Chapter 1: Introduction to Signals and Systems

1.1 Introduction
A signal is any measurable quantity that varies with time, space, or another independent
variable. Signals represent information or data about some phenomenon of interest. Signals
can be found in every aspect of the world around us and can take many forms, for example
audio signals in a phone call. Systems, on the other hand, are mechanisms or processes that
take in these signals and respond to or process them, often generating output signals based on

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the input.

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In this course, the study of signals and systems provides the foundation for understanding

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how information is transmitted, transformed, or even interpreted. Examples of systems and

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associated signals:
● Electrical circuits: voltages, currents, temperature
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● Mechanical systems: speeds, displacement, pressure, temperature
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● Chemical and biological systems: neuronal activity, cardiac signals

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● Social systems: opinions, gossip, online sentiment, political polls

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● Audio/visual systems: music, speech recordings, images, video

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● Computer systems: Internet traffic, user input

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From a mathematical perspective, signals can be regarded as functions of one or more

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independent variables. For example, the voltage across a capacitor in an electrical circuit is a
function of time. A static monochromatic image can be viewed as a function of two variables:
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an x-coordinate and a y-coordinate, where the value of the function indicates the brightness
of the pixel at that (x, y) coordinate. A video is a sequence of images, and thus can be viewed
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as a function of three variables: an x-coordinate, a y-coordinate and a time instant. In this

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course, we will primarily be focusing on signals that are functions of a single independent
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variable (typically taken to be time). For example:

● Audio Signal: The sound waves produced by a musical instrument can be represented
as a function of time, showing how the amplitude of the sound varies.
● Temperature Signal: The daily temperature measured over time can be modeled as a
signal where time is the independent variable.
1.2 Classification of Signals
Signals can be classified based on various characteristics.

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 1. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-time signals are defined for every instant of time and can take on any value
within a given range. Mathematically, a continuous-time signal x(t) can be represented as a
function of time t. E.g x(t)=Asin(2πft+ϕ) where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝑓 is the frequency, and 𝜙 is
the phase. This signal varies continuously over time. Examples of continuous-time signals
often include physical quantities, such as electrical currents, atmospheric concentrations and
phenomena, vehicle movements, etc.

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Discrete-time signals are defined only at specific intervals of time. They are obtained by

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sampling a continuous-time signal at regular intervals. A discrete-time signal can be

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represented as 𝑥[𝑛], where 𝑛 is an integer indicating the sample index. Examples of discrete
time signals include Daily Market Prices, School Enrollment Data, and Cultural Events

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Attendance.

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2. Analog and Digital Signals

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Analog signals are continuous-time signals that can take any value within a given range.
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They represent information in a physical form, often subject to noise and distortion. The
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voltage level from a vinyl record can be represented mathematically as: x(t)=V(t) where V(t)
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is the voltage level over time, capturing the variations in sound represented by the grooves on
the record.
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Digital signals are discrete-time signals that take on a finite number of values, typically
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represented in binary form. They are easily processed, stored, and transmitted. A digital
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signal can be represented as: x[n]={0,1} where each value corresponds to binary data. In
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communication systems, this could represent data transmitted over fiber-optic cables, with
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light pulses indicating 0s and 1s. One can obtain discrete-time signals by sampling
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continuous-time signals (i.e., by selecting only the values of the continuous-time signal at
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certain intervals).
3. Even and Odd Signals
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Signals can also be classified as even or odd based on their symmetry about the vertical axis.
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● Even Signal: A signal is even if it satisfies x(t)=x(−t).

Example: The cosine function is an even signal: x(t)=Acos⁡(ωt)
● Odd Signal: A signal is odd if it satisfies x(t)=−x(−t).
Example: The sine function is an odd signal: x(t)=Asin⁡(ωt)
4. Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Signals can be classified as periodic if they repeat over time or non-periodic if they do not.

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 ● Periodic Signal: A signal is periodic if it satisfies x(t)=x(t+T) for some period T>0.
Example: A square wave can be represented as a periodic signal.
● Nonperiodic Signal: A signal is nonperiodic if it does not repeat over time.
Example: A single pulse or transient signal is nonperiodic.
Note: any signal can be decomposed as a sum of an even signal and an odd signal.

LAB: Classification_of_signals.py

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1.3 Basic Continuous-Time Signals

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1. Unit Step Signal:

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● Denoted as u(t), is defined as:

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● The Unit Step signal is foundational in defining systems that start at a specific time.
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It's commonly used to model systems that turn "on" at t=0 and stay "on" afterward,
such as the activation of electronic circuits or systems that need to respond to sudden
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inputs. It's also crucial for analyzing the behavior of systems in response to inputs
over time.
2. Unit Impulse Signal:
● The Unit Impulse signal, or Dirac delta function, δ(t), is defined as an idealized
signal with infinite amplitude at t=0 and an area of one over time:

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 ● The Unit Impulse signal is essential in analyzing and understanding how systems
respond to instantaneous inputs, like sudden shocks. It acts as a "test signal" in
system analysis since any continuous-time signal can be represented as a
combination of shifted and scaled impulse signals. This is especially useful in
convolution operations for system response analysis.
3. Complex Exponential Signal
● A Complex Exponential signal is represented as est, where s=σ+jω (with j as the

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imaginary unit and ω as angular frequency). In its simplest form with s=jω, it is

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written as: ejωt=cos(ωt)+jsin(ωt).

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● Complex Exponential signals are significant in characterizing the frequency response

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of systems, which is central to both continuous and discrete-time system analysis.
They form the basis for Fourier and Laplace transforms, which decompose signals

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into frequency components, allowing for the analysis of how systems respond at

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different frequencies—a key concept in communication and control systems.
4. Sinusoidal Signal d
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● A Sinusoidal signal is defined by: x(t)=Acos⁡(ωt+ϕ) where A is the amplitude, ω the
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angular frequency, and ϕ the phase shift.

● Sinusoidal signals are fundamental in representing periodic signals and are used to
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analyze systems in both time and frequency domains. Since many natural and
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man-made signals (like sound waves, electrical signals, etc.) are or can be
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approximated by sinusoidal components, understanding how systems respond to

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these signals provides insights into system behavior for a wide variety of real-world
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applications. Additionally, they are central to Fourier analysis, as any signal can be
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broken down into a sum of sinusoidal components.

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LAB: Basic_Continous.py
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1.4 Basic Discrete-Time Signals
1. Unit Step Sequence
● The Unit Step Sequence, denoted by u[n], is defined as:

● The Unit Step Sequence is widely used to model digital systems that start operating
from a particular point in time, often n=0. In real-world applications, it’s useful in

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systems that trigger at specific events, such as signals in digital circuits that activate

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components at a certain time step.

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2. Unit Impulse Sequence

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● The Unit Impulse Sequence, denoted δ[n], is defined by

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● The Unit Impulse Sequence is crucial in analyzing discrete systems’ response to
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instantaneous events. In practical terms, it’s like a “ping” to test a system’s behavior at
a specific point in time, making it essential in areas like digital signal processing for
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testing filters or analyzing system stability.

Quiz: Represent Unit Impulse Sequence using Unit Step Sequence [Vise versa]
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3. Complex Exponential Sequence

● The Complex Exponential Sequence is expressed as x[n]=ejωn, where j is the
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imaginary unit and ω is the angular frequency. It can be represented as:

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x[n]=cos⁡(ωn)+jsin⁡(ωn).
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● This sequence is fundamental in analyzing how digital systems respond to different

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frequencies, a technique widely used in communications and signal processing. For

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instance, it helps in understanding how different frequencies pass through digital

filters, which is crucial in designing systems like mobile phones and Wi-Fi routers.
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4. Sinusoidal Sequence
● A Sinusoidal Sequence is defined as: x[n]=Acos⁡(ωn+ϕ), where A is the amplitude, ω
the angular frequency, and ϕ the phase shift.
● Sinusoidal Sequences are widely used in digital audio and image processing. Since
any complex signal can be broken down into a sum of sinusoidal sequences (via the

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 Fourier transform), this signal is vital for representing periodic phenomena in digital
systems, from sound waves in audio processing to pixel patterns in image processing.

LAB: Basic_Discrete.py

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1.5 Systems and Classification of Systems

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1. System and System Representation

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● A system is a set of components that process input signals to produce output signals.
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It can be represented mathematically through functions or equations that describe how

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inputs are transformed into outputs.

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● Systems are foundational in fields such as engineering and computer science. For
example, in audio processing, a system may transform an audio signal to improve its
quality through filtering.
2. Deterministic and Stochastic Systems
● Deterministic: In a deterministic system, the output is precisely determined by the
input without any randomness. For instance, an electric circuit with fixed parameters
will always yield the same output for a given input.

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 ● Stochastic: In contrast, a stochastic system incorporates randomness, meaning the
same input can produce different outputs. Weather forecasting models are examples of
stochastic systems, as they account for random atmospheric variables.
3. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems
● Continuous-Time: These systems process signals defined for every instant in time,
such as analog audio signals. The input and output signals x and y are continuous-time
signals.

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● Discrete-Time: These systems operate on signals defined at discrete time intervals,

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such as digital audio signals sampled at specific rates. The input and output signals

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are discrete-time signals or sequences. Digital signal processors (DSPs) in

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smartphones are examples of discrete-time systems.

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4. Memory and Memoryless Systems d
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● A system is said to be memoryless if the output at any time depends on only the input
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at that same time. Otherwise, the system is said to have memory. An example of a
memoryless system is a resistor R with the input x(t) taken as the current and the
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voltage taken as the output y(t). The input-output relationship (Ohm’s law) of a
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resistor is y(t)=Rx(t).
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● An example of a system with memory is a capacitor C with the current as the input
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x(t) and the voltage as the output y(t); then

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5. Causal and Noncausal Systems

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● Causal: A causal system produces an output at any time based only on current and
past inputs. Most real-world systems, like a thermostat, are causal, as they respond
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based on current conditions.

● Noncausal systems can produce outputs based on future inputs. While they are often
theoretical, they are useful in algorithms where future information can be utilized,
such as in certain image processing techniques.

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 6. Linear and Nonlinear Systems
● Linear: A linear system satisfies the principles of additivity (the output for the sum of
inputs equals the sum of the outputs for each input) and homogeneity (scaling the
input scales the output by the same factor). An example is a linear amplifier.
● Nonlinear: In nonlinear systems, these principles do not hold. For instance, a diode's
response to voltage is nonlinear, making it crucial in many electronic applications.
7. Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems

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● A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or advance) in the input signal

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causes the same time shift in the output signal. A system which does not satisfy this is

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called a time-varying system.

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8. Stable and Unstable Systems

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● Stable: A stable system produces bounded outputs for bounded inputs, meaning it
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behaves predictably. For instance, a properly designed control system that maintains a
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vehicle's speed is stable.
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● Unstable: An unstable system may produce unbounded outputs in response to certain

inputs. This can occur in poorly designed control systems, leading to erratic behavior,
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such as oscillations in an uncontrolled process.

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9. Feedback Systems
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● A feedback system is one that utilizes its output to adjust its future behavior. There are
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two types: positive feedback (amplifies output) and negative feedback (reduces
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output).
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● Feedback systems are widely used in control systems, such as cruise control in
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vehicles, which adjusts the throttle based on speed to maintain a desired velocity.
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LAB: Cont_Dis_System.py
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LAB: Memory_Memory_Less.py
LAB: Linear_Non_Linear.py