who dwell in the city or country gather in
the same place. The memoirs of the apostles and the writings of the prophets are read,
as much as time permits. When the reader has finished, he who presides over those
gathered admonishes and challenges them to imitate these beautiful things. Then we
all rise together and offer prayers* for ourselves . . .and for all others, wherever they

44
 may be, so that we may be found righteous by our life and actions, and faithful to the
commandments, so as to obtain eternal salvation. When the prayers are concluded we
exchange the kiss. Then someone brings bread and a cup of water and wine mixed
together to him who presides over the brethren. He takes them and offers praise and
glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Spirit
and for a considerable time he gives thanks (in Greek: eucharistian ) that we have
been judged worthy of these gifts. When he has concluded the prayers and
thanksgivings, all present give voice to an acclamation by saying: 'Amen.' When he
who presides has given thanks and the people have responded, those whom we call
deacons give to those present the "eucharisted" bread, wine and water and take them
to those who are absent.

The Eucharistic liturgy is structured around a core framework that has been maintained over
the centuries and continues to this day. It consists of two principal components that create a
cohesive whole:

- the gathering, which includes the liturgy of the Word featuring readings, a homily, and
general intercessions;

- the liturgy of the Eucharist, encompassing the presentation of bread and wine, the
consecratory thanksgiving, and communion.

Together, the liturgy of the Word and the liturgy of the Eucharist constitute "one single act of
worship"; the Eucharistic table serves as both the table of the Word of God and the Body of
Christ.

Does this not echo the Paschal meal shared by the risen Jesus and his disciples? As he walked
with them, he elucidated the Scriptures; and while dining with them, "he took bread, blessed
and broke it, and gave it to them."

11.2. The Movement Of The Celebration

Christians assemble in unity in a designated location for the Eucharistic gathering. At

the forefront is Christ himself, the primary agent of the Eucharist. He serves as the high priest
of the New Covenant, presiding invisibly over each Eucharistic celebration. The bishop or
priest, acting in the person of Christ the head (in persona Christi capitis), leads the assembly,
delivers remarks following the readings, accepts the offerings, and recites the Eucharistic
Prayer. Each participant has a distinct role in the celebration, contributing in their own
manner: readers, those who present the offerings, those who distribute communion, and the
entire congregation whose "Amen" signifies their involvement.

The Liturgy of the Word encompasses "the writings of the prophets," referring to the
Old Testament, and "the memoirs of the apostles," which include their letters and the
Gospels. Following the homily, which serves as an encouragement to embrace this Word as
the true Word of God and to implement it in daily life, the intercessions for all individuals are
offered, in accordance with the Apostle's exhortation: "I urge that supplications, prayers,

45
intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men, for kings, and all who are in high
positions."

11.3. The Presentation Of The Offerings (The Offertory).

At times, the bread and wine are presented in procession to the altar, where the priest
will offer them in the name of Christ during the Eucharistic sacrifice, transforming them into
His body and blood. This act mirrors Christ's actions at the Last Supper, where He "took the
bread and a cup." The Church uniquely presents this pure offering to the Creator, expressing
gratitude for what has emerged from His creation. The act of presenting the offerings at the
altar reflects the gesture of Melchizedek, entrusting the Creator's gifts to Christ, who perfects
all human efforts to make sacrifices. Since the early days of Christianity, believers have
contributed not only bread and wine for the Eucharist but also gifts intended for those in
need. This practice of collection, always fitting, is motivated by Christ's example of
becoming poor to enrich us.

Those who are financially stable and willing contribute as they see fit. The collected
offerings are entrusted to the presiding individual to support orphans, widows, those affected
by illness or other hardships, prisoners, immigrants, and, broadly speaking, all individuals in
need.

11.4. The Anaphora

The anaphora, which encompasses the Eucharistic Prayer of thanksgiving and

consecration, represents the core and pinnacle of the liturgical celebration.

During the preface, the Church expresses gratitude to the Father through Christ in the
Holy Spirit for His myriad works, including creation, redemption, and sanctification. The
entire community participates in the eternal praise that the Church in heaven, along with the
angels and all saints, offers to the thrice-holy God.

In the epiclesis, the Church implores the Father to send His Holy Spirit, or the power
of His blessing, upon the bread and wine, so that they may be transformed into the body and
blood of Jesus Christ. This transformation enables those who partake in the Eucharist to
become one body and one spirit. It is noteworthy that in our liturgical tradition place the
epiclesis after the anamnesis.

The institution narrative reveals that through the power of Christ's words and actions,
along with the Holy Spirit's influence, the body and blood of Christ are sacramentally present
under the appearances of bread and wine, representing His sacrifice made once and for all on
the cross.

Following this, the anamnesis recalls the Passion, resurrection, and glorious return of
Christ Jesus, presenting to the Father the offering of His Son, which reconciles humanity with
Him.

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 In the intercessions, the Church emphasizes that the Eucharist is celebrated in unity
with the entire Church, both in heaven and on earth, encompassing the living and the
deceased, as well as in communion with the Church's leaders, including the Patriarch, the
Catholicose, the diocesan bishop, his presbyterium, deacons, and all bishops worldwide along
with their respective communities.

During communion, which is preceded by the Lord's Prayer and the breaking of the
bread, the faithful receive "the bread of heaven" and "the cup of salvation," representing the
body and blood of Christ, who offered Himself "for the life of the world." Since this bread
and wine have been transformed into the Eucharist—often referred to as "eucharisted" in
ancient terminology—this food is designated as the Eucharist, and participation is reserved
for the faithful.

12.The Sacramental Sacrifice Thanksgiving, Memorial, Presence

From the very beginning, Christians have observed the Eucharist in a manner whose essence
has remained unchanged, despite the significant variations in time and liturgical practices.
This continuity is rooted in our understanding of the command given by the Lord on the eve
of His Passion: "Do this in remembrance of me."

In fulfilling this divine command, we commemorate His sacrifice. In this act, we present to
the Father what He has bestowed upon us: the gifts of creation, specifically bread and wine,
which, through the power of the Holy Spirit and the words of Christ, are transformed into the
body and blood of Christ. Thus, Christ is truly and mysteriously present among us.

Consequently, we must regard the Eucharist as:

- An expression of thanksgiving and praise to the Father;

- A sacrificial memorial of Christ and His Body;

- The presence of Christ through the power of His word and Spirit.

Thanksgiving and Praise to the Father

The Eucharist, which represents the sacrament of our salvation achieved by Christ on the
cross, also serves as a sacrifice of praise, expressing gratitude for the work of creation. In this
Eucharistic sacrifice, the entirety of creation, cherished by God, is offered to the Father
through the death and Resurrection of Christ. Through Him, the Church is enabled to present
a sacrifice of praise in gratitude for all that God has deemed good, beautiful, and just within
creation and humanity. The term Eucharist fundamentally signifies "thanksgiving."

Moreover, the Eucharist embodies a sacrifice of praise through which the Church glorifies
God on behalf of all creation. This act of praise is made possible solely through Christ, who
unites the faithful with His person, His praise, and His intercession, ensuring that the sacrifice
of praise to the Father is offered through Christ and with Him, to be accepted in Him.

12.1. The sacrificial memorial of Christ and of his Body, the Church

47
 The Eucharist serves as a memorial of Christ's Passover, representing the sacramental
offering of His singular sacrifice within the liturgical context of the Church, which is His
Body. In every Eucharistic Prayer, following the words of institution, there exists a prayer
known as the anamnesis or memorial. According to Sacred Scripture, this memorial
transcends mere remembrance of past events; it embodies the proclamation of the significant
deeds performed by God for humanity. During the liturgical observance of these events, they
are rendered present and tangible in a unique manner. This understanding is reflected in
Israel's interpretation of its liberation from Egypt: each time Passover is commemorated, the
events of the Exodus are brought to the minds of the faithful, encouraging them to align their
lives with these historical occurrences.

In the New Testament, the concept of the memorial acquires a deeper significance.
When the Church observes the Eucharist, it commemorates Christ's Passover, making present
the sacrifice that Christ offered once and for all on the cross, which remains perpetually
accessible. "Whenever the sacrifice of the Cross, by which 'Christ our Pasch has been
sacrificed,' is celebrated at the altar, the work of our redemption is fulfilled."

As a memorial of Christ's Passover, the Eucharist also embodies a sacrificial nature.

This sacrificial aspect is evident in the very words of institution: "This is my body which is
given for you" and "This cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood."
In the Eucharist, Christ offers us the same body that He surrendered for us on the cross, along
with the blood that He "poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins." Thus, the Eucharist
is a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of the cross, serves as its
memorial, and applies its salvific effects:

[Christ], our Lord and God, was once and for all to offer himself to God the Father by
his death on the altar of the cross, to accomplish there an everlasting redemption. But
because his priesthood was not to end with his death, at the Last Supper "on the night
when he was betrayed," [he wanted] to leave to his beloved spouse the Church a
visible sacrifice (as the nature of man demands) by which the bloody sacrifice which
he was to accomplish once for all on the cross would be re-presented, its memory
perpetuated until the end of the world, and its salutary power be applied to the
forgiveness of the sins we daily commit.

The sacrifice of Christ and the Eucharistic sacrifice are fundamentally one and the
same: "The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests,
who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different." "And since
in this divine sacrifice which is celebrated in the Mass, the same Christ who offered himself
once in a bloody manner on the altar of the cross is contained and is offered in an unbloody
manner. . . this sacrifice is truly propitiatory."

Furthermore, the Eucharist represents the sacrifice of the Church. The Church, as the
Body of Christ, partakes in the offering of her Head. In union with Him, she presents herself
wholly and completely. She aligns her intercession with His before the Father on behalf of all
humanity. In the Eucharist, the sacrifice of Christ also becomes the sacrifice of the members
of His Body. The lives of the faithful—their praises, sufferings, prayers, and works—are
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intertwined with those of Christ and His total offering, thereby gaining new significance. The
presence of Christ's sacrifice on the altar enables all generations of Christians to unite with
His offering.

In the catacombs, the Church is frequently depicted as a woman in prayer, with arms
extended in a posture of supplication. Just as Christ extended His arms on the cross, she
offers herself and intercedes for all humanity through Him, with Him, and in Him.

The entire Church is united with the offering and intercession of Christ. With the
ministry of Peter in the Church, the Patriarch is integral to every Eucharistic celebration,
serving as a sign and servant of the unity of the universal Church. The local bishop holds
responsibility for the Eucharist, even when a priest presides; his name is invoked to signify
his leadership over the particular Church, alongside his presbyterium and with the assistance
of deacons. The community also intercedes for all ministers who, together with it, offer the
Eucharistic sacrifice.

Only that Eucharist should be considered valid which is celebrated under the authority
of the bishop or an individual to whom he has delegated this responsibility. Through the
priestly ministry, the spiritual sacrifice of the faithful is fulfilled in conjunction with the
sacrifice of Christ, the only Mediator, which is presented in the Eucharist through the hands
of the priests on behalf of the entire Church in a non-bloody and sacramental manner until the
return of the Lord.

The offering of Christ is joined not only by those still living on earth but also by those
who have already attained the glory of heaven. In communion with and in remembrance of
the Blessed Virgin Mary and all the saints, the Church presents the Eucharistic sacrifice. In
the Eucharist, the Church stands, as it were, at the foot of the cross alongside Mary, united
with the offering and intercession of Christ.

The Eucharistic sacrifice is also offered for the faithful departed who "have died in
Christ but are not yet wholly purified," so that they may enter into the light and peace of
Christ.

" Put this body anywhere! Don't trouble yourselves about it! I simply ask you to
remember me at the Lord's altar wherever you are." We then pray [in the anaphora] for the
holy fathers and bishops who have passed away, as well as for all who have departed before
us, believing that it is a significant benefit for the souls for whom the supplication is made,
while the holy and tremendous Victim is present. By offering our prayers to God for those
who have fallen asleep, if they have sinned, we present Christ, sacrificed for the sins of all,
thereby rendering favourable the God who loves humanity for them and for ourselves.

St. Augustine eloquently encapsulated this doctrine, which inspires us to engage in an

ever-deeper participation in the sacrifice of our Redeemer that we celebrate in the Eucharist:

This wholly redeemed city, the assembly and society of the saints, is offered to God
as a universal sacrifice by the high priest who in the form of a slave went so far as to
offer himself for us in his Passion, to make us the Body of so great a head. . . . Such is

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 the sacrifice of Christians: "we who are many are one Body in Christ" The Church
continues to reproduce this sacrifice in the sacrament of the altar so well-known to
believers wherein it is evident to them that in what she offers she herself is offered.

12.2. The Presence Of Christ By The Power Of His Word And The Holy Spirit

Christ Jesus, who died and was resurrected, now sits at the right hand of God and
intercedes on our behalf. He is present to His Church in various forms: through His word, in
the prayers of the Church, "where two or three are gathered in my name," in the marginalized,
the ill, and the imprisoned, in the sacraments He instituted, in the sacrifice of the Mass, and
through the minister. However, "He is present... most especially in the Eucharistic species."

The manner of Christ's presence in the Eucharistic species is unparalleled. It elevates

the Eucharist above all other sacraments, representing "the perfection of the spiritual life and
the ultimate goal of all sacraments." In the most blessed sacrament of the Eucharist, "the body
and blood, along with the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ, and thus the whole
Christ, is truly, really, and substantially contained." This presence is termed 'real'—not to
dismiss other forms of presence as less 'real,' but to signify a presence in the fullest sense: a
substantial presence in which Christ, both God and man, is wholly and entirely present.

Through the transformation of bread and wine into Christ's body and blood, He
becomes present in this sacrament. The Church Fathers strongly affirmed the Church's belief
in the power of Christ's Word and the action of the Holy Spirit to effect this transformation.
St. John Chrysostom notably expressed this conviction.

It is not man that causes the things offered to become the Body and Blood of Christ,
but he who was crucified for us, Christ himself. The priest, in the role of Christ,
pronounces these words, but their power and grace are God's. This is my body, he
says. This word transforms the things offered.

And St. Ambrose relates about this conversion in following words:

Be convinced that this is not what nature has formed, but what the blessing has
consecrated. The power of the blessing prevails over that of nature, because by the
blessing nature itself is changed. . . . Could not Christ's word, which can make from
nothing what did not exist, change existing things into what they were not before? It is
no less a feat to give things their original nature than to change their nature.103

The presence of Christ in the Eucharist commences at the time of consecration and
persists for as long as the Eucharistic elements remain. Christ is fully present in each of the

103
The Council of Trent summarizes the Catholic belief of transubstantiation as follows: "Because Christ our
Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the
conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread
and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ
our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic
Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."

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species and entirely present in every part of them, ensuring that the act of breaking the bread
does not result in a division of Christ.

12.3. Worship of the Eucharist

In the liturgical celebration of the Mass, we affirm our belief in the true presence of
Christ in the forms of bread and wine through various acts, including genuflection or deep
bowing, which serve as expressions of our reverence for the Lord.

It is profoundly appropriate that Christ chose to remain with his Church in this
extraordinary manner. As he prepared to depart from his followers in his physical form, he
desired to provide us with his sacramental presence. In offering himself on the cross for our
salvation, he wished for us to have a memorial of the love he demonstrated "to the end,"
culminating in the sacrifice of his life. Through his Eucharistic presence, he remains
mysteriously among us as the one who loved us and surrendered himself for our sake,
manifesting this love through signs that convey and communicate it. The Church and the
world are in great need of Eucharistic devotion. Jesus awaits us in this sacrament of love. Let
us not hesitate to dedicate time to encounter him in adoration, engaging in contemplation
filled with faith and openness to atone for the grave offenses and injustices of the world. May
our adoration be unceasing.

In his commentary on Luke 22:19 ('This is my body which is given for you.'), St.
Cyril says: 'Do not doubt whether this is true, but rather receive the words of the Savior in
faith, for since he is the truth, he cannot lie.'"

13.The Paschal Banquet

The Mass serves simultaneously as a sacrificial memorial, wherein the sacrifice of the
cross is continually commemorated, and as a sacred banquet that facilitates communion with
the body and blood of the Lord. The celebration of the Eucharistic sacrifice is fundamentally
oriented towards fostering a profound union between the faithful and Christ through the act of
communion. To partake in communion is to receive Christ himself, who has selflessly offered
himself for our sake.

The altar, around which the Church congregates during the Eucharistic celebration,
embodies the dual dimensions of this mystery: it is both the altar of sacrifice and the table of
the Lord. This duality is particularly significant as the Christian altar symbolizes Christ
himself, who is present among his faithful, serving both as the victim offered for our
reconciliation and as the heavenly sustenance that he provides. St. Ambrose poses the
question, "What is the altar of Christ if not the image of the Body of Christ?" He further
asserts, "The altar represents the body [of Christ], and the Body of Christ is on the altar."

13.1. “Take This And Eat It, All Of You": Communion

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 The Lord extends an invitation to us, encouraging us to welcome Him in the
sacrament of the Eucharist: "Truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of man
and drink his blood, you have no life in you." In order to respond to this sacred invitation, we
must adequately prepare ourselves for such a significant and holy occasion. St. Paul advises
us to reflect on our conscience: "Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the
Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord. Let a
man examine himself, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For anyone who eats and
drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment upon himself." Those who are
aware of committing a grave sin must first receive the sacrament of Reconciliation prior to
approaching communion.

In the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the faithful pray with the same
sentiment:

O Son of God, grant me communion today with your mystical supper. I shall not
reveal the secret to your enemies, nor betray you with Judas' kiss. Instead, like the
good thief, I implore, "Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom."

To prepare for the worthy reception of this sacrament, the faithful should adhere to
the fasting practices mandated by their Church. Their physical demeanor—through gestures
and attire—should reflect the respect, solemnity, and joy of this moment when Christ
becomes our guest.

It aligns with the essence of the Eucharist that the faithful, provided they possess the
necessary dispositions, partake in communion during the Mass. The Second Vatican Council
articulates: "That more perfect form of participation in the Mass whereby the faithful, after
the priest's communion, receive the Lord's Body from the same sacrifice, is warmly
recommended."

The Church mandates that the faithful attend the Divine Liturgy on Sundays and feast
days, and, having been prepared through the sacrament of Reconciliation, receive the
Eucharist at least once a year, ideally during the Easter season. However, the Church strongly
advocates for the faithful to receive the holy Eucharist on Sundays and feast days, or even
more frequently.

Given that Christ is sacramentally present in each of the species, receiving

communion under the species of bread alone allows for the full reception of Eucharistic
grace.

13.2. The Fruits Of Holy Communion

Holy Communion enhances our connection with Christ. The primary benefit of partaking in
the Eucharist during Holy Communion is the profound union with Christ Jesus. The Lord
affirmed this when He stated: "He who eats my flesh and drinks my blood abides in me, and I
in him." The essence of life in Christ is rooted in the Eucharistic feast: "As the living Father
sent me, and I live because of the Father, so he who eats me will live because of me."

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During the feasts dedicated to the Lord, when the faithful partake of the Body of the Son,
they share the Good News with one another, proclaiming that the first fruits of life have been
bestowed, reminiscent of the angel's message to Mary Magdalene, "Christ is risen!" In this
way, life and resurrection are granted to all who receive Christ.

Just as material sustenance supports our physical existence, Holy Communion profoundly
nourishes our spiritual life. The communion with the risen Christ's body, a body "given life
and giving life through the Holy Spirit," sustains, enhances, and revitalizes the grace received
at Baptism. This development in the Christian journey requires the sustenance of Eucharistic
Communion, serving as the bread for our journey until death, when it will be provided to us
as viaticum.

Holy Communion also serves to separate us from sin. The body of Christ that we receive in
Holy Communion is "given up for us," and the blood we consume is "shed for many for the
forgiveness of sins." Consequently, the Eucharist not only unites us with Christ but also
cleanses us from past transgressions and safeguards us against future sins.

For as often as we eat this bread and drink the cup, we proclaim the death of the Lord.
If we proclaim the Lord's death, we proclaim the forgiveness of sins. If, as often as his
blood is poured out, it is poured for the forgiveness of sins, I should always receive it,
so that it may always forgive my sins. Because I always sin, I should always have a
remedy.

Bodily nourishment replenishes lost vitality, just as the Eucharist fortifies our charity, which
often diminishes in the course of daily life; this vibrant charity also cleanses us of venial sins.
By offering Himself to us, Christ rejuvenates our love and empowers us to sever unhealthy
attachments to worldly matters, allowing us to establish our foundation in Him.

Since Christ died for us out of love, when we celebrate the memorial of his death at
the moment of sacrifice we ask that love may be granted to us by the coming of the
Holy Spirit. We humbly pray that in the strength of this love by which Christ willed to
die for us, we, by receiving the gift of the Holy Spirit, may be able to consider the
world as crucified for us, and to be ourselves as crucified to the world. . . . Having
received the gift of love, let us die to sin and live for God.

The Eucharist, by fostering the charity it ignites within us, also safeguards us from future
mortal sins. The deeper our participation in the life of Christ and the more we cultivate our
friendship with Him, the harder it becomes to separate ourselves from Him through mortal
sin. It is important to note that the Eucharist is not intended for the forgiveness of mortal sins;
that role belongs to the sacrament of Reconciliation. Rather, the Eucharist is specifically the
sacrament for those who are in full communion with the Church.

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 13.3. “The Unity Of The Mystical Body: The Eucharist Makes The Church.

Those who partake in the Eucharist experience a closer union with Christ. Through
this sacrament, Christ brings them together with all believers into one body—the Church.
Communion serves to renew, fortify, and enhance this connection to the Church, which was
initially established through Baptism. In Baptism, we are called to be one body. The
Eucharist actualizes this calling: "The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a participation
in the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of
Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the
one bread:"

If you are the body and members of Christ, then it is your sacrament that is placed on
the table of the Lord; it is your sacrament that you receive. To that which you are you
respond "Amen" ("yes, it is true!") and by responding to it you assent to it. For you
hear the words, "the Body of Christ" and respond "Amen." Be then a member of the
Body of Christ that your Amen may be true.

The Eucharist obliges us to care for the impoverished. In order to genuinely partake in the
Body and Blood of Christ, which was sacrificed for our sake, we must acknowledge Christ in
those who are most destitute, his brothers and sisters:

You have tasted the Blood of the Lord, yet you do not recognize your brother,. . . .
You dishonor this table when you do not judge worthy of sharing your food someone
judged worthy to take part in this meal. . . . God freed you from all your sins and
invited you here, but you have not become more merciful. The Eucharist and the unity
of Christians.

14.The Eucharist - "Pledge Of The Glory To Come"

In an ancient prayer, the Church venerates the mystery of the Eucharist, proclaiming: "O
sacred banquet in which Christ is received as food, the memory of his Passion is renewed, the
soul is filled with grace and a pledge of the life to come is given to us." The Eucharist serves
as a memorial of the Lord Jesus' Passover, and through our communion at the altar, we are
endowed "with every heavenly blessing and grace," thus making the Eucharist a foretaste of
heavenly glory.

During the Last Supper, the Lord directed his disciples' focus towards the fulfilment of
the Passover in God's kingdom, stating: "I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the
vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Each time the
Church celebrates the Eucharist, she recalls this promise and looks forward "to him who is to
come." In her prayers, she implores his return: "Marana tha!" "Come, Lord Jesus!" "May
your grace come and this world pass away!"

The Church understands that the Lord is present even now in the Eucharist, though his
presence remains concealed. Thus, we celebrate the Eucharist "awaiting the blessed hope and
the coming of our Saviour, Jesus Christ," beseeching "to share in your glory when every tear

54
will be wiped away. On that day we shall see you, our God, as you are. We shall become like
you and praise you for ever through Christ our Lord."

There exists no greater assurance or more cherished sign of this profound hope in the new
heavens and new earth "in which righteousness dwells" than the Eucharist. Each time this
mystery is celebrated, "the work of our redemption is carried on," and we "break the one
bread that provides the medicine of immortality, the antidote for death, and the food that
sustains us eternally in Jesus Christ."

15.Authority for Celebrating Eucharist

16.Graces of Eucharist
17.Structure of the Eucharist Service
The Eucharistic service of the West Syrian Tradition has the following structure.104

1. Preparation Rites

1.1. The First Service – Prothesis --Thuyobo105

1.1.1. The Opening Prayer
1.1.2. Psalm 51
1.1.3. Entry into the sanctuary (Ps, 43.4)
1.1.4. Kissing and going around the altar (Ps. 118:27-8)
1.1.5. Arrangement of the bread and wine
1.1.6. Service of Penitence
1.1.6.1. Promiun-Sedro
1.1.6.2. Qolo
1.1.6.3. Etro
1.1.6.4. Eqbo
1.1.6.5. Hutomo
1.1.6.6. Our Father.

1.2. The Second Service

I.2.1 The Opening Prayer
I.2.2 Washing of the hands
I.2.3 Vesting
I.2.4 Kneeling before the altar
I.2.5 Spreading of the veil (annapuro) over the paten and chalice
I.2.6 General Commemoration prayer and commemoration of names
I.2.7 Promiun-Sedro
I.2.8 Censing of the Paten and Chalice
I.2.9 Hutomo
104
Baby Varghese Structure of the Sacramental Celebrations: Syriac Tradition, in Harp Vol. XXV. pp. 201-228
105
Prothesis (Gk: Πρόθεσις, lit.”a setting forth) or Proskomedia (Προσκομιδή Proskomidē 'an offering, an
oblation'), is the initial part of the Eucharistic celebration in which the bread and wine for the Eucharist is
preparing on the Altar. This service of preparing the bread and wine is called Thuyobo in the Syriac tradition.

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 I.2.10 Qaumo and Creed

2. The Pre-anaphora –Synaxis106

2.1. Entrance procession around the altar and the Antiphon (m'anito) of Mar Severus
2.2. The Trisagion
2.3. Reading of the Epistles
2.4. Reading of the Gospel
2.5. Promiun-Sedro
2.6. Blessing of the censer and the censing
2.7. Creed
2.8. Kneeling before the altar
2.9. Silent commemoration of names

3. The Anaphora (of Saint James)

3.1. Introductory Prayers: The three prayers'

3.1.1. Prayer of Peace
3.1.2. Prayer of the imposition of hands
3.1.3. Prayer over the veil
3.2. The Anaphora (the Eucharistic Prayer')
3.2.1. Trinitarian Blessing
3.2.2. Introductory dialogue
3.2.3. Prayer of the offering
3.2.4. Sanctus (Qadhis)
3.2.5. Post-Sanctus
3.2.6. Institution narrative
3.2.7. Anamnesis
3.2.8. Epiclesis

3.3. Great Intercessions-- Six-fold Canon

3.4. Preparation for the Communion

3.4.1. Rites before the Fraction
3.4.2. Fraction
3.4.3. Lord's Prayer (Abun d’Basmayo)
3.4.4. Rites before Sacta Sanctis
3.4.5. Holy Things to the Holy

3.5. Communion

106
Synaxis (Gk : σύναξις) is a liturgical assembly of the Eastern Christians for the service of the
liturgy of the hours and the Eucharist. It can also mean the early part of the Divine Liturgy of the
Orthodox Churches.

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 3.5.1. Procession of the Holy Mysteries
3.5.2. Prayer of the Thanksgiving
3.5.3. Dismissal of the Faithful
3.6. Post-Communion.
3.6.1. Post Communion Prayer
3.6.2. Psalms 23
3.6.3. Washing the Paten and Chalice
3.6.4. Washing and Wiping of the hands of the celebrant
3.6.5. Promiyon and Sedre for the departed
3.6.6. Ethro
3.6.7. Lord’s Prayer
3.6.8. Kissing the Alter and saying the farewell

18.Conclusion
Jesus proclaimed, "I am the living bread that descended from heaven; whoever consumes
this bread will live eternally; ... the one who eats my flesh and drinks my blood possesses
eternal life and ... dwells in me, and I in him" (Jn 6:51, 54, 56).

The Eucharist represents the core and pinnacle of the Church's existence, as it unites
Christ with his Church and all its members in the singular sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving
offered once and for all on the cross to the Father. Through this sacrifice, he bestows the
graces of salvation upon his Body, which is the Church. Every Eucharistic celebration
encompasses: the proclamation of the Word of God; gratitude to God the Father for all his
blessings, particularly the gift of his Son; the consecration of bread and wine; and
participation in the liturgical feast by receiving the body and blood of the Lord. These
components form a unified act of worship.

The Eucharist serves as the memorial of Christ's Passover, reflecting the salvific work
achieved through the life, death, and resurrection of Christ, a work that is made present
through the liturgical action. It is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant,
who, through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice. Furthermore, it is the
same Christ, truly present under the appearances of bread and wine, who constitutes the
offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice.

Only those who are validly ordained as priests have the authority to preside over the
Eucharist and to consecrate the bread and wine, transforming them into the Body and Blood
of the Lord.

The fundamental elements of the Eucharistic sacrament consist of wheat bread and grape
wine, upon which the Holy Spirit's blessing is invoked, and the priest articulates the words of
consecration that Jesus spoke during the Last Supper: "This is my body which will be given
up for you. . . . This is the cup of my blood. . . ."

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 As a sacrifice, the Eucharist is offered for the atonement of the sins of both the living and
the deceased, as well as to seek spiritual or temporal benefits from God. Individuals wishing
to receive Christ in Eucharistic communion must be in a state of grace. Those who recognize
they have committed a mortal sin should refrain from receiving communion until they have
obtained absolution through the sacrament of penance.

Receiving the Body and Blood of Christ enhances the communicant's union with the
Lord, absolves venial sins, and protects against grave sins. This sacrament not only
strengthens the bonds of charity between the communicant and Christ but also fortifies the
unity of the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ.The Church encourages the faithful to
partake in Holy Communion during the celebration of the Eucharist and mandates that they
do so at least once a year.

Having ascended from this world to the Father, Christ offers us in the Eucharist a promise
of glory with him. Participation in the Holy Sacrifice aligns us with Him, fortifies our resolve
throughout our earthly journey, instils in us a yearning for eternal life, and connects us even
now to the Church in heaven, the Blessed Virgin Mary, and all the saints.

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