SUG 101 NOTE

Introduction: • Surveying is defined as “taking a general view of, by observation and measurement

determining the boundaries, size, position, quantity, condition, value etc. of land, estates, building,

farms mines etc. and finally presenting the survey data in a suitable form”. This covers the work

of the valuation surveyor, the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining surveyor and

so forth, as well as the land surveyor. • Another school of thought define surveying “as the act of

making measurement of the relative position of natural and manmade features on earth’s surface

and the presentation of this information either graphically or numerically.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

The basic principles and process of surveying

Introduction

So far, we have discussed the meaning, object and major classifications of surveying. Now let us

move further to discuss the basic principles and process of surveying.

Objectives. ·

To enable students understand the basic principles of surveying. · To expose the students to the

process of surveying.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART

The principle of working from whole to part in surveying and Geoinformatics is a fundamental

concept aimed at minimizing errors and ensuring accuracy throughout the surveying process.

Here's how it works:

Whole to Part Principle

1. *Establishing Control Points*: The process begins with establishing a network of high-accuracy

control points over the entire area to be surveyed. These points form a robust framework that

covers the whole area and serves as a reference for subsequent detailed surveys.

2. Subdividing the Area: The large area is then subdivided into smaller sections. This subdivision

is done using the control points as references to ensure that each smaller section is accurately

positioned relative to the others.

3. *Detailed Surveying*: Within each smaller section, detailed surveys are conducted. These

surveys use the control points to maintain accuracy. Because the control points have been

established with high precision, the detailed surveys in each subsection are less likely to

accumulate significant errors.

Benefits

Error Minimization: By starting with a precise framework and working down to detailed surveys,

errors are contained and do not propagate significantly through the surveying process.

Consistency: Ensures that all parts of the surveyed area are consistently referenced to the same set

of control points, maintaining uniformity.

Efficiency: Facilitates efficient planning and execution of detailed surveys, as the control network

provides a clear structure to work within.

Application in Geoinformatics

In Geoinformatics, the principle of working from whole to part is applied in creating and managing

spatial data infrastructures:

Data Integration: Large-scale spatial data sets are created with an overarching framework.

Detailed data sets are then integrated into this framework to maintain consistency and accuracy.

Error Checking: By maintaining a high-accuracy reference system, any discrepancies in detailed

data sets can be identified and corrected against the control points.

This principle ensures that spatial data collected from various sources and at different times can

be accurately integrated and used for analysis, mapping, and decision-making purposes.

Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be taken into consideration to

enable one get good results.

(a) Working from the whole to the part is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a

number of spaced out control point called primary control points called primary control points

whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision using sophisticated equipment.

Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles are drawn. Secondary control points

are then established to fill the gaps with lesser precision than the primary control points. At a more

detailed and less precise level, tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally established to

fill in the smaller gaps. The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the

errors as working the other way round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the

survey. In partial terms, this principle involve covering the area to be surveyed with large triangles.

These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until the area has been

sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a
local level. Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using

higher precision instruments.

(b) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points. Given two points whose length

and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can be drawn to join them hence surveying

has control reference points. The locations of various other points and the lines joining them can

be fixed by measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them.

For an example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be performed to

fix other points.

i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).

ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C.

iii) To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure angle ABC.

iv) To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of the sides AC

and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle.

Reconnaissance/Examination

• This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may be either ground

reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey.

• Reconnaissance is made on arrival to site during which an overall picture or view of the area is

obtained. The most suitable position of stations is selected, the purpose of the survey and the

accuracy required will be drawn, and finally the method of observation will be established.

Objectives of reconnaissance

1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through the area.

2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map

3. To estimate probable cost and draft a report.

The process of surveying:

The survey process passes through 3 main phases – the reconnaissance, field work and

measurements, and, the office work.

(a) Reconnaissance survey

This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires taking an overall inspection of

the area to be surveyed to obtain a general picture before commencement of any serious

survey. Walking through the site enables one to understand the terrain and helps in

determining the survey method to be adopted, and the scale to be used. The initial

information obtained in this stage helps in the successful planning and execution of the

survey.
 (b) Field work and measurement: This is the actual measurements in the field and the

recordings in the field notebook. To get the best results in the field, the surveyor must be

acquainted with the functions of the equipment and take good care of them.

(c) Office work: This is the post field work stage in which data collected and recordings

in the field notebooks are decoded and used to prepare the charts, planes and maps for

presentation to the clients and the target audience.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY

• Honesty is essential in booking notes in the field and when plotting and computations in the

office. There is nothing to be gained from cooking the survey or altering dimensions so that points

will tie-in on the drawing. It is utterly unprofessional to betray such trust at each stage of the

survey.

• This applies to the assistants equally as it does to the surveyor in charge. Assistants must also

listen carefully to all instructions and carry them out to the later without questions.

Reasons for Scientific Honesty

Scientific honesty in observations is particularly important in surveying and Geoinformatics for

several reasons:

1. Accuracy and Precision: Surveying and Geoinformatics rely on highly accurate and precise

measurements. Honest observations ensure that the data collected is correct, leading to reliable

maps, models, and analyses.

2. Data Integrity: The integrity of spatial data is crucial for various applications, such as urban

planning, environmental monitoring, and infrastructure development. Honest reporting of

observations maintains the integrity of these datasets.

3. Safety and Compliance: Surveying often supports engineering projects and construction. Honest

observations are vital to ensure that structures are built according to specifications, preventing

potential safety hazards and ensuring compliance with regulations.

4. Reproducibility and Verification: Honest observations allow other surveyors and geospatial

professionals to verify and reproduce findings. This is essential for validating results and

maintaining confidence in the data and methods used.

5. Resource Management: Surveying and Geoinformatics often involve significant investments in

terms of time, equipment, and manpower. Honest observations prevent the misuse of resources

and ensure that efforts lead to meaningful and actionable outcomes.

6. Ethical Standards: Maintaining honesty upholds ethical standards in the profession. It fosters a

culture of trust and integrity within the community of surveyors and geospatial professionals.

7. Public Trust: Surveying and Geoinformatics data are often used in public projects and policy-

making. Honest observations build public trust in the resulting maps, models, and decisions based

on this data.

8. Decision-Making: Accurate and honest observations are critical for informed decision-making

in fields like land use planning, disaster management, and environmental conservation.
In summary, scientific honesty in observations ensures the reliability, accuracy, and integrity of

surveying and Geoinformatics data, which is fundamental for safe, efficient, and effective

applications in various fields.

CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS

• The third principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that an error will be

apparent before the survey is completed.

• Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary measures are taken to

the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted. Hence they must be maintained in

the field at all times.

• Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of others which is

based on his information.

• Check should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible. Check

measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can be moved, sight rails

altered etc.

• Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books, setting out record

books etc. must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and diagrams so that the survey data

can be clearly understood by others. Untidy and anonymous figures in the field books should be

avoided.

• Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a systemic manner

and all field data should be properly prepared before calculations start. Where possible,

standardized tables and forms should be used to simplify calculations. If the result of a computation
has not been checked, it is considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent checks should be

applied to every calculation procedure.

• As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to see that there is

correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure to match indicates an error in

plotting or during the survey.

• If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is always preferable to

take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will resolve itself at the plotting stage.

Errors of Misclosure

Errors of misclosure in surveys refer to the discrepancies that arise when measured values do not

perfectly close a survey loop or meet expected values. These errors can result from various sources,

including instrument inaccuracies, observational mistakes, and environmental factors. Balancing

these errors is crucial to ensure the accuracy and reliability of survey results.

Definition:

- Linear Misclosure: In traverse surveys, this error occurs when the sum of measured distances

does not equal the theoretical distance calculated from the starting point to the endpoint.

- Angular Misclosure: In angular measurements, this error occurs when the sum of measured

angles does not equal the theoretical sum, which is often a multiple of 180° or 360°, depending on

the survey type.

- Elevation Misclosure: In leveling surveys, this error occurs when the measured differences in

elevation do not sum to zero when returning to the starting point.

Methods of Balancing Errors of Misclosure

1. Compass Rule (Bowditch Method):

- Application: Commonly used for traverse surveys.

- Process:

- Distribute the linear misclosure proportionally among the measured distances based on their

lengths.

- Distribute the angular misclosure proportionally among the measured angles.

- Formula:

- \ (\Delta X = \frac{\text{Total Linear Misclosure}}{\text{Sum of all Distances}} \times

\text{Individual Distance}\)

- \ (\Delta Y = \frac{\text{Total Angular Misclosure}}{\text{Sum of all Angles}} \times

\text{Individual Angle}\)

2. Transit Rule:

- Application: Used when angular measurements are deemed more accurate than linear

measurements.

- Process:

- Distribute the linear misclosure proportionally to the measured distances based on their

respective bearings or azimuths.

3. Least Squares Adjustment:

- Application: Used for high-precision surveys and complex networks.

- Process:

- Apply statistical methods to minimize the sum of the squares of the errors.

- Requires advanced computations and software tools.

- Benefits: Provides the most statistically sound method of balancing errors.

4. Leveling Adjustment:

- Application: Used for leveling surveys.

- Process:

- Distribute the elevation misclosure proportionally to the length of each leveling section.

- Formula:

- \ (\Delta H = \frac{\text{Total Elevation Misclosure}} {\text {Sum of all Distances}} \times

\text{Individual Distance}\)

5. Graphical Adjustment:

- Application: Used for simpler surveys and visualization purposes.

- Process:

- Plot the misclosure graphically and adjust the measurements to close the loop visually.
Example

For a traverse survey with four sides, if the sum of the measured distances does not equal the

theoretical distance, and the sum of the angles does not equal the theoretical sum, the following

steps could be applied:

1. Calculate the Misclosures:

- Determine the linear and angular misclosures by comparing the measured values with

theoretical values.

2. Apply the Compass Rule:

- Distribute the linear misclosure to each side proportionally.

- Distribute the angular misclosure to each angle proportionally.

3. Adjust the Measurements:

- Correct the measured distances and angles based on the calculated adjustments.

By applying these methods, surveyors can balance the errors of misclosure, enhancing the accuracy

and reliability of their survey results.

The principle of "economy of accuracy" in surveying refers to achieving the required level of

accuracy for a particular project while minimizing costs, time, and effort. This principle guides

surveyors in choosing the appropriate equipment and methods to balance accuracy with efficiency

and cost-effectiveness.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers when quoting

specifications for their equipment and on site by surveyors to describe results obtained from field

work.

• Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a measurement, while;

• Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an absolutely exact

measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small deviations

from the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.

Principles of Economy of Accuracy

1. Fit-for-Purpose Accuracy: The level of accuracy should match the requirements of the project.

Overly precise measurements can be unnecessary and costly, while insufficient accuracy can

lead to errors and potential failures.

2. Cost-Effectiveness: Surveyors should aim to achieve the necessary accuracy at the lowest

possible cost. This involves selecting equipment and methods that provide the required precision

without incurring unnecessary expenses.

3. Efficiency: Time is a critical factor in surveying. The chosen methods and equipment should

enable the completion of the survey within an acceptable timeframe while maintaining the required

accuracy.

4. Resource Optimization: Surveying resources, including personnel, equipment, and software,

should be used efficiently. The principle encourages the use of available resources in a way that

maximizes their utility and minimizes waste.

5. Incremental Accuracy: It is often more efficient to improve accuracy incrementally, starting

with general surveys and refining measurements as needed, rather than attempting to achieve high

precision from the outset.

Influence on Choice of Equipment and Methods

1. Project Requirements: The first step is to determine the accuracy requirements of the project.

For example, a construction survey might require millimeter-level precision, while a topographic

survey for a preliminary land assessment might only need centimeter-level accuracy.

2. Equipment Selection:

- Basic Surveys: For general land surveys or preliminary work, basic equipment such as handheld

GPS units or traditional total stations may suffice.

- High-Precision Surveys: For projects requiring high accuracy, such as structural deformation

monitoring, more sophisticated equipment like high-precision total stations, GNSS receivers, or

laser scanners may be necessary.

- Cost Considerations: Surveyors must weigh the cost of equipment against the required accuracy.

Leasing high-end equipment for short-term use or using lower-cost, adequately accurate

instruments can be more economical.

3. Methodology:

- Simplified Methods: For projects with moderate accuracy requirements, simpler and faster

methods such as RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) GPS or photogrammetry may be appropriate.

- Advanced Techniques: For projects demanding higher precision, more advanced methods such

as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) or terrestrial laser scanning may be used.
 - Incremental Approach: Begin with broad, lower-accuracy methods to establish control points

and refine with more accurate methods as needed.

4. Balancing Accuracy and Efficiency:

- Survey Design: Optimize the survey design to balance the need for accuracy with the efficiency

of data collection. This may involve strategic placement of control points and careful planning of

measurement sequences.

- Data Processing: Use appropriate software and techniques for processing survey data to enhance

accuracy without incurring excessive costs. Advanced processing techniques like least squares

adjustment can improve data quality.

Example

Consider a highway construction project:

- Initial Survey: Use GNSS receivers for rapid, large-area coverage to establish control points.

- Detailed Survey: For specific areas like bridge locations, employ high-precision total stations or

laser scanners.

- Cost Management: Balance the use of high-end equipment with cost-effective methods where

high precision is not critical.

In summary, the principle of economy of accuracy ensures that the chosen surveying equipment

and methods are aligned with the project's accuracy requirements, cost constraints, and efficiency

goals. By carefully balancing these factors, surveyors can achieve the necessary precision without

unnecessary expenditure or time investment.

ECONOMY OF ACCURACY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHOICE OF EQUIPMENTS

• Survey work is usually described as being to a certain standard of accuracy which in turn is

suited to the work in hand. Bearing in mind the purpose for which the survey is being made, it is

better to achieve a high degree of accuracy than to aim for precision (exactness) which if it were

to be altered would depend not only on the instrument used but also on the care taken by the

operator to ensure that his work was free from mistake.

• Always remember that, the greater the effort and time needed both in the field and in the office,

the more expensive survey will be for the client. The standard accuracy attained in the field must

be in keeping with the size of the ultimate drawings.

• The equipment selected should be appropriate to the test in hand. An important factor when

selecting equipment is that the various instruments should produce roughly the same order of

precision. A steel chain best at an accuracy of 1/500 to 1/1000 would be of little use for work

requiring an accuracy of 1/1000. Similarly, the theodolite reading to one second would be pointless

where a reading to one minute is sufficient.

• Having selected the equipment necessary, the work should be thoroughly checked and if found

wanting should be adjusted, repaired or replaced or have allowance calculated for its deficiencies.

This task will be less tedious if field equipment is regularly maintained.

The process of surveying is therefore in three stages namely:

(i) Taking a general view

 This part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to obtain an overall

picture of what is required before any type of survey work is undertaken. In land

surveying, this is achieved during the reconnaissance study.

(ii) Observation and Measurement

This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any survey, which in land surveying

constitutes the measurement to determine the relative position and sizes of natural and

artificial features on the land.

(iii) Presentation of Data:

The data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which allows the

information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others. This presentation may

take the form of written report, bills of quantities, datasheets, drawings, and in land

surveying maps and plan showing the features on the land.

BRANCHES OF SURVEYING

Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered as a

plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. For small areas less than 250 km2 plane

surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as canal, railway, highway,

building, pipeline, etc constructions, this type of surveying is used. It is worth noting that the

difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km and the subtended chord lying in the earth’s surface

is 7mm. Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a spherical

triangle differ by 1 second for a triangle on the earth’s surface having an area of 196 km2.

Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the true shape of the

earth (spheroid). In geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved usually on

national basis where survey stations are precisely located large distances apart. Account is taken
of the curvature of the earth, hence it involves advanced mathematical theory and precise

measurements are required to be made.

• Geodetic survey stations can be used to map out entire continent, measure the size and shape of

the earth or in carrying out scientific studies such as determination of the Earth’s magnetic field

and direction of continental drifts.

Classification of surveying Introduction

For easy understanding of surveying and the various components of the subject, we need a deep

understanding of the various ways of classifying it.

Objective

To enable the students have understanding of the various ways of classifying surveying

Classification of Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used,

purpose, the area surveyed and the method used.

Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used.

Based on the instrument used; surveys can be classified into;

i) Chain tape surveys

ii) Compass surveys

iii) Plane table surveys

iv) Theodolite surveys

Classification based on the surface and the nature of terrain

i) Land survey:
 Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be subdivided into:

(a) Topographic survey: This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains, rivers, etc) and

manmade features (roads, houses, settlements…) on the surface of the earth.

(b) Cadastral survey is used to determining property boundaries including those of fields,

houses, plots of land, etc.

(c) City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and development of towns

including roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally referred

to as city survey.

(ii) Marine or Hydrographic Survey:

Those are surveys of large water bodies for navigation, tidal monitoring, and the

construction of harbors etc.

iii) Astronomical Survey: Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies

(Sun, Moon, Stars etc.) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF PURPOSE

i) Engineering survey

Engineering survey is used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and

Execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings,

etc.

ii) Control Survey: Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced vertical

and horizontal control points.

iii) Geological Survey Geological survey is used to determine the structure and arrangement
 of rock strata. Generally, it enables to know the composition of the earth.

iv) Military or Defense Survey is carried out to map places of military and strategic importance

iv) Archeological Survey is carried out to discover and map ancient/relies of Antiquity.

Classification Based On Instrument Used

i. Chain/Tape Survey: This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement using a chain

or tape with no angular measurements made.

ii. Compass Survey: Here horizontal angular measurements are made using magnetic compass

with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.

iii. Plane table survey: This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the measurements and

drawings made at the same time using a plane table.

iv. Leveling: This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the earth

surface showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections or with conventional

symbols.

Vi. Theodolite Survey:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD USED

i. Triangulation Survey In order to make the survey, manageable, the area to be surveyed is first

covered with series of triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then the

details fixed in relation to the established lines. This process is called triangulation. The triangle
 is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely over an irregularly shaped area with

minimum space left.

ii. Traverse survey: If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is possible

to establish the position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and distances

of other surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points linked with

lines linking them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing these lines, is called

traversing, while the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. Joining two while

bearing and distance is known as traverse. A traverse station is each of the points of the traverse,

while the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive stations. Traverses may either be

open or closed.

1. Closed Traverse: When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the finishing

point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called as a ‘closed traverse’, here ABCDEA

represents a closed traverse.

2. Open Traverse: When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and

does not return to the starting point, it is known as ‘open traverse’ or (unclosed traverse). Here

ABCDE represents an open traverse.

Order of Accuracy of Surveying

1. Geodetic Surveys: Highest accuracy, millimeters to a few centimeters.

2. Control Surveys: Very high accuracy, millimeters.

3. Cadastral Surveys: High accuracy, centimeters.

4. Deformation Surveys: Very high accuracy, millimeters.

5. Engineering Surveys: High accuracy, millimeters to centimeters.

6. Construction Surveys: High accuracy, millimeters to centimeters.

7. Topographic Surveys: Moderate to high accuracy, 0.1 to 1 meter.

8. Hydrographic Surveys: Moderate to high accuracy, 0.1 to 1 meter.

9. Geoinformatics Surveys: Varies, centimeters to meters.

10. Aerial Surveys: Varies, centimeters to meters.

The choice of survey class and the required accuracy depend on the specific needs of the project,

the available equipment, and the desired outcomes.

Horizontal Distance Measurement

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two

points on the earth’s surface for use in fixing position, set out and in scaling. Usually spatial

distance is measured. In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their equivalent

horizontal distance either by the procedures used to make the measurement or by applying

numerical corrections for the slope distance (spatial distance). The method to be employed in

measuring distance depends on the required accuracy of the measurement, and this in turn depends

on purpose for which the measurement is intended.

Pacing: – where approximate results are satisfactory, distance can be obtained by pacing (the

number of paces can be counted by tally or pedometer registry attached to one leg). Average pace

length has to be known by pacing a known distance several times and taking the average. It is used

in reconnaissance surveys& in small scale mapping

Odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tires (no of revolutions X wheel diameter); this

method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done periodically on a known length.

During each measurement a constant tyre pressure has to be maintained. Tachometry: -distance

can be can be measured indirectly by optical surveying instruments like theodolite. The method is

quite rapid and sufficiently accurate for many types of surveying operations.

Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or chain.

Steel tapes are most commonly used .It is available in lengths varying from 15m to 100m. Formerly

on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured with chains.

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): - are indirect distance measuring instruments that work

using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic waves in vacuum. They have high degree

of accuracy and are effectively used for long distances for modern surveying operations.

CHAIN SURVEYING

This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements only.

It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a

chain.

EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

These equipment can be divided into three, namely

(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)

(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (e.g. Abney level,

clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)

(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc.).

1. Chain: The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links.

It is designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets

of small surveys.
Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from center to center of each middle

connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally markers made of plastic

or brass are attached at every whole meter position or at each tenth link. To avoid confusion in

reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m and 18m is the same) so

that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain.

There are three different types of chains used in taking measurement namely:

1. Engineers chain

2. Gunter’s chain
3. Steel Bands:

This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar to those on the chain

and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate but less robust than the chain. The operating

tension and temperature for which it was graduated should be indicated on the band.

3 Tapes: Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the setting

out of buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in metres, centimeter and

millimeters. Tapes are classified into three types;

i. Linen or Linen with steel wire woven into the fabric;

These tapes are liable to stretch in use and should be frequently tested for length. They should

never be used on work for which great accuracy is required.

ii. Fiber Glass Tapes: These are much stronger than lines and will not stretch in use.

iii. Steel tapes: These are much more accurate, and are usually used for setting out buildings and

structural steel works. Steel tapes are available in various lengths up to 100m (20m and 30m being

the most common) encased in steel or plastic boxes with a recessed winding lever or mounted on

open frames with a folding winding lever.

4. Arrows:

Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking temporary

stations. A piece of colored cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached or tied to the end of the

arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

5. Pegs
Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used for points

which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey lines. Pegs are

driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.

6. Ranging Rod:

7. Optical Square:

This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used where

greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using two mirrors and the

other a prism.

• The mirror method is constructed based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from a mirror at the same

angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.

• The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single prism. It is used in

the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.
8 Cross Staff:

This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and narrow slit in

each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is at normal eye

level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.

9. Clinometer

This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle). They are of several

form, the common form is the WATKING’S CLINOMETER, which consist of a small disc of

about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made to hang free and by sighting

across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than abney level.
9 Abney Level

This instrument is generally used to obtain roughly the slope angle of the ground. It consists of a

rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a graduated arc attached. A

small bubble is fixed to the venire arm, once the image of the bubble is seen reflected in the

eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the reading glass.

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and wiped

with an oily rag.

2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to enable them to be seen

clearly on the field.

3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.

4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be

indicated.

5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.

6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY

1. Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position of

features and the shape of the area.

2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to mark

the stations selected.

3. Station Marking: Station marks, where possible should be tied - in to a permanent objects so

that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground wooden

pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.

4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station showing

existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and designation.

Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the station point and

recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at much later date even

by others after a long interval.

5. Offsetting: - Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles

on the chain line.

6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the name of

the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is measured first.

ERRORS IN SURVEYING

• Surveying is a process that involves observations and measurements with a wide range of

electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very sophisticated.
• Despite the best equipment and methods used, it is still impossible to take observations that are

completely free of small variations caused by errors which must be guided against or their effects

corrected.

TYPES OF ERRORS

1. Gross Errors

• These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his assistants due to

carelessness or incompetence.

• On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by in – experienced Engineers or surveyors

who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are using.

• These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, wrong booking, sighting

wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly, displacement of

arrows or station marks etc.

• Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or plotting

and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected.

• Gross errors can be eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking and constantly

checking both operations.

2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors

• These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted instrument and the

physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect. Expansion of

steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument, etc are just

some of these errors.

• Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of measurements that are repeated

under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or positively to the reading hence, makes

the readings shorter or longer. Under revision

• This type of error can be eliminated from a measurement using corrections (e.g. effect of tension

and temperature on steel tape).

• Another method of removing systematic errors is to calibrate the observing equipment and

quantify the error allowing corrections to be made to further observations.

• Observational procedures by re-measuring the quantity with an entirely different method using

different instrument can also be used to eliminate the effect of systematic errors. 3. Random or

Compensating Errors

• Although every precaution may be taken certain unavoidable errors always exist in any

measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments.

• Random errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be adopted to ensure that

they are kept within acceptable limits.

• In order to analyze random errors or variable, statistical principles must be used and in surveying

their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of observations and finding their mean. It

is therefore important to assume those random variables are normally distributed.

Corrections to Linear Measurement and their Application: - The following corrections are to

be applied to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape where such accuracy is required.

(i) Pull correction,

(ii) Temperature correction

(iii) Standard length correction

(iv) Sag correction

(v) Slope correction

(vi) Mean sea level correction.

Pull Correction :- A chain or tape of nominal length ‘L’ having cross sectional area of the link or

that of a tape, as the case may be, equal to A and standardized under a pull Ps is employed to

measure a length at a pull PF. If Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material is E the extension

of its length is

The recorded length is less than the actual by this extension. The error is here, -ve, the actual length

is obtained by adding the extension to L. the correction is +ve. If PF is less than PS the error will

be +ve and correction –ve.

Temperature Correction :- A chain or a tape of nominal length ‘L’ standardized at temperature

TS and having cross sectional area A is employed to measured length at temperature TF being the

coefficient of linear expansion of the material of the chain or tape per unit rise of temperature,

If TF is more than TS, recorded length is less than the actual by the amount of extension. The error

is –ve and the correction to the length L is +ve by the amount of extension. If the field temperature

TF is less than TS the error is =+ve and the corrections is –ve.

Sag Correction: - In case of suspended measurement across a span L the chain or tape sag to take

the form of curve known as catenary.

Where w= weight of the tape per meter length W = Total weight of the tape P = pull applied (in

N) 1l = The length of tape suspended between two supports l = length of the tape = n1l (in m)

Sag correction is always negative.