Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)

______________________________________________________________
Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management
(PGDAEM)

Course code: AEM 102

Course Title: Facilitation for Development (2 Credits)

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

(An autonomous organization of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare, Govt. of
India)
Hyderabad – 500030. India.
www.manage.gov.in
 Facilitation for Development AEM 102
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Published by
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030. India.

First published: 2021

MANAGE, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means without permission in writing from MANAGE.

Dr. P.ChandraShekhara,
Director General
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030. India.

Principal Coordinator
Dr. VeenitaKumari, Deputy Director (Gender Studies), MANAGE

Contributors (2021)
Dr. Saravan Raj, Director (Agricultural Extension), MANAGE
Dr. PVK Sasidhar, Professor, School of Extension Education and Development Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi

Support Team
Dr.P.L.Manohari, Assistant Director, MANAGE
Ms.S.L.Kameswari, Consultant, PGDAEM, MANAGE
Dr. V.Shreedevi, Research Associate, PGADEM–MOOCs, MANAGE
Mr. Phanindra Verma, Data Entry operator, PGDAEM, MANAGE
Ms. T.Lakshmi Thirupathamma, Technical Assistant, PGDAEM, MANAGE

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AEM 102: Facilitation for Development (3 Credits)

Number
Name of the Unit Page
of the Unit

Block I: Introduction to Facilitation for Development

Unit 1 Facilitation for development – An overview 5-29

Facilitating change in Individuals, Groups

Unit 2 30-43
and Organisations

Arrangement for Multi-stakeholder

Unit 3 44-64
interactions

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Block I: Introduction to Facilitation for Development

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UNIT – 1: FACILITATION FOR DEVELOPMENT

– AN OVERVIEW

Highlights of the Unit

 Objectives
 Introduction
 Facilitation and Facilitators
 The Basic Principles of Facilitation for Development
 Desired Attributes of Facilitator for Development
 Facilitation Skills, Techniques and Tools
 Let’s sum up
 Check Your Progress
 Further Readings/references

1.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of the unit are:

 To explain the concept of facilitation for change as a core function of Extension
Professionals.
 To understand the principles and various attributes of facilitation
 To understand the different tools and techniques of facilitation

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Development is broadly a participatory process of directed social change, intended to

bring about both social and material advancement for majority of the people in the
social system. Such widespread behaviour change for development could be attained
by effective facilitation.

The following things need to be understood in ‘facilitation for development:

 Meaning and importance of facilitation in development work.
 Importance of facilitation and the role of a facilitator.
 Differences between process facilitation and training facilitation.

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 Importance of facilitation in extension and development.

 Key facilitation skills required for an extension and development professional.

 Facilitating change in individuals, groups and organizations.
 Arrangements required for multi-stakeholder interactions, brokering strategic
partnerships and networking.
In short, the essence of this block is to make the learners understand that facilitation
is one of the major means and development is the outcome.

After studying this unit the learners would be able to:

 Understand the meaning and concept of facilitation.
 Discuss the basic principles of facilitation and desired attributes of a facilitator.
 Describe facilitation skills and tools and techniques of facilitation.

1.2 FACILITATION AND FACILITATORS

1.2.1 What is Facilitation?

Facilitation comes from the French word facile, which means to make easy. Facilitation
is the process of helping groups accomplish their tasks. The dictionary definition of
facilitation is “the act of helping other people to deal with a process or to reach to an
agreement or solution without getting directly involved in the process, discussion, etc.
oneself”.
The other meanings of facilitation are:
 Facilitation involves letting go off control over the outcome of a process and giving
that responsibility to the group (Otim, 2013).
 Facilitation is designed to help groups perform more effectively. A facilitator’s job
is to focus on how well people work together although a facilitator “can fulfil
different kinds of needs in working with a group” his/her actual role depends on
“the group’s purpose for coming together and what is expected of the
facilitator”(Auvine et al., 2002).
 Facilitation aims at “supporting the work of different types of teams in mostly
solving complex problems and in developing decision solutions. The point is that

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facilitation enablers allow learners to be confronted with different kinds of
participation” (Murray and Blackman, 2006)
From the above definitions it is clear that the functions of facilitation are:
a. To serve the group
b. Increase efficiency of running meetings and ensure ideas represent the group.
c. Help people make decisions and achieve results.
d. Draw on the ideas of all and restricts a few to dominate, and
e. Ensure that outputs are captured and presented in an easily understandable form.
The common characteristics of facilitation from the above discussion are summarised
in Box 1:
Box 1. Common Characteristics of Facilitation
 Art of bringing people together
 Helping groups accomplish their tasks without getting directly involved in
the process
 Helping people to learn through self-discovery
 Empowering people
 Help groups perform more effectively
 Supporting the work of different teams
 Helping people to participate in development etc.

1.2.2 Why Facilitate?

For good facilitators, facilitation is not just something they do; it is a state of
being. They always look for the opportunities to facilitate human interactions: be at
the workplace, community groups or organizations – anytime a group of people gets
together to accomplish a specific goal.
“A facilitator’s job is to serve the group. A facilitator impacts and guides the
process but does not give input on the content of a meeting- that comes from the group
members.” A facilitator’s role is far beyond “running the meeting” and
“disseminating the information”.
Facilitation is an important skill needed by extension and development
workers. It is the ability to guide a group of individuals through processes that

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will result in the achievement of group objectives and goals in different groups
viz.
 Gram sabhas
 Village panchayat meetings
 Extension councils
 Program advisory committees
 Community decision making groups
 Any developmental programme stakeholder’s meetings
What is Facilitation for Development?
 Development is a process of growth, progress and advancement. Facilitation
for development is a deeper process of helping individuals or group of
people understand themselves and their role in development.
 It is concerned with both the content and the process of development; and
 It is the art of discovering how to unleash people’s ability to learn, reflect,
use their skills and their potential to achieve their goals
Source: Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016.

1.2.3. Training vs. Facilitation

Are the trainers and the facilitators the same?
There are some fundamental differences between a trainer and a facilitator as
highlighted by Barbara MacKay (2017).
Table 1.1 Fundamental differences between a trainer and a facilitator
Criteria Trainer Facilitator
Learning vs. Training is about passing on Facilitation is about helping
Thinking learning to think in a group
Hierarchical vs. Training is a hierarchical model Facilitation, on the other
Collaborative where the trainer is a teacher hand, is based on
and the learners are the student collaboration
who are supposed to know less
than the trainer

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Applying vs. A trainer is supposed to help the In facilitation, it is not the
Communicating group apply the content he or role of a facilitator to
she has given them. reinforce concepts but to
give space for
communication within the
group
Linear vs. From a design perspective, Facilitation often has a more
Flexible training occurs more often in a flexible agenda, as you
linear form through the trainer’s cannot exactly predict what
outline is going to happen within
the group.
Longer-term A trainer is often focused on While as a process facilitator,
versus achieving a long-term outcome one looks for short-term
Immediate insights and, often,
results immediate results.

1.2.4 Facilitation - A Core Function of Extension

A system is made up of many parts that work together. It is important that each
part must work in a specific way for the whole system to work well. All the actors in
the system (like farmers) need to learn skills that allow them to function as a sub-
system. It is important that each and every actor in the system must be empowered to
work with other parts of the system in a way that contributes effectively to the
functioning of the whole.
This is where the role of a facilitator to teach each person or group the skills they
would need for their own development comes into play. A facilitator is expected to
have the ability to teach people in different sub-system levels on how to work
together, so that the whole system can work.
Extension service has historically been recognised as an important interface
between farmers and other actors. In order to be more relevant and useful, extension
needs to assume a more facilitative role to better link the different actors within the

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AIS. Facilitation skills are essential to trigger the level of participation and the pattern
of interaction of the different actors within the AIS.
Activity 1: Ask your colleagues what they mean by ‘facilitation’ in the context of
development? Compare their views with those given in this section and write your
observations.

Check Your Progress 1

1. What is facilitation?
2. Write the difference between a ‘trainer’ and a ‘facilitator’ in the context of
development?
1.3 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FACILITATION FOR DEVELOPMENT
Facilitation is more an intuitive art form than science. In the context of
extension and development, every situation is unique and demands a masterful
facilitator to be flexible and adaptable, serving the group needs. Facilitation is a
core function of extension that involves the following principles:
1. Planning and preparation
2. Creating a comfortable setting for participants
3. Neutrality
4. Listening; and
5. Motivation.

1.3.1 Planning and Preparation

A facilitator first and foremost be aware of the objectives of the session, before
preparing the facilitation contact session with the individual or group, so that he gets
a good idea of what (s)he has to address during the meeting and the appropriate
facilitation techniques to achieve the outcomes. A general plan or agenda about the
facilitation contact session will help a facilitator to decide upon the time to be spent
on each topic and also permits a fair chance to know about the challenges of the group,
make out the suggestions.

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Fig 1. Planning a meeting: The process of iceberg model (Source: Mann,

2013)
The model given by Tony Mann, the Director of Resource Strategic Change
Facilitators, illustrates that a facilitator, by helping the group to identify the
objectives and tasks and designing the 'best' process (format and tools), can
alleviate 80 per cent of the problems that beset meetings, workshops and events.
This is counter-intuitive - because the main problems in facilitating meetings are
below the 'waterline'. According to this model, the 'iceberg' rises out of the water
and the remaining 20 per cent becomes much less of a problem. In fact, there are
no 'difficult people'. The key issue is getting clarity of the tasks and having a good
process.

1.3.2 Creating a Comfortable Setting for Participants

For a facilitation contact session or a group meeting to be successful, each

participant must feel comfortable enough to share their opinions and suggestions.
Before beginning the facilitation contact session, it is the job of a facilitator to create
safe space by setting some rules on how the session should be structured. It is
important to make sure that everyone is aware of, and agrees upon, the rules of the
meeting. The facilitator should make sure that each person is allowed to speak without
interruption. No one should break the rules and everyone should get a fair chance to
say something.

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1.3.3 Neutrality

Staying neutral, helps kick-off and round up conversations, highlighting

points of consensus and summarising key takeaways. Intervene when necessary
and help the group clarify outcomes.

1.3.4 Listening

Active Listening: This is the act of concentrating to listen to what someone is

saying so as to understand and remember what they heard. This is an important
skill of a facilitator as (s) he should listen to people’s problems or suggestions
and must be able to use the information to help them develop a problem solving
plan with these suggestions.

Reflective Listening: This is the act of repeating what the listeners had been told,
so as to ensure that they had heard and understood the things correctly. This is an
important tool for a facilitator in order to ensure that there is no misunderstanding
in the meeting or the contact session

1.3.5 Motivation

To run the facilitation session smoothly, it is important to encourage the

individual or members of a group to think about positive outcomes. Instead of
letting people just complain about problems, a facilitator must guide them to think
about how they can begin to make changes to find a solution to their problem. If
they find the solutions satisfactory then they will actively implement the change.

Motivating the individual or the group to be a part of the development

process will help them to learn solve problems in a positive way. Positive attitudes
will also encourage people to think of creative ideas to solve problems on their
own. If they are motivated, they will keep moving towards the solution of the
problem.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Write the basic principles of facilitation.
2. Write the difference between an active and a reflective listening.

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1.4 DESIRED ATTRIBUTES OF FACILITATOR FOR DEVELOPMENT

A facilitator for development is expected to develop some attributes that enable

him/her to be effective in influencing change processes.

The following are the essential attributes of a facilitator:

1. Cognitive attributes
2. Emotional attributes
3. Social attributes
1.4.1 Cognitive Attributes:

These attributes deal with how one thinks about the system perspectives and
the processes. It is about understanding how systems operate, how to see the
bigger picture and how to influence those systems in a more effective way.

[Grab your reader’s attention with a great

quote from the document or use this space to
emphasize a key point. To place this text box
anywhere on the page, just drag it.]

Cognitive Attributes

i. Systems thinking ii. Critical thinking iii. Lateral thinking

a. Analysis a. Root cause analysis a. Inspiration
b. Leverage points b. Casual Chain b. Imagination
c. Structure

1.4.1.1 Systems Thinking: This is one of the critical arts by which one can
analyse the relationship between parts, the system and how it relates to the
environment. This understanding can improve decision making. It uses:
 Analysis: A process of breaking down a complex problem or issue into smaller
parts to understand it better.
 Leverage points: A place in a system structure where a solution element can be
applied.
 Structure: The way parts of a system are connected to form the whole.

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In systems thinking, systemic means arising from the structure of the system and
affecting the general behaviour of the entire system, something that has an effect
on most or all of a system.
1.4.1.2 Critical Thinking:
Critical thinking is thinking about a problem from neutral point of view to form
an opinion about it, based on the facts and not emotions. An extension
professional, must approach the problem from a neutral point of view. Time
should be spent on finding the solution fast rather than trying to find someone or
something to blame.
Root cause analysis: A problem tree / cause effect diagram clearly shows the root,
stem and effect of a problem. Cause effect diagram falls under the family of flow and
linkage diagram methods. Also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagram, it focuses on
the causal factors of a phenomenon, activity or problem and the effects thereof. The
cause effect diagram presents visually the causes, effects and their inter-linkage,
which help in arriving at an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and provide
scope for analysis and subsequent action by the local people. This diagram is useful
to study and analyse the problems of wide areas including illiteracy, the dropout rate
of children from school, drinking or alcoholism, the status of women, migration, low
productivity, drought, food insecurity, ill-health, etc. (Fig. 2).

High Cost & Low

Less Fat % Availability of
Low Quality
Breeding in Milk Fodder
Services

Low Milk
Low Milk
Low Milk Procurement Yield
Price Fixation
Price

Diseases
Poor Economic Environmental
Status of Farmers Stress

Inadequate Poor
Vaccine Failure,
Housing Management
No Deworming
Facilities

Fig.2: Problem of Low Procurement Price for Milk and Associated Reasons
Identified by Extension Students in Rural Puducherry (Source: RIVER, Puducherry)

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Casual Chain: The ability to understand the root causes, and see the causal chain
(root, stem and effect) within the AIS, as well as analyse it, is a critical part of
facilitation for development.
Finding solutions to problems or challenges quickly, make the system run
smoothly and keep the actor’s benefit from the system satisfied.
1.4.1.3 Lateral Thinking:

Also called as thinking out of the box. It is a way of looking at the problem or the
situation in a new and creative way. For solving a problem using lateral thinking
there is a need for inspiration and imagination.

How to use lateral thinking for facilitation in the AIS context?

It is the job of a facilitator to encourage the individual or group in helping to

imagine how a solution to a problem can make their situation better. By
encouraging them to be creative in imagining a positive outcome, rather than
focussing only on the problem, (s)he can motivate them to put their plans into
action. This will also help to give the individual or the group different options on
how to make the changes that they need to improve their situation. With multiple
solutions available, the individual or a group can make their own decision about
which plan or change will be the best for them.

(a) Emotional Attributes: Emotional attributes are how a facilitator deals with his
own emotions and how (s)he responds to the emotions of others (s)he interacts
with. A good facilitator needs to be confident, have good self- esteem and be aware
of his/her cultural identity so that one can create a reference base for decision
making when facilitating change.

According to Goleman (1998), emotional intelligence is made up of:

 Common sense
 Empathy
 Self-awareness, and
 Self-regulation.

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Common Sense: It is the way a person would interpret, judge and understand
things that are considered common knowledge to most people. A person is said to
have common sense if (s) he knows how to behave in a certain situation without
someone else teaching them about it. An extension personnel, has to facilitate
people from different backgrounds. It is important to remember that the definition
of ‘common knowledge’ will change depending on where (s) he grew up or what
they were taught from young age.

Empathy: Empathy is a person’s ability to understand from other person’s

perspective that they are experiencing. In other words, it is “To walk in someone
else’s shoes”. A facilitator should show empathy to the individual or group so
that they feel comfortable discussing their challenges with him/her. The
individual or group should feel that the facilitator would suggest solution to their
problem as (s) he understands it.

Self-awareness: It is being aware of one’s own thoughts, emotions, motivations,

strengths and weaknesses. It is important for a facilitator to be self-aware so that
(s) he can evaluate the situation in a meeting or contact session and adjust his
behaviour to suit the situation. It will also help a facilitator to identify the areas in
which (s) he needs to improve in order to do better.

Self-regulation: It is the ability to be aware of, and in control of one’s own

thoughts, emotions and behaviour so that one can change them to adjust to a
specific situation. A facilitator should have good emotional intelligence in order
to read a situation in the best way to reduce the level of uncertainty in the
situation. It will allow him/her to lead when someone is uncertain about
something to keep development moving forward. It can also help the facilitator to
identify which people (s) he needs to encourage to make decisions for their benefit.

(b) Social, Behavioural and Attitudinal Attributes (Social Intelligence): In the

context of AIS, social intelligence is the ability of a facilitator to form positive
professional relationships with others in such a way that they will want to work
with you.

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In the field, people often believe that formal education is better than
experiential knowledge. Farmers may feel that they are not allowed to challenge
the ideas or opinions of extension personnel because of this. An extension
professional, to facilitate development, should make the farmer feel that he is
included in the decision making process. It is important to let the farmers know
that their non-formal knowledge and experience is very valuable. It is the
responsibility of a good facilitator to emphasise that the best possible solution to
any problem can be found by working together (Source: GFRAS, 2017).

The characteristics of a good facilitator are summarised in Box 2 for

comprehension.
Box 2. Characteristics of a Good Facilitator
 Humble  Sensitive to the needs of others
 Generous  Willing to learn from mistakes
 Patient  Dynamic, a motivator
 Understanding  A good listener
 Accepting  Good at summarising others’ ideas
 Inclusive  A good communicator.
 An encourager
 An enabler
 Confident
 Affirming of everyone’s
knowledge
Source: Serti, 2019
Activity 2: Visit a nearby development department and discuss about the desired
attributes of a facilitator for development. Compare their views with those given in
this section and write your observations.

Check Your Progress 3

1. How a problem tree / cause effect diagram is useful in facilitation process?
2. Name the attributes of emotional intelligence
3. Write any five characteristics of a good facilitator

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1.5 FACILITATION SKILLS

1.5.1 Essential Facilitation Skills

No one is born as an expert facilitator. It is important to work on certain skills

that will help a person to become an effective facilitator. Essential facilitation skills are
summarised in Box 3 (Serti, 2019).

Box 3. Essential Facilitation Skills

Preparing a Meeting Running a Meeting
 Ask the right questions  Create an inclusive environment
 Design the process  Communicate clear instructions
 Agenda planning  Manage group dynamics
 Communicate with stakeholders  Empathy
 Organise and manage  Active listening
 Use verbal facilitation skills
 Conflict management
 Consensus building
 Manage timing
 Gauge the energy level
 Stay neutral
 Record outcomes
Source: Serti, 2019

1.5.2 Verbal Group Facilitation Skills

Some of the verbal group facilitation skills are summarised in Box 4.
Box 4. Verbal Group Facilitation Skills
Probing: Probing is used to determine the mood or general opinion of the group
about a certain topic or point in the discussion. Just asking for a “thumbs up-
thumbs down” survey can be enough to get an impression of the general opinion
of the group.

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Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing means to express the same content that was just
stated before but in your own words in order to check that the facilitator and the
listeners had the same understanding.
Redirecting questions or comments: Redirecting a question to the group helps get
participants more involved in the discussion. In addition, it also encourages group
reflection.
Bridging and referring back: This helps the group follow the discussion and to
connect ideas by recalling earlier discussions or ideas.
Shifting perspective: If the group gets stuck at some point in the discussion, try to
shift the perspective and look at the problem from a different angle.
Summarizing: Repetition promotes understanding, and summarizing what has
been discussed so far will help the group build upon the conclusions they have
already made.
Giving positive reinforcement: It’s important to encourage people, especially
those who are less assertive, to state their opinions. Therefore, when someone
brings up a good point, say so, thus showing his/her participation is appreciated,
and later on he/she will feel confident enough to bring up another idea again.
Including quieter members: Encourage less talkative members to contribute to
the discussion. Ask directly for their opinions and any questions if they have. At
the same time, keep in mind that people do have different learning and thinking
styles and may not feel comfortable if they are ‘encouraged’ too much.
(Source: https://www.sessionlab.com/blog/facilitation-skills/)

1.5.3 Technical Facilitation Skills

Facilitation is a practice that requires skills. The functional skills are designing
processes, applying a variety of facilitation tools and techniques, asking the right
questions, undertaking own process observations and completing documentation
and using visualisation to improve situations. A good facilitator need to develop
these skills for development.
1.5.3.1 Design processes:
A facilitator will be in a situation where (s) he needs to plan and organize meetings
between different individuals or organizations to help them work together

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towards a common goal. Some of the important questions that a facilitator needs
to ask her/himself when planning the agenda are:
 What is the goal he wants to achieve with this meeting?
 What results does he expect from this meeting?
 What action is needed to achieve the goal?
 What are the best techniques for him/her to use to help the participants achieve
their goal?
A meeting is usually divided into an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
This means a facilitator should start the meeting by introducing himself and
welcoming everyone to the meeting. He should explain the agenda of the meeting
and make sure that everyone understands the rules of the meeting.
The body of the meeting is when the facilitator leads the group through the
discussion on the agenda point by point. S/He should make sure that everyone
gets an opportunity to say something about a particular point before moving on
to the next point. When all the points on the agenda have been discussed, it is good
to ask if anyone has anything to add that was not in the agenda.
When everyone is satisfied that the goals of the meeting have been achieved
(s) he may continue towards the conclusion. This is where the facilitator
summarises what has been discussed in the meeting, and thank everyone for
attending and participating in the meeting.

1.6 FACILITATION TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS

A facilitator while facilitating a meeting should ensure that (s) he has

something to write e.g. a flip chart, a white board and different coloured markers
or a chalkboard with chalk. S/He should remember that the people at the back of
the group will also be able to see her/ his writing. He should have a clock for
effective time management. Remember each group is different. Choose the technique
that will suit the size of the group.

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For people to feel comfortable to share ideas with strangers in a group there is a
need for some level of trust. To build this trust between strangers one can start the
meeting with an ice breaker.
1.6.1 Ice Breaker
This technique is used to introduce participants to each other or to help them
to relax, wake up, or recapture their wondering interest. As its name implies, the
ice breaker warms the learning environment to the point that the ‘ice’ keeping
participants gets involved in interaction with each other and the ice is broken.
Once everyone seems to be relaxed, the facilitator can continue with the
discussions. As (s) he knows the purpose of the meeting, (s) he can write the topic
down and invite the members to share their
Advantage – An ice breaker
suggestions on the topic one by one. This is actively involves all participants
in an active role. Ice breakers
known as prompting. A facilitator has to write should be fun and should create an
initial bond between facilitator
down their ideas and then invite everyone to say
and participants.
something about these ideas.
If the members seem to lose their focus on the chosen topic, then they should
be gently prompted to get back to the topic. If someone doesn’t feel comfortable
contributing to the discussion, they should be given the option to pass on their
turn.
Some strategies to help participants by using ice breakers are known as “perceived
internal freedom” and in control of their learning are summarised in Box 5:
Box 5. Strategies for Perceived Internal Freedom and Control Learning
 Sequence activities and discussion methods to build comfort within the group
incrementally.
 Take time to get the group warmed up! Start with partner sharing before large
group sharing.
 Allow participants to pass in a group discussion, especially at the start of group
process.
 Be thoughtful about language. Inviting participants to share their thoughts
sounds different than telling them that they are going to share.

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 Reflect and check-in throughout so that the participants can understand the
purpose of the activity and why the lesson is relevant and useful to them. Share
expectations, requests and goals.
 Icebreakers enable introvert participants to push out of their comfort zones, later
in the group process which is really an important task of a facilitator.

1.6.2 Brain Storming

If there is no set topic by the facilitator, then (s) he can invite each participants to
give some ideas on the topics under discussion. S/He should write down the topics
and then invite each participant to give suggestions of how to take action to create the
change they need for development. A facilitator should allow each person to speak for
1-3 minutes. This is called brainstorming. This technique encourages active and
imaginative output from participants and taps into the knowledge and expertise of
the participants. A facilitator’s role is to encourage all participants to say the first thing
that comes to their minds and to keep ideas flowing quickly. Brainstorming is used to
help focus or clarify activities or to generate information that can help jumpstart a
topic. It’s a creative way of finding solutions to problems.
1.6.3. Questioning and Probing
There are different ways to ask questions in order to get the required
information. A facilitator needs to ensure that (s)he asks the right questions during
a meeting so that (s)he will get all the information about a situation before (s)he
decides how best to facilitate change. S/he should always ask open-ended
questions.
A facilitator has to ensure that the individuals or group stay focused on the topic
under discussion so that a solution can be found. S/He can ask leading questions
to achieve this. Another way to get more information is to ask probing questions.
It will encourage the person to give more specific information on the topic.
When it becomes clear what the problem or challenge is, that needs to be
addressed, the facilitator can ask the individual or group possibility questions to
empower them to start thinking of a solution to their problem in a positive way
(Box 6).

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Box 6. Types of Questions

 Open ended questions: Questions that are answered with details, not only yes or
no.
 Leading questions: Questions that are asked to encourage people to think about a
specific topic and to give the information that is needed about that topic.
 Probing questions: Questions that are asked for more specific information so that
a deeper understanding can be developed about the topic.
 Possibility questions: Questions that are asked to imagine how things will be after
a challenge is resolved
(Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016).
Imagine that there is a meeting with a group of small scale farmers who
produce a crop. It is a routine visit to that area. The extension worker has the
information of a new seed variety that (s) he would like to share with the farmers.
S/He also wants to gather information on what is happening since his last visit, to
see if the new seed variety could benefit them. The following are the important
leading questions to ask to the group to get the best information to make change
in that scenario (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016):
 What do you hope to gain from this meeting?
 Are there any challenges you would like to share with the group?
 Are there any suggestions or changes you would like to share with the group?
Some examples of probing questions one might ask the group in the above
scenario are:
 Are there any specific techniques that you use to get good yields?
 How has the crop production changed after changing the seed varieties?
 Is there anything that you have changed recently regarding your crop
production?
 Has anything specific changed in your community since the last visit?

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After explaining to the group about the above scenario how the new seed variety
could be better than the current variety that they are using, then the following
possibility questions can be asked:
 Imagine that you have changed the seed varieties. How do you think you will
benefit from this change?
 How do you imagine you can benefit from increased crop yields compared to
what you are able to produce now?
Examples of possibility questions are:
 What action you need to take to start making a change?
 What opportunity do you find in this challenge if you could look back on now
from the future?
1.6.4 Process Observation and Documentation
Process observation is observing how the process of development happens
over time. It will help a facilitator to identify the areas in the development process
that need to be concentrated in order to stimulate change.
Documentation is recording of what has been observed. This can be in the
form of minutes of a meeting or own record of what has been observed. It allows
to track the progress of development in the facilitating group. This record will
help identify where the facilitation techniques are needed for guiding the
development process successfully.
1.6.5 Visualization
Visualization is forming an image in mind of something that we want to
achieve and how to achieve it. In the AIS context, a facilitator can ask the
individual or the group to imagine how their situation will improve if they follow
a specific course of action. They are asked to form a mental image of outcome of
the proposed development process and then to imagine how they will get to that
outcome.
The individual or the group is always encouraged to focus on the positive
outcomes they want to achieve. Visualisation keeps the participants motivated to
focus on the actions needed to make the changes for development to be successful.

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It also helps in deciding which of the suggested action plan will be the best one to
make the change. They can imagine how their situation can be improved and they
will be open to accepting the change that will move them towards their end goal .
(Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016)
Some of the tools and techniques that can help make a meeting or event great, as
part of facilitation are summarised in Box 7 for understanding.
Box 7. Facilitator’s Tool Box
 Ice Breakers – Easing group contribution.
 Running Effective Meetings – Setting an objective and sticking on to it.
 Modified Borda Count – Prioritizing issues to achieve consensus.
 Multi-Voting – Choosing fairly between many options.
 Brainstorming – Generating many radical ideas.
 The Charette Procedure – Brainstorming many ideas with many people.
 The Delphi Technique -Achieving consensus among experts.
 Concept Attainment – Reaching a shared understanding of issues.
 Role Playing – Preparing for difficult situations.
 Avoiding Group think – Avoiding fatal flaws in group decision-making.
 Strategy Tools – Tools and techniques that help one understand his/her
environment and think about the best way forward.
 Creativity Tools – Tools that help you develop creative solutions to problem.
 Problem Solving Tools – Which help you understand and solve complex
problems.
 Decision Making Techniques – Giving good formal tools for making difficult
decisions.
(Source: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/RoleofAFacilitator.htm)

Check Your Progress 4

1. Name the verbal facilitation skills
2. Write the advantage of icebreaking in facilitation
3. Write the difference between open-ended and leading questions.

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1.7 CONCLUSION
In this study unit we have learnt that development is a change, but not every
change is development. Understanding what facilitation is and the tools and
techniques required for facilitation is important to master the facilitation skills.
Remember that facilitation skills are essential to trigger the level of participation and
the pattern of interaction of the different actors within AIS because the interaction of
multiple actors within AIS enhances development processes. To become a facilitator
for development one must master cognitive, emotional and social attributes to better
engage with others. One must be able to observe processes and use different tools to
help the development of individuals or groups.
1.8 LET’S SUM UP:
Facilitation is the process of helping groups accomplish their tasks and is also
an important skill needed by the extension and development workers.
Development is a process of growth, progress and advancement. Facilitation for
development is a deeper process of helping individuals or groups of people
understand themselves and their role in development. Facilitation skills are
essential to trigger both the level of participation and the pattern of interaction of the
different actors within AIS. In the context of extension and development, every
situation is unique and demands a masterful facilitator to be flexible and
adaptable, serving the group needs. Understanding the different attributes that a
facilitator should possess and the skills required for facilitation is also a prima
facia.

1.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Facilitation is the process of helping groups accomplish their tasks.
2. Training is about passing on learning while facilitation is about helping to think in
a group. Training is a hierarchical model where the trainer is a teacher and the
learner is the student who is supposed to know less than the trainer. Facilitation,
on the other hand, is based on collaboration. The trainer is supposed to help the
group apply the content (s) he has given them.

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In facilitation, it is not the role of the facilitator to reinforce concepts but to give space
for communication within the group. From a design perspective, training occurs more
often in a linear form through the trainer’s outline. Facilitation often has a more
flexible agenda, as one cannot predict exactly what is going to happen within the
group. A trainer is often focused on achieving a long-term outcome. While as a process
facilitator, you’re looking for short-term insights and, often, immediate results.
Check Your Progress 2
1. The basic principles of facilitation are: Planning and preparation, creating a
comfortable setting for participants, Neutrality, Listening; and Motivation.
2. Active Listening is the act of listening to what someone is saying so that the
learners can understand and remember what they have heard. This is an
important skill of a facilitator as (s)he should listen to people’s problems or
suggestions and must be able to use the information to help them develop a
problem solving plan with these suggestions. Reflective Listening is when a
listener just repeat what they have been told so that they can be sure that they
have heard and understood something correctly. This is an important tool for
you as a facilitator to ensure that there are no misunderstandings in a meeting
or contact session.
Check Your Progress 3
1. A problem tree / cause effect diagram clearly shows the root, stem and effect
of a problem. It focuses on the causal factors of a phenomenon, activity or
problem, and the effects thereof. The cause effect diagram presents visually the
causes, effects and their inter-linkage, which help in arriving at an in-depth
understanding of a particular topic, and provide scope for analysis and subsequent
action by the local people.
2. The attributes of emotional intelligence are: Common sense, Empathy, Self-
awareness, and Self-regulation.
3. The characteristics of a good facilitator are: humble, generous, patient,
understanding, accepting, inclusive, an encourager, an enabler etc.

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Check Your Progress 4

1. The verbal facilitation skills includes: probing; paraphrasing; redirecting
questions or comments; bridging and referring back; shifting perspective;
summarizing; giving positive reinforcement, and including quieter members
2. An ice breaker actively involves all participants in an active role. Ice breakers
should be fun and should create an initial bond between facilitator and the
participants.
3. Open ended questions are answered with details, not only yes or no. Leading
questions are asked to encourage people to think about a specific topic and to give
the information that one needs about that topic.
1.10 FURTHER READINGS/ REFERENCES
1. Auvine, B, B. Densmore, M. Extrom, S. Poole and M. Shanklin. (2002). what do we

mean by facilitation. Group Facilitation: A Research & Applications Journal 4: 53-

55.
2. Mackay, B., 2017. 5 Big differences between planning and facilitation: North Star

facilitators. Retrieved from: (https://northstarfacilitators.com/2017/02/5-big-

differences-between-training-and-facilitation/ )
3. Cserti, R. 2019. Essential facilitation skills for an effective facilitator.

https://www.sessionlab.com/blog/facilitation-skills/
4. Mann, T., (2017). Article on Facilitation in Management: The Training Journal.

(https://www.trainingjournal.com/articles/feature/facilitation-management)
5. Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016. NELK Module: 7 Introduction to facilitation

for Development, New Extensionist Learning Kit (NELK), Lausanne, Switzerland,

Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). (GFRAS_NELK_M7-
Facilitation for Development-Manual (1).pdf).
6. Leeuwis, C. 2004. “Fields of Conflict and Castles in the Air: Some Thoughts and

Observations on the Role of Communication in Public Sphere Innovation Process.”

Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 10 (2): 62–76.
7. Makini, FW.,Kamau, GM., Makelo, MN., Adekunle, W., Mbuatathi, GK., Misiki,

M., Pali, M and Dixon, J. 2015. Operational field guide for Developing and

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managing Local Agricultural Innovation Platforms. Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research.
8. Murray, P. and Blackman, D. 2006. Managing innovation through social

architecture, learning, and competencies: A new conceptual approach. Knowledge

and Process Management, 13: 132–143.
9. FAO. 2012. Capacity Development: Learning Module 2. FAO Approaches to

Capacity Development in Programming. Processes and Tools, Food and

Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (Available at:
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/capacity_building/FAO_CD_LM2
.pdf)
10. Mittal N, Sulaiman RV and Prasad RM.2016. Assessing Capacity Needs of

Extension and Advisory Services. A Guide for Facilitators. Agricultural

Extension in South Asia. Motivation Theory by David McClelland.
(https://www.mindtools.com/pages/articles/human-motivation-
theory.html.)
11. Ngwenya, H. and Hagmann, J. (2007). Facilitation for change: Triggering

emancipation and innovation in rural communities in South Africa. Paper in

the conference: Farmer First revisited: Farmer participatory research and
development twenty years on.
12. Otim RL. 2013. Facilitation Skills Training Manual: A Facilitator’s handbook.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

13. Websites:
14. GFRAS-Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (http://www.g-
fras.org/en/)
15. Research Gate (https://www.researchgate.net/)

16. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/33667

17. http://www.fao.org/nr/res/Course1/file/mod6/mod6_04.html#mod6_4_2

18. www.toolshero.com/effectiveness/motivationtheory-by-david-

mcclelland/www.uaex.edu/support-units/program-staff-
development/facilitation.aspx

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UNIT-2: FACILITATING CHANGE IN INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS

AND ORGANIZATIONS

Highlights of the Unit

 Objectives
 Introduction
 Facilitating Change among Individuals
 Tools for Self-discovery
 Facilitating Change among Groups
 Facilitating Change among Organizations
 Conclusion
 Let’s sum up
 Further Readings
 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers
 Suggested readings/ references

2.0 OBJECTIVES

 To understand the tools of self-discovery for facilitating change among the

individuals
 To elucidate the Dynamics of Human Interaction and facilitating the groups
 To learn how to facilitate change among organizations

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Facilitation is the process of helping people – individual, group and

organizations – to accomplish their tasks. Facilitating change requires certain skills on
the part of the facilitator. It has different method, approach and tools for an individual,
group or organization.
After studying this unit the learners would be able to:
 Understand the importance of facilitating change in individuals, groups and
organizations.

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 Discuss different tools to facilitate change in individuals, groups and
organizations.

2.2 FACILITATING CHANGE AMONG INDIVIDUALS

Change starts within an individual. Often we are unaware of the power we

have to change our situation to move towards the change we desire. There are
some tools that facilitate individuals in self-discovery which enable them to
discover their potential and take responsibility for their own development.

2.2.1 Tools for Self-discovery

Self-discovery is a process of becoming more aware of self. It is an inward process
to discover one’s strength and talents. It allows one to identify areas of life that
are important to him/her and that needs improvement. This is useful for extension
professionals, because they will discover how they can contribute to development
in the best possible way. When they know what is important to them and how it
can make a positive contribution to development, it will motivate them to keep
working at achieving their goals.

Some of the self-discovery tools that can be used in facilitation are as follows:

a. Facilitator self-discovery
b. Questionnaires
c. Socratic Method: ‘questions’ and ‘knowing where you are going’
d. Personal vision
e. Taking responsibility for your own development

Facilitator Self-discovery: A tool of self-discovery that can be used in learning

periodically. It can help us to keep a record of our learning progress and to identify
how we can improve from the past experiences by changing the way we facilitate
change or how we interact with people.

Questionnaires: There are many questionnaires available that can be used to

assess change. We might ask people to fill out the questionnaire specific to their
situation to help them identify their interests, strengths, weakness and how to
interact with the world around them. The aim of drawing attention to these aspects

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is to find out the best way to help an individual move forward in such a way that
they will understand and be comfortable with. They also work as useful starters
among the co-learners and colleagues; giving one another a chance to learn how
best to support one another and how to maximize one another’s strengths.

Socratic Method - Questions and Knowing Where You are going: The Socratic
Method uses questions to guide an individual on a journey of discovery leading
towards greater understanding or increased performance and to finding their own
solutions. The Socratic Method introduces questioning into the facilitation
process. It consists of the facilitator directing a logical sequence of questions at the
group, so that they are enabled to respond and to express the knowledge that they
have, but which they might never have crystallized in their mind. Start by asking
them what they hope to achieve through development. This helps them decide
what their goal is. Use questions to guide them towards a way to achieve their
goal.

The Socratic Method is an effective method to employ when facilitating change

among adults (Jarvis, 2004, p. 151) because it:

 utilizes their stored knowledge and experience of life both

 helps learners create rather than reproduce knowledge
 actively engages learners in the learning process

Remember that facilitation is different from chairing a meeting, so if they are

only speaking to you, encourage them to speak to each other so that they learn to
work together.

Personal Vision: A personal vision is a goal that you have for your life. It will
facilitate you to know what you exactly want to achieve and will help to focus
your decisions and choices in a way that will move you towards that goal.

In the facilitation for development context, it will be helpful for individuals

and groups to think about what they want out of development. By keeping in mind
the end goal, they will be guided to making the decisions they need for change to
happen.

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To formulate personal vision, consider the following and use the answers to guide
you in achieving your end goal (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016):

 What are my most important values?

 What do I need to do every day to make my day successful?
 What goal do I want to set for work, home life or relationships?
 What strengths do others say I have?
 What strengths do I see in myself?
 What weaknesses have others pointed out in me?
 What do I think my weaknesses are?

Taking Responsibility for your Own Development: You are the only one who
can change the existing situation that will help you move forward. It is important
for you, as well as the individuals and groups you work with, to understand this.

As a facilitator you cannot force the people you are working with to accept
change that they are not comfortable with. You also cannot expect development to
happen just because you have given them the tools to make it happen. They need
to make an active contribution in moving forward towards the goals. It is possible,
however, to provide catalysts for this change, for example, visualisation and
demonstrations or field days which will give practical examples of the change you
are trying to bring about. (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016).

Activity 1: Visit a nearby development organization. Discuss different facilitating

tools they use at individual level. Compare their views with those given in this
section and write your observations.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Name different tools for Self-discovery.
2. How Socratic Method is useful in facilitating change among individuals?

2.3 FACILITATING CHANGE AMONG GROUPS

Development requires collective efforts. Individuals who are inspired to

change their current status have to work together as a group to create an

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environment that supports their development. Each group has its own dynamics
with specific and sophisticated interrelations between its members. As a
facilitator, it is necessary to create a participative atmosphere where everyone is
involved. Paying attention to the dynamics of group and how individuals
participate, is important. In achieving this, a facilitator should master the skills of
picking up on the atmosphere, measuring the emotional temperature and helping
the group achieve its potential.

2.3.1 Understanding the Dynamics of Human Interaction

People are naturally social. People who know each other and have an
established trust , will rely on each other in day-to-day life to help solve problems
or to celebrate each other’s accomplishments.

People interact both verbally, by talking and non-verbally, with their body
language. Body language includes how far apart people stand or sit from each
other, their body posture, gestures, and facial expressions and how they make or
avoid eye contact. As a facilitator you can watch how individuals or groups
interact with each other in a meeting to see if they are comfortable or not. If people
are comfortable with each other they will sit close to one another, look at each
other, smile or laugh.

Body language: This is a natural way that a person interacts with others without
talking to them. It shows the other person, if it is a comfortable situation or not.

If they cross their arms across their chest, it might mean that they do not want
to interact or participate. It can also mean that the room is too cold. If peopl e are
spaced far apart, you may need to ask them to move closer so that they can hear
each other, or use a group activity to help them feel more comfortable working
together.

What is not easily seen is their opinions and values that influence what they
think. Deeper still are their qualities and driving factors. This is what they want
and what will motivate them to achieve what they want.

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2.3.2 Iceberg Model: The iceberg model is a system thinking model that helps one
to understand how different parts of a system influence each other. An iceberg shows
only 10% of its total mass above water. The other 90% is hidden underwater. It is the
hidden 90% that is moved by the ocean currents, and this will determine if the tip of
the iceberg will move or topple over.

The iceberg model looks at the person’s visible characters like knowledge and
skills and the underlying unexpressed and unconscious deeper layers. In a group,
it is interesting to know what motivates the individuals present in it. If you are
aware that every person is different, you can adapt your facilitation style in a
group situation to find what people have in common. It will also help you see if
there is any chance of conflict between people. If you can keep the gro up focused
on what they have in common, it will help them work together to achieve their
goals.

2.3.3 McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory: McClelland’s Human

Motivation Theory, shows how the different parts of a person’s personality will
influence how they react to change. The knowledge and skills a person has are
easily seen in what they do thus are indicated above the waterline. This would
represent the tip of the iceberg. What is not easily seen is their opinions and values
that influence what they think. Deeper still are their qualities and driving factors.
These are what they want to get changed and what will motivate them to achieve
what they want. These deeper or inner qualities may block the visible behaviour
of a person.

Fig.1 McClelland’s Human Motivation Theory as an iceberg model

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(Source: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/articles/human-motivation-
theory.html)
2.3.4 Group Dynamics and Power Relations: As mentioned previously, it will
be your responsibility, as a facilitator to make sure that everyone in the meeting
gets a fair chance to speak without feeling judged or unheard. Identifying the
power relations within a group of individuals or organisations will let you
manage the meeting in a way that the powerful members in a community or
organisation will not feel challenged in a negative way when people in less
powerful positions make suggestions or talk about challenges. Powerful members
can be elders in a community, major investors in extension and development or
leaders of an organisation. It is important to remember that the most powerful
members of the group usually have the most influence and make the final decision.
As an extension professional you must remember this when you design an action
plan to make change for development.
 Power relations: The interaction between more powerful and less powerful
members in a group or organisation.
 Powerful members: Individuals in a community or organisation who have the
most influence on decisions that are made for the benefit of the group.
 Perceptions: How an individual understands the world around them based on
what they know.
 Feedback: The information that is given about a situation that can tell you if a
change was positive or negative.

2.3.5 Empathy: Conflict-ridden topics will stir up emotions in participants, and

argument is a natural part of a discussion. However, not all people get
opportunities equally. While facilitating the group towards solutions for the issues
they wish to solve, it is important to pay attention to how individuals within the
group may be feeling about the course of things. Make sure that people are not left
behind or left out of the flow of the discussions.

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2.3.6 Managing relationships: The foundation of a good working relationship
depends on (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016):

 Diversity
 Interrelatedness
 Trust
 Mindfulness
 Respect and
 Good communication
In the context of extension and development, it is the responsibility of a
facilitator to be aware of the perceptions of the group working with, and to
provide and accept feedback. It will be the facilitator’s responsibility to manage
any conflict that may arise when facilitating groups.

Perceptions: Diversity is the difference in how different people perceive the

world. It should be encouraged in an organisation because it will allow a group of
people to contribute many different ideas on how to solve a problem.
Interrelatedness is when people are aware of how everyone contributes to a
common goal and how their actions will affect others.

Feedback: Feedback is important in development because it will help actors

decide if their current action plan is meeting the common goal in a realistic way,
or if the plan needs to be revised to make it easier to implement. Feedback can be
positive or negative. Negative feedback should be given in a constructive manner
that will not offend or humiliate the person it is directed to, so that necessary
changes can be made as soon as possible.

Trust is important for people who wants to work with each other. Having trust in
a relationship will help people give honest feedback about a situation.
Mindfulness allows people to be open to new ideas and encourages people to give
feedback without fear of being punished or mocked.

2.3.7 Conflict Management: The ability to handle and diffuse tension is a skill
that sets expert facilitators apart from others. Remember, the group has a goal,

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and individual differences need to be handled to achieve that. Given the time and
scope of the session, not every interpersonal difference can or should be resolved;
however, as a facilitator it is important that you know the right techniques and
group processes for diffusing tension, transforming problems into opportunities.
Sometimes this might mean breaking up the work into smaller groups, taking a
break, shifting perspectives or changing the scenery, etc.

Good communication is important for managing conflict. Information should

be shared in such a way that everyone understands, so that there can be no
misinterpretation. Conflict may arise when there is a misunderstanding and
people feel angry and frustrated.

2.3.8 Shared Vision and Collective Action: The importance of a shared vision is
that each person in the group will know exactly what needs to be done to work
towards the common goal. Like a personal vision, a shared vision is developed by
the whole group who will be involved in the development process. This gives
everyone a chance to add their desired outcomes of development so that they feel
personally invested. If each member of the group, or sub-system of a system, is
personally invested in making the changes, they will be motivated to contribute
to the collective action to move towards the shared goal.

2.3.9 Tools for Team Building: Team building is the strengthening of

relationship between members of a group, or team, to make sure that each member
of the team will cooperate with other members. It is important to build trust
between members of a team so that they will be able to achieve their shared goal
without conflict. Team building can be achieved through structured group
activities that encourage individuals to interact with each other in a positive way.

Shared vision: The vision a group or organisation has decided that will guide their
decisions and choices to move them towards the common goal.

Collective action: The action of the group of individuals working together as a

team that will move them towards achieving their shared goal (Ngwenya, H. and
Kibwika, P, 2016).

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2.4 FACILITATING CHANGE AMONG ORGANIZATIONS

Extension professionals will be supporting different forms of organisations

to survive in a constantly changing environment. Change cannot be avoided.
Adaptation is the key to organisational survival. Extension personnel should have
better understanding of what organisations need to do to enhance and sustain
performance, including some aspects of leadership. With this knowledge they will
be able to support organisations to navigate through changing contexts with a
reasonable degree of success.

2.4.1 Organisational Change Process: Organisational change is how an

organisation changes the plans, they use to run the organisation. It is also a change
on how the organisation is managed. It is important for an organisation to survive.
As an extension professional you will know about changes in markets or policy. It
will be a part of your job to facilitate organisations in the change process that will
help them adapt to changing situations.

The process starts with looking at what the organisation is currently doing.
This gives you an idea of what needs to change for development to happen. When
you have identified where the change is needed, you can help plan a strategy on
how to make the change. It will be your role as a facilitator to guide the planning
committee to make the plans realistic and practical. When this strategy has been
developed, the implementation of the plan is important. Implementation will
include choosing a committee or group of people who will be responsible for
carrying out the plan. After implementation you should evaluate the results of the
changes. Get feedback so that you can see if the plan is working or if there are
things that need to be changed to make it better (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016).

Planning and Plan Result

Needs
strategy evaluation
assessment implementation
development and
feedback

Fig.2: Organisational change process (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016)

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2.4.2 Organisational Learning from Changing Environments: Learning

organisations are organisations that are still new and developing. Organisational
learning is a way by which an organisation generates, stores and distributes
information about what they have learned, as they improve. It is a continuous
record of the organisational change process. It is important to keep such a record
because it will give you feedback on what has already been tried, what has worked
and which plans need revision. Knowing this information can help move
development of an organisation forward in a positive way because it is easier to
find the challenges and address them.
2.4.3 Mentoring or Coaching: Mentorship or coaching is the act of giving advice
about how to solve a problem without doing the work for the organisation.
Individuals in leadership positions, in young organisations may not know
everything, so there is a need to know about how to lead their team. With your
knowledge you can act as a mentor or coach and encourage these leaders to make
correct decisions until they are confident enough to manage their team on t heir
own without much guidance.
2.4.4 Leadership Development: Leadership development is the process of
training an individual in a leadership position to be a good leader. It is important
because leadership gives an organisation the required direction. Leaders need to
have vision and be honest, to be able to move an organisation forward. They must
also be able to inspire their team to do good work.
As an extension professional you might identify that leadership can be improved
in an organisation for change to happen. You can then coach leaders to improve
in the areas listed in table 1.
Table 1: Areas for improvement
Area Explanation
Consistency The ability to handle specific situations in the same way
every time.
Focus The ability to keep attention on important activities or goals.
Cooperation The ability to work well with others.

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Confidence To ability to believe in your own abilities and be able to lead.
Flexibility The ability to change plans when the situation changes.

(Source: Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016)

2.4.5 Tools for Organisational Change
A facilitator can choose to involve stakeholders in the organisational change
process. Identify who the stakeholders are and if they have high power or
influence. This will help you decide how best to approach them about the changes.
Communicate with them by email or in person, depending on what you think will
be most appropriate. Be mindful of how you tell them about the change, because
sometimes there can be resistance to change.
If there is resistance to change it can be offered to discuss it with them. Show
empathy for their concerns about the transition. Had the change process be known
and how the change process will take place then it will be better to prepare the
mentor or coach management and stakeholders through the transition (Ngwenya
and Kibwika, 2016).
It is possible, however, to provide catalysts for this change, for example,
visualisation and demonstrations or field days which will give them practical
examples of the change you are trying to bring about. (Ngwenya and Kibwika,
2016).
Activity 2: Visit a nearby development organization. Discuss different facilitating
tools they use at group and organizational level. Compare their views with those
given in this section and write your observations.

2.5 CONCLUSION

To drive change in development you must be the change you want to see in
others. Group dynamics are the forces resulting from interactions of group members.
Learning to manage these interactions will help you facilitate change in a group more
easily. Remember that the key to facilitation for development is learning how to
manage organisational change process by enhancing organisational performance and
leadership development.

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2.6 LET’S SUM UP

Self-Discovery tools are useful for extension professionals, because they will
discover how they can contribute to development in the best way. Development
requires collective efforts. A facilitator needs to create a participative atmosphere
where everyone is involved. Paying attention to the dynamics of the group and how
individuals participate is important. Group dynamics, Power relations, Empathy,
Managing relations and conflict management are key for facilitating the change in
group. Extension professional’s job is to facilitate organisations in the change process
that will help them adapt to changing situations.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Write the importance of identifying power relations during facilitation.
2. What do you mean by shared vision and collective action?

2.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Different tools for Self-discovery includes: facilitator self-discovery,
questionnaires, Socratic Method: ‘questions’ and ‘knowing where you are
going’, personal vision and taking responsibility for your own development
2. The Socratic Method uses questions to guide individual on a journey of
discovery leading towards greater understanding or increased performance
and to finding their own solutions.
3. Identifying the power relations within a group of individuals or organisations
will let you manage the meeting in such a way that the powerful members in a
community or organisation will not feel challenged in a negative way when
people in less powerful positions make suggestions or talk about challenges.
1. Shared vision is the vision a group or organisation has decided, which will

guide their decisions and choices to move them towards the common goal.
Collective action is the action of a group of individuals working together as a
team that will move them towards achieving their shared goal.

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2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

1. Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016. NELK Module: 7 Introduction to facilitation

for Development, New Extensionist Learning Kit (NELK), Lausanne, Switzerland,
Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). (GFRAS_NELK_M7-
Facilitation for Development-Manual (1).pdf)
2. Jarvis. P. (2004). Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, 3rd
ed, London: Falmer Press.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/oculryerson/docDetail.action?docID=10093530&p00)
3. Ngwenya, H. and Hagmann, J. (2007). Facilitation for change: Triggering
emancipation and innovation in rural communities in South Africa. Paper in
the conference: Farmer First revisited: Farmer participatory research and
development twenty years on.
4. Otim RL. 2013. Facilitation Skills Training Manual: A Facilitator’s handbook.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
5. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a28ed915d3fd000602/
Brief10.pdf
Websites:
GFRAS-Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (http://www.g-fras.org/en/)
Research Gate (https://www.researchgate.net/)
https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/33667
http://www.fao.org/nr/res/Course1/file/mod6/mod6_04.html#mod6_4_2
www.toolshero.com/effectiveness/motivationtheory-by-david-mcclelland/
www.uaex.edu/support-units/program-staff-development/facilitation.aspx

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UNIT-3: ARRANGEMENT FOR MULTI-STAKEHOLDER

INTERACTIONS
Highlights of the Unit
 Objectives
 Introduction
 Arrangement for Multi- Stakeholder Interactions
 Tools for Stakeholders Analysis and Visioning
 Visualising Innovation Platforms
 Policy Engagement Platforms
 Networking
 Conclusion
 Let’s sum up
 Further Readings
 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers
 Suggested readings/ references

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit the learners would be able to:

 Understand various stakeholders and arrangement for multi- stakeholder

interactions
 Discuss tools for stakeholders analysis and visioning
 Describe how innovation and policy engagement platforms facilitate
development

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Multi-stakeholder interactions are typical to extension and development.

One of the roles as an extension professional is to ensure that these interactions
will benefit all the stakeholders involved, including the smallholder farmers.
There are different forms of multi-stakeholder engagements that include
Innovation Platforms (IP) and policy engagements. Each stakeholder comes with

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their individual interests and objectives but together they must formulate an
inclusive shared objective

3.2 ARRANGEMENT FOR MULTI- STAKEHOLDER INTERACTIONS

3.2.1 Defining Stakeholders

A stakeholder is an individual or organisation who will make use of, develop, or

have an impact on any aspect of the intended intervention. An intervention can
have either positive or negative effects on stakeholders. Stakeholders have
interests and power both. It is important to know who the stakeholders of a
particular intervention are, before planning to engage them.

Different types of stakeholders are summarised in the box below.

Box. 1. Types of Stakeholders

 Primary stakeholders: They are direct beneficiaries of Extension Advisory
Services (EASs). They might be representatives of farmers and their
organizations or other actors engaged in the agricultural value chain who
benefit from the EAS provision.
 Secondary stakeholders: They comprise of government agencies, NGOs,
producer organizations, research institutions and private sectors engaged in
EAS etc., who also have a stake or interest in EAS, mostly through direct
provision of EAS.
 External or other stakeholders: They are people, groups or institutions not
directly involved in the provision of EAS, but whose activities can impact the
effectiveness of EAS, and these include organizations engaged in the capacity
building of Extension and Advisory Services (EAS), as well as donors and
investors (including the government) who support EAS etc.
Source: Mittal et al., 2016

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Key stakeholders include:

 Decision-makers who set the overall vision and strategic direction of the
organisation, agency or institution and guide the vision and planning process;
and
 Key influencers who may or may not be directly involved in decision-making
but are highly influential in the final decision.

3.2.2 Role of Stakeholders

Various stakeholders in an innovation system play different roles that can be

broadly classified as (Leeuwis 2004; Klerkx and Gilemacher, 2012; Hall et al.,
2006a; Hellin, 2012; Roper et al., 2006)-
 Facilitator
 Communicator
 Collaborator
 Coordinator
 Knowledge source
 Networker
 Programme formulator and implementer
Stakeholder’s interests can be diverse, competing or even conflicting. The interests
could be economic, social or environmental in nature. Understanding stakeholders
and their interests help to mobilise and engage them appropriately (Box 2).

Box 2. Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS): A Study of Stakeholders and their

Relations in System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
The SRI innovation system in Tripura has seen some remarkable alliance among
stakeholders that has resulted in rapid dissemination of the technology around the
State.
In Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS) in SRI in Tripura, each stakeholder played
their distinct role with proper cooperation and coordination amongst them. While the
research and extension mechanism took extensive care for proper dissemination of
SRI, the farmers amongst themselves played a big role in the spread of the practice.

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Monetary incentives, subsidised inputs along with other related rural development
schemes like establishment of irrigation facilities in the villages, proper road
connectivity linking interior villages to markets, have been effective in spreading SRI
faster in the State.
(Source: Suchiradipta and Saravanan, 2014)

3.2.3 Why to Engage Multi stakeholders

As a development facilitator you will have to:

 Closely manage stakeholders with high influence and high interest;
 Keep those with high influence and low interest fairly satisfied;
 Keep those with low influence and high interest informed; and
 Spend minimal efforts on those with low influence and low interest.
Some of the reasons for engaging multi-stakeholders are to:
 Integrate diverse ideas and perspectives;
 Generate buy-in and support, inclusiveness and ownership;
 Bridge social capital for the community;
 Increase credibility of your organisation and the intervention; and
 Increase chances of success.

Understanding stakeholders and their stakes is achieved through a process of

stakeholder analysis. The end result of the analysis is a plan for engagement to
ensure successful development interventions that meet the needs of the diverse
stakeholders.

3.2.4 Development of Collective and Shared Goals

Once the stakeholders have been identified, there must be a meeting where their
diverse interests can be put together to form a collective and shared goal. The goal
should be the reason and incentive for the stakeholders to work together despite
their differences in interests. The key question to guide development of a shared
goal is: what outcome do we hope to achieve by the proposed development
intervention or in addressing a development issue? This is normally achieved
through consensus. A shared goal may emerge from shared vision and mission,

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and within the goal, you can develop specific objectives, which address the key
elements of the development issue being addressed. The goal, however, should be
broad enough to embrace the diverse interests of the different stakeholders.

Goal: The purpose or intention of the multi-stakeholder arrangement.

Collective and shared goal: A situation or condition that is the desired result of
the intervention and is agreed upon by all participating stakeholders.

Vision: A description of the ideal future that the multi-stakeholder engagement

will work to achieve over time.

Mission: Clearly defines the ‘who, what, how, and why’ of the multi-stakeholder
arrangement.

Specific Objectives: Specific objectives have to be SMART (Ngwenya and

Kibwika, 2016):

 Specific – concrete, identifies what will change for whom;

 Measurable – able to count or otherwise measure activity or results or
conceptualise if using qualitative methods;
 Attainable/Achievable – reasonable and feasible with given resources;
 Relevant – relates to the overall goal of the programme; and
 Timely – can be achieved within a specific time period.
Successful multi-stakeholder engagements have clearly articulated shared
vision, mission and goals. It is important, however, to differentiate these terms. A
vision provides guidance and inspiration to the group. A mission clearly defines
the details of the multi-stakeholder arrangement and a goal guides
implementation. There must be an action plan to get moving in the direction of
the goal.

Stakeholders will be motivated to deliver on objectives that they themselves

have developed because it expresses the future they strive for. It is essential to
focus the goal in the context of the vision. Look for goals that will help to kick -
start intervention and give quick wins so that stakeholders can see the progress.

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The goals are not static but dynamic. It is important to continue engaging
stakeholders to review their goal and adjust them depending on the
circumstances. Together, the stakeholders need to think of the structures and
routine needed to set up the habits that will support the achievement of the goal
(Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016).

The structures and routine should take note of the formal and informal ways
of engagement, including the communication and feedback mechanisms.

3.2.5 Building Trust and Accountability

Continued collaboration of stakeholders is founded on trust and
accountability. Mutual trust is a part of building credibility among the
stakeholders. It is the role of a development facilitator to build trust among the
stakeholders. As the facilitator, s/he must be neutral to create harmony and
consensus among the stakeholders.
Trust: A social phenomenon, which emerges with time and strengthens
relationship between the stakeholders to work together towards a shared goal.
Accountability: A principle that guides all stakeholders to contribute depending
on their interests and capacities while being accountable to each other.
Accountability is a driver for effective stakeholder engagement and an important
component of the stakeholder engagement framework. Often it is used to refer to
resource use but it is much more than that. Accountability is said to be made up
of (Stakeholder Engagement Standard Exposure, 2005):
 Transparency: Accounting to stakeholders;
 Responsiveness: Responding to stakeholder concerns; and
 Compliance: Complying with legal requirements, standards, codes, principles,
policies and other voluntary commitments.
The engagement attributes & usefulness of a facilitator are summarised in Box 3:

Box 3. Engagement Attributes and Usefulness of a Facilitator

When to use a facilitator
If the engagement interaction that you are planning is likely to show one or more of
the following attributes, a facilitator can be very useful.

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 Distrust: In situation where distrust or bias is apparent or suspected, the

engaging parties should make use of an unbiased individual to facilitate (or
perhaps convene) the engagement;
 Intimidation: The presence of an outside facilitator can encourage articulation
of opinions which might otherwise not be expressed, due to some parties feeling
intimidated;
 Rivalry: Rivalry between individuals and organisations can be mitigated by the
presence of a facilitating individual or an organisation;
 Lacking definition of the problem: If the problem is poorly defined, or defined
differently by multiple parties, an unbiased listener and analyst can help to
construct an integrated, shared understanding of the problem;
 Possibly emotionally upsetting situation: Bringing in a facilitator to lead the
process lets the engaging parties focus on the problem at hand, which can lead
to better results;
 Complexity or novelty: In a complex or novel situation, a process expert can
help a group to do a better job of working together intellectually to solve the
problem; and
 Timeliness: If a timely decision is required, as in a crisis situation, the use of a
facilitator can help the parties to reach necessary agreements faster.
What does a competent facilitator do?
A competent facilitator:
 Helps engaging parties to define the intended outputs and how they will be
used;
 Designs a tailor-made interaction that suits the requirements of all the
participants;
 Checks that the participants are supportive and involved in the process;
 Ensures independence and accountability in facilitation;
 Creates a suitable atmosphere;
 Holds clarity throughout the meeting;
 Encourages meaningful interaction; and

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 Manages engagement interaction as a learning opportunity.
Source: Krick, T. (2005)

The fundamental factors underpinning facilitation for stakeholders are

summarised in Box 4.
Box 4. Fundamental Factors Underpinning Facilitation for Stakeholders
 Facilitation for trust building.
 Facilitation for creating a joint venture for development.
 Facilitate for making people analyse their situation critically.
 Facilitation for making people analyse their situation critically.
 Facilitation for self-discovery of behavioural patterns and hidden
potentials.
 Facilitation for making people see the systemic nature of developmental
challenges.
 Facilitation for organizational development.
 Facilitation for creating linkages and stake holder collaborations.
 Facilitation for stimulating creativity, solution orientation and an
entrepreneurial spirit.
 Facilitation for establishing a culture of feedback and reflection.
 Facilitation for information sharing.
 Facilitation for making people see the facts.
Source: Ngweya and Hagman, 2007

Activity 1: Ask your colleagues what are different roles of a facilitator in the context
of development? Compare their views with those given in this section and write
your observations.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Write the meaning of stakeholder.
2. Name the three types of stakeholders.
3. What is the difference between a primary and a secondary stakeholder?
4. Write the reasons for engaging multi-stakeholders.

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5. Name the attributes to be considered during facilitation engagement.

3.3 TOOLS FOR STAKEHOLDERS ANALYSIS AND VISIONING

There is a wide range of tools for stakeholder analysis and mapping. One of
the ways of conducting stakeholder analysis is shown in the figure, mapping the
influence (Y-axis) against interest (X-axis). The outcome is a placement of
stakeholders in one of the four groups and shows how to influence each group to
make the change happen.
Y-axis (influence)

High influence, High influence,

Low interest High interest
(Latent) (Promoters)

X-axis
(Interest)
Low influence, Low influence,
Low interest High interest
(Apathetic) (Defenders)

Fig.1. Stakeholders analysis map (Ngwenya and Kibwika, 2016)

As shown in the figure above, the influence and interest can be either positive or
negative depending on the perceptions of the stakeholders.
 The Latent group is the most important group. They are the ones one need to
influence the most to effect changes. Think about what you can do to increase
their interest in accepting the change.
 The Promoters group are also important stakeholders that you can use to
influence others, so it is important to communicate well with this group. When
you look at this group, think about if there are any stakeholders that can
influence other stakeholders in the Latent group.

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 The Apathetic is a stakeholder who has no immediate interest in the proposed
change but they are the group who must be influenced when we need more
people to fight for the cause.
 The Defenders are the group of stakeholders who are the most committed to
make a change but they do not have the influence to make it happen. Their
commitment to effecting the change can influence others to join them in their
cause to make their level of influence stronger.
Many of the stakeholder analysis tools tend to focus on the target population
for a development intervention, not at the people and resources required to
implement the project (Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016).
Kennon et.al. (2002) developed a stakeholder analysis tool that allows team
to consider the important human and social capital resources required to
undertake a development intervention.
The tool features a 16 square matrix with 2 axes focused on the stakeholders with
a difference:
 Influential – stakeholders who have power (direct or indirect) over the
development intervention (X-axis); and
 Important – stakeholders who have power over implementation of the
intervention or outcome (Y-axis).

3.4 VISUALISING INNOVATION PLATFORMS

Within the development community, innovation systems thinking and

innovation platforms are presently receiving more attention as a possible avenue
for facilitative development.
3.4.1 What is Innovation Platforms (IPs)?
An Innovation Platform is described as a forum established to foster
interaction among a group of relevant stakeholders to achieve common goals. Its
objective is to stimulate continuous involvement of multiple stakeholders who are
dealing with complex agricultural problems.

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3.4.2 Why is IPs important?

 They provide a place for various stakeholders where they can identify new
opportunities.
 To discuss about their progress in reaching the goals.
 To find ways together of how better they can reach their goals.
 To exchange knowledge and for learning
 For negotiation and dealing with power dynamics
In the field of agricultural research for development (AR4D), IPs form an
important element of a commitment to more structural and long-term engagement
between stakeholder groups (Sumberg et al., 2013a).
An innovation platform is described as a forum established to foster interaction
among a group of relevant stakeholders around a shared interest. The stakeholders
perform different but complementary roles in the development, dissemination and
adoption of knowledge for socio-economic benefit. These roles could be new ideas,
methodologies, procedures, concepts or technologies developed or adapted from
other locations (Makini et al., 2015).

3.4.3 Levels of Innovation Platforms

Innovation platforms can be formed at three levels:
 Operational/ field level
 Regional level, and
 National level.
They may deal with different agriculture and allied sectors. All the platforms
deal with common problems found in the specific sector, for which identification and
application of solution depends on more than one actor.
Facilitation has moved knowledge or innovation brokering of multiple
stakeholders from its usual role in meetings and groups. In a need to avail this, a clear
understanding of the different expectations of the stakeholders and the roles they play
and their relationship with other players is a prerequisite.

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Facilitation in IP requires a broad range of tasks like (Van Rooyen et al., 2013):
 Establish innovation platform
 Identify issues
 Manage meetings
 Support activities outside meetings
 Manage communication
 Deal with conflict and power
 Monitor, document and report
 Facilitate and advocate institutional change
 Develop capacities
Most facilitation activities have a simultaneous effect on task performance and
team development, which are intimately related but don’t automatically evolve at
the same pace or in a linear fashion.

3.4.4 Different Models of IPs for Multi-stakeholder Engagement

The farmer-first concept was introduced as an alternative to the traditional
linear top-down approach to extension service provision. It includes the farmers
actively in the process of creating, testing and assessing technologies that promote
sustainable agriculture. It targets development of technology suited to the small -
scale farmer that has few resources to increase farm productivity and farmer ’s
income.

Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS): It was developed to

strengthen the flow of information in agricultural system. This system depends on
the level of access actors have to information and technology. It relies on
continuous circulation of information. Knowledge networks enhance this. The
main goal of AKIS is delivering technology to larger farmers, making government
and university researchers a priority, while ignoring farmers with limited
resources and land. A disadvantage of this linear system is that it does not listen
to the farmers’ needs. It is still useful because it highlights that a system of
education, technology and extension institutions are important in driving
agricultural transformation. The Innovation System emphasises fostering the

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active interactions between diverse stakeholders. It also focuses on enhancing

human capacity for continuous innovation so that the actors will be better
adaptable to changing environmental and social economic conditions.

Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D): It has a

decentralised system of governance where the community members are a big part
of the decision making process. It deals with the interaction between diverse actors
along a commodity chain. By involving different stakeholders in research, it aims
to improve agricultural research to be relevant and responsive to the needs of the
stakeholders. It is designed to create an environment that enriches social learning.
(Source: Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016)
Many IAR4D programmes, including the CGIAR Research Programs on Integrated
Systems for the Humid Tropics (Humid tropics); Climate Change, Agriculture and
Food Security (CCAFS); Agricultural Aquatic Systems (AAS); Livestock and Fish and
Maize, as well as the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA); Sub-Saharan
Africa Challenge Program (SSACP) have adopted multi-stakeholder approaches to
achieve development impacts.

3.5 POLICY ENGAGEMENT PLATFORMS

Policy offers the environment in which development occurs. An extension

professional is the one who takes a forefront in making this development happen.
There are situations where existing policies restrict development interactions or
new policies could better support development. Extension personnel are in a
position to gather evidences to form good policies and organize stakeholders to
express policy needs to relevant authorities.
3.5.1 Gathering Issues and Evidences for Policy Action

Policy engagement platforms are where different stakeholders and policy

makers come together to talk about how policy changes will benefit a specific
situation. An extension professional can play a key role in generating issues and
evidence for policy action. To make sure that the proposed policy changes will
benefit those who need it the most, it is best to use a farmer first approach. An

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extension worker needs to talk with farmers about their situation under current
policies and listen to their ideas and suggestions on how their situation can be
improved. He can then record their suggestions and prepare a report that
highlights the need for a change in the policy and states the proposed benefits of
such a change. (Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016)

3.5.2 Advocacy for Responsive Policy Processes

Advocacy is the process of drawing the attention of policy makers to issues

that need to be addressed. It is the action of purposefully enhancing the power of
a group or organisation to influence other stakeholders in the process of policy
making. Advocacy can be achieved by encouraging people to express their needs
through letter writing, information sessions or even protests. Advocacy also has
the role of promoting and defending the rights of people who have expressed a
need and to help them know what options are available to them for change. The
goal of advocacy is to cause change.
The policy action where the government redefined the role of extensionists
to take a more farmer centred approach had the effect of lifting the poorest farmers
out of poverty. Together with the increased government funding, the new farmer
first approach helped to change the situation of family farmers for a better because
the services provided were matched with what the farmers needed. The
involvement of NGOs and other actors also made a difference (Ngwenya, H. and
Kibwika, P, 2016).

3.6 NETWORKING

Networking is to make contact with different actors for the purpose of

facilitation by exchanging information and building professional relationships. It
is important in the AIS for different actors to be linked together in a network so
that the whole system benefits from these relationships. It has the advantage of
linking experts from different fields together, so that the extensionists do not have
to be an expert in everything. It gives access to new information and expert
knowledge to those who can use it the best.

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There are many established networks with specific areas of specialisation.

There can be networks for only livestock production or only crop production for
example. Each network is made up of different actors who are involved in
research, innovation or production on one specific area of agriculture. These actors
work together to expand the support base that is available to the farmers for a
specific farming operation. The extensionists, can tap into the resources offered by
such networks, or if possible, connect farmers to such networks to get information
on new technologies that might help in their development process. Depending on
the situation and the available technology to the extension worker in local area, he
needs to provide his services, he can use some tools for networking like online
social media groups, instant messaging text groups, radio chat forums or farmer
days (Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016). It is up to the extension professional to
find out which local networks are available, or to explore which networks can be
facilitated to be launched in a particular area. The details on Agricultural Extension
in South Asia (AESA) network is presented in Box 5.

Box 5. Agricultural Extension in South Asia (AESA) Network

AESA – Genesis : Agricultural Extension in South Asia (AESA) was formed to
meet the demand for a network of all those interested in EAS, articulated in some
of the global and regional consultations on extension, organized by the Global
Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). They include: Consultations on EAS
organized by the APIRAS (Asia Pacific Islands Rural Advisory Services Network)
at Los Banos, Philippines (14-15 September, 2011) GFRAS Meeting at Nairobi,
Kenya (13-18 November 2011) and 2012 GFRAS Annual Meeting at Manila,
Philippines (26-28 September 2012). These consultations helped in identifying
several key individuals and organizations interested in networking and AESA was
established in early 2013 as a virtual platform with a website and a Facebook group
named as Agricultural Extension in South Asia.
Gradually it was realized that for the network to function optimally, full time staff
and resources are needed. Hence, to expand the network and to upgrade and

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maintain the AESA website, a proposal seeking funding was developed by the
Centre for Research on Innovation and Science Policy (CRISP). The Swiss Agency
for Development & Cooperation (SDC) funded AESA for a 2 year period (May
2013- May 2015) which was further extended up to June 2016. These resources
were utilized to strengthen its communication and networking activities and also
for organizing the first face-to-face meeting.
From July 2016, AESA received funding support from International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD) project titled ‘Supporting Smallholder Farmers
in Asia and Pacific Islands Region through Strengthened Agricultural Advisory
Services (SAAS)’ managed by Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate
Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), Philippines.
AESA is currently the only regional network available for extension stakeholders
in South Asia to share knowledge and experiences on EAS. AESA is a part of the
Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) and hosted by CRISP at
Hyderabad, India (http://www.aesanetwork.org). All the countries in South Asia
are directly benefited from AESA activities. However, through the strengthening
of regional and global networks, as well as the knowledge management strategies,
other countries in Asia Pacific Region (APR) and beyond are also getting the
benefit from different AESA activities.
Vision, Mission and Priorities of AESA: To identify the vision, mission, short-
term and long-term priorities, AESA organized extensive consultative meetings in
four South Asian countries (India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal) with key
stakeholders in EAS provision.
Vision
Improving food and nutrition security through efficient and effective EAS.
Mission
Sharing, learning and networking for building effective and efficient EAS.
Short Term Priorities
 Establish country forums
 Develop directory of extension & RAS providers

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 Resource generation
 Capacity building of extension functionaries
 Knowledge sharing
Long Term Priorities
 Needs assessment & review on extension situation in South Asia
 Conduct evaluation studies on extension
 Initiate case studies
 Hold annual meetings
 Develop extension certification mechanism
 Develop constitution for AESA

Activity 2: Visit a nearby development department. Discuss how they identify and
analyse the stakeholders. Compare their views with those given in this section and
write your observations.

3.7 CONCLUSION

The two forms of multi-stakeholder engagements that promote innovations are

IPs and policy engagement platforms. Identifying the stakeholders and their stakes
will help in guiding the collective towards defining their shared vision, mission and
goals which are important in facilitating their development. When we use stakeholder
mapping it can help in deciding which stakeholders will be needed the most to
influence for change and development to happen.
3.8 LET’S SUM UP:
Various stakeholders in an innovation system play different roles.
Understanding stakeholders and their interests help mobilise and engage them
appropriately for multi stakeholder engagement, is essential in the AIS. A facilitator’s
role is to build trust among the stakeholders. The different tools for stakeholder
analysis and the need for Innovation Platforms (IPs) for agricultural research for
development. Facilitation of multi stakeholders for policy engagement are elaborated
in this unit.

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3.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE ANSWERS

Note: Check your answer with those given here.

Check Your Progress 1
1. A stakeholder is an individual or an organisation who will make use of,
develop, or have an impact on any aspect of the intended intervention.
2. The three types of stakeholders include primary stakeholders, secondary
stakeholders and external or other stakeholders.
3. Primary stakeholders are direct beneficiaries of extension advisory services
(EASs). They might be representatives of farmers and their organizations, and
other actors engaged in the agricultural value chain who benefit from the EAS
provision. Secondary stakeholders are comprised of government agencies, NGOs,
producer organizations, research institutions and private sectors engaged in EAS,
etc., who also have a stake or interest in EAS, mostly directly through direct
provision of EAS.
4. Some of the reasons for engaging multi-stakeholders are to: integrate diverse
ideas and perspectives; generate buy-in and support, inclusiveness and
ownership; bridge social capital for the community; increase credibility of
organisation and the intervention; and increase the chances of success.
5. The facilitation engagement attributes include distrust, intimidation, rivalry,
lacking definition of the problem, possibly emotionally upsetting situation,
complexity or novelty and timeliness.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Write the difference between Latent group and Promoter group of stakeholders
2. What is Innovation Platforms?
3. What is Agricultural Knowledge and Information System?
4. Write the significance of networking in facilitation.
Answers:
1. The Latent group is the most important group, facilitators need to influence in
order to bring the change. The Promoter group is also an important stakeholder

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that facilitators can use to influence others, so it is important to communicate

well with this group.
2. An Innovation Platform is described as a forum established to foster interaction
among a group of relevant stakeholders to achieve common goals.
3. Agricultural Knowledge and Information System was developed to strengthen
flow of information in agricultural system. This system depends on the level of
access actors have to information and technology. It relies on continuous
circulation of information.
4. Networking is to make contact with different actors for the purpose of
facilitation by exchanging information and building professional relationships.
The whole system benefits from these relationships. It has the advantage of
linking experts from different fields together, so that the extensionists do not
have to be an expert in everything. It gives access to new information and
expert knowledge to those who can use it the best.

3.10 FURTHER READINGS/ REFERENCES

1. Ngwenya, H. and Kibwika, P, 2016. NELK Module: 7 Introduction to facilitation

for Development, New Extensionist Learning Kit (NELK), Lausanne, Switzerland,
Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). (GFRAS_NELK_M7-
Facilitation for Development-Manual (1).pdf)
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/oculryerson/docDetail.action?docID=10093530&p00)
2. Hall, A., L. Mytelka, and B. Oyeyinka. 2006a. “Concepts and Guidelines for
Diagnostic Assessment of Agricultural Innovation Capacity.” Working Paper
Series 2006-017. United Nations University -Maastricht Economic and social
Research and training centre on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT).
Maastricht, Netherlands.
3. Hellin, J. 2012. “Agricultural Extension, Collective Action and Innovation
Systems: Lessons on Network Brokering from Peru and Mexico.” Journal of
Agricultural Education and Extension 18 (2): 141–159.
4. Kennon, N., Howden, P. and Hartley, M., 2002. Who really matters? A
stakeholder analysis tool. Extension Farming Systems Journal Volume 5 number

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2 available online:
(https://www.csu.edu.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0018/109602/EFS_Journal_vol
_5_no_2_02_Kennon_et_al.pdf )
5. Klerkx, L., and P. Gilemacher. 2012. “The Role of Innovation Brokers in
Agricultural Innovation Systems.” In Agriculture and Rural Development: An
Investment Sourcebook. 221–230. Washington DC: World Bank.
6. Krick, T., Forstater, M., Monaghan, P., Sillanpaa, M. 2005. The Stakeholder
Engagement Manual: Volume 2, the practioners Handbook on Stakeholder
Engagement. Accountability, United Nations Environment Programme,
Stakeholder Research Associates Canada Inc.
7. Leeuwis, C. 2004. “Fields of Conflict and Castles in the Air: Some Thoughts and
Observations on the Role of Communication in Public Sphere Innovation
Process.” Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 10 (2): 62–76.
8. Makini, FW.,Kamau, GM., Makelo, MN., Adekunle, W., Mbuatathi, GK., Misiki,
M., Pali, M and Dixon, J. 2015. Operational field guide for Developing and
managing Local Agricultural Innovation Platforms. Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research.
9. Murray, P. and Blackman, D. 2006. Managing innovation through social
architecture, learning, and competencies: A new conceptual approach.
Knowledge and Process Management, 13: 132–143.
10. FAO. 2012. Capacity Development: Learning Module 2. FAO Approaches to
Capacity Development in Programming. Processes and Tools, Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (Available at:
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/capacity_building/FAO_CD_LM2
.pdf
11. Mittal N, Sulaiman RV and Prasad RM.2016. Assessing Capacity Needs of
Extension and Advisory Services. A Guide for Facilitators. Agricultural
Extension in South Asia. Motivation Theory by David McClelland.
(https://www.mindtools.com/pages/articles/human-motivation-
theory.html.)

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12. Ngwenya, H. and Hagmann, J. (2007). Facilitation for change: Triggering

emancipation and innovation in rural communities in South Africa. Paper in
the conference: Farmer First revisited: Farmer participatory research and
development twenty years on.
13. Roper, S., J. Love, P. Cooke, and N. Clifton. 2006. “The Scottish Innovation
System: Actors, Roles and Actions.”
(www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/89713/0021562.pdf)
14. Bhattacharjee, Suchiradipta & Raj, Saravanan. (2014). Agricultural Innovation
Systems (AIS): A Study of Stakeholders and their Relations in System of Rice
Intensification (SRI). The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension. 21.
1-26. 10.1080/1389224X.2014.939200.
15. Sumberg, J., Heirman, J., Raboanarielina, C., Kaboré, A., 2013a. From
agricultural research to ‘product development’: What role for user feedback
and feedback loops? Outlook on Agriculture 42, 233–242.
16. Van Rooyen A.,Swaans, K., Cullen, B., Lema, Z. and Mundy, P. 2013.
Facilitating Innovation Platforms in: Innovations platforms practice brief 10.
Websites:
1. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a28ed915d3fd000602/
Brief10.pdf
2. GFRAS-Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (http://www.g-
fras.org/en/)
3. Research Gate (https://www.researchgate.net/)
4. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/33667
5. http://www.fao.org/nr/res/Course1/file/mod6/mod6_04.html#mod6_4_2
6. www.toolshero.com/effectiveness/motivationtheory-by-david-
mcclelland/www.uaex.edu/support-units/program-staff-
development/facilitation.aspx

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