CHAPTER 1 The first domesticated organisms included

wheat, peas, lentils, barley, dogs, goats, and

Albinism- caused by defect in one of the
sheep.
enzymes required to produce melanin
Pangenesis- specific particles, later called
Melanin- pigment that darkens our skin, hair,
gemmules, carry information from various parts
and eyes
of the body to the reproductive organs, from
Genome- complete set of genetic instruction for which they are passed to the embryo at the
any organism. moment of conception

Three major subdiscipline of genetics: Preformationism- suggested that a person

inherits all of his/her from one parent.
1. Transmission genetics- encompasses
the basic principles of heredity and how Germ-plasm theory- proposed by Weismann,
traits are passed from one generation to which holds that the cells in the reproductive
the next. organs carry a complete set of genetic
2. Molecular genetics- concerns the information that is passed to the egg and sperm
chemical nature of the gene itself: how
Blending inheritance- proposed that offsirng
genetic information is encoded,
are a blend, mixture of parental traits
replicated, and expressed.
3. Population genetics- explores the Gregor mendel- founder of modern genetics,
genetic composition of groups o first discovered the principles of heredity by
individual members of the same species crossing different varieties of pea plants and
and how that composition changes analyzing the transmission of traits in
geographically and with the passage of subsequent generations.
time.
Model genetic organisms- organism having
characteristics that make them particularly
useful for genetic analysis and about which a
tremendous amount of genetic information has
accumulated.
Six model organisms that have been the subject
of intensive genetic study are:
- Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly;
- Escherichia coli, a bacterium present
- the gut of humans and other mammals;
- Caenorhabditis elegans, a worm;
- Arabidopsis thaliana, the thale-cress
plant;
- Mus musculus, the house mouse; and
- Saccharomyces cerevisiae, baker’s yeast
The first evidence that people understood and
applied the principles of heredity in earlier times
is found in the domestication of plants and
animals, which began between approximately
10,000 and 12,000 years ago in the Middle East.
Review:
- Cells are of two basic types:
eukaryotic and prokaryotic
- The gene is the fundamental unit of
heredity
- Genes come in multiple forms called
alleles
Prokaryote- is a unicellular organism with a
- Genes confer phenotypes
relatively simple cell structure.
- Genetic information is carried in
DNA and RNA - Two fundamentally distinct types of
- Genes are located on chromosomes bacteria:
- Chomosomes separate through the o Eubacteria (true bacteria)
processes of mitosis and meiosis o Archaea (ancient bacteria)
- Genetic information is transferred
from DNA to RNA to protein Eukaryote- has compartmentalized cell
- Mutations are permanent changes in structure with components bounded by
genetic information that can be intracellular membranes; eukaryotes are either
passed from cell to cell or from parent unicellular or multicellular.
to offspring Difference between prokaryotic and
- Some traits are affected by multiple eukaryotic cells:
factors
- Evolution is genetic change - Eukaryote has a nuclear envelope,
which surrounds the genetic material to
form a nucleus and separates the DNA
CHAPTER 2 from other cellular contents.
- Prokaryote, the genetic material is in
Cohesin- a protein that holds the chromatids close contact with other components of
together the cell
- A key to the behaviour of chromosomes Histones- a special class protein that is
in mitosis and meiosis associated closely to DNA
- Cohesion at the centromere is protected
by protein called shugoshin- which - It also limits the accessibility of
means guardian spirit in japanese. enzymes and other proteins that copy
and read the DNA, but they enable the
Separase- a molecular knife that cut or sever the DNA to fit into the nucleus.
sister chromatids into two to separate.
Chromatin- complex of DNA and histone
proteins
 Three fundamental events must take place:
1.) its genetic information must be copied
2.) the copies of genetic information must
be separated from each other
3.) the cell must divide.
Important to review:
- Prokaryotic cell
reproduction
- eukaryotic cell reproduction

Viruses- are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic,

because they do not possess a cellular structure.
- Are actually simple structures compsed
of an outer protein coat surrounding
nucleic acid
Eukaryotic chromosomes- Each eukaryotic
species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes per cell: potatoes have 48
chromosomes, fruit flies have 8, and humans Kinetochore- a multiprotein complex
have 46. - assembles on the centromere, spindle
Diploid- carries two sets of genetic information microtubules attach to the kinetochore.

Haploid- has a single set of genetic information Telomeres- natural ends, the tips, of a whole
linear chromosome
Chromosome structure
- protects and stabilizes the chromosome
ends. If a chromosome breaks,
producing new ends, the chromosome is
degraded at the newly broken ends
- provides chromosome stability

A functional chromosome has three essential

elements:
- a centromere
- A pair of telomeres
- and origins of replication
Centromere- is the attachment point of spindle
microtubules
Microtubules- the filaments responsible for
moving chromosomes in cell division
Origins of replication- are the sites where DNA M phase- is the part of the cell cycle in which
synthesis begins; they are not easily observed by the copies of the cell’s chromosomes (sister
microscopy. chromatids) separate and the cell undergoes
division.
Sister chromatids- are copies of a chromosome
held together at the centromere Prophase- as cells enters prophase, the
chromosomes become visible under a light
CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS
microscope.
Cell cycle- is the life story of a cell, the stages
Prometaphase- disintegration of the nuclear
through which it passes from one division to the
membrane marks the start of prometaphase
next
Metaphase- during this phase, the chromosomes
Checkpoints- a progression through the cell
become arranged in a single plane, the
cycle that is regulated at key transition points.
metaphase plate, between the two centrosomes.
Anaphase- After the spindle-assembly
Cell cycle consists of two major phases: checkpoint has been passed, the connection
between sister chromatids breaks down and the
1. Interphase- the period between cell sister chromatids separate.
divisions, in which the cell grows,
develops and functions Telophase- after the chromatids have separated,
2. M phase(mitotic phase)- the period of each consist of a separate chromosome.
active cell division.
NOTE: BETTER TO WATCH IT ON
a. Mitosis- the process of nuclear
YOUTUBE
division.
b. Cytokinesis- cytoplasmic
division

Interphase is divided into three subphases:

- G1
- G0
- S
- G2
Sexual reproduction consist of two processes:
1. Meiosis- which leads to gametes in
which chromosome number is reduced
by half.
2. Fertilization- in which two haploid
gametes fuse and restore chromosome
number to its original diploid value

MEIOSIS
Main differences of meiosis and mitosis is
that;
mitosis consists of single nuclear division
and accompanied by a single cell division.
While Meiosis consists of two divisions.
Meiosis I

Meiosis II
Crossing over- takes place in prophase I
- Refers to the exchange of genes between
nonsister chromatids (chromatids from
different homologous chromosomes)

Random separation of homologous

chromosomes

Cohesin- a protein that keeps sister chromatids

together.
Shugoshin- a protein that protects cohesion at
the centromere, also known as “guardian spirit”
in Japanese.
Note: Cohesin holds sister chromatids together
during the early part of mitosis. In anaphase,
cohesin breaks down, allowing sister chromatids
to separate. In meiosis, cohesin is protected at
the centromeres during anaphase I, and so
homologous chromosomes, but not sister Megasporocytes- female part of the flower, the
chromatids, separate in meiosis I. The ovary, contains diploid cells.
breakdown of centromeric cohesin allows sister
chromatids to separate in anaphase II of meiosis.
MEIOSIS IN ANIMALS
Male animals:
Spermatogenisis- production of gametes in a
male animal. Takes place in the testes
Spermatogonia- diploid primordial germ cells
divide mitotically to produce diploid cells.

SEE PAGE 36- CHAPTER 2

- In the stamen of a flowering plant,
meiosis produces haploid microspores
that divide mitotically to produce
haploid sperm in a pollen grain.
- Within the ovary, meiosis produces four
haploid megaspores, only one of which
divides mitotically three times to
produce eight haploid nuclei.
- After pollination, one sperm fertilizes
the egg cell, producing a diploid zygote;
the other fuses with two nuclei to form
the endosperm

CHAPTER 3- BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

Female animals: HEREDITY

Oogensis- production of gametes in female Gregor Mendel- discovered the basic principles
animal of heredity

Oogonia- it is produce within the ovaries,

diploid primordial germ cells divide mitotically.
MEISOSIS IN PLANTS
- Has 2 distinct generations (stages):
o Sporophyte- produces haploid
spores through mitosis
o Gametophyte- produces
haploid gametes through mitosis
Microsporocytes- male part of the flower, the
stamen, contains diploid reproductive cells
 Monohybrid crosses- those between parents
that differed in a single characteristic.
P (parental) generation- first generation of a
cross
Alleles- genes frequently come in different F1 (filial 1) generation- the offspring from the
versions parents in the P generation
Locus- all alleles for any particular gene will be F2 (filial 2) generation- 2nd generation
found at a specific place on chromosome. Plural-
Loci
Genotype- is the set of alleles that an individual
organism possesses
Homozygous- a diploid organism with a
genotype consisting of two identical alleles
Heterozygous- one that has a genotype
consisting of two different alleles
Phenotype- manifestation or appearance of a
characteristic.
Dominant- traits that appeared unchanged in the
F1 heterozygous offspring Mendel.
Recessive- traits that disappeared in the F1
heterozygous offspring.
Principle of segregation- Mendel’s first law,
states that each individual diploid organism
possesses two alleles for any particular
characteristics.
Concept of dominance- states that, when two
different alleles are present in a genotype, only
the trait encoded by one of them- the
“dominant” allele- is observed in the phenotype
SEE PAGE 50- chapter 3

The Punnett square- was developed by

genetics Reginald C. Punnett in 1971
- Is constructed by drawing a grid, putting
the gametes produced by one parent
along the upper edge and the gametes
produced by the other parent down the
left side
- Is a shorthand method of predicting the
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of
progeny from a genetic cross.
Probability- expresses the likelihood of the
occurrence of a particular event.
TWO RULES OF PROBABILITY
1. Multiplication rule- which states that
the probability of two or more
independent events occurring together is
calculated by multiplying their
independent probabilities
2. The addition rule- which states that the
probability of any one of two or more
mutually exclusive event is calculated
by adding the probabilities of those
events.
THE TESTCROSS
- A useful tool for analyzing genetic
crosses
- in which one individual of unknown
genotype is crossed with another
individual with a homozygous recessive
genotype for the trait in question.
Genetics Symbols
- As we have seen, genetic crosses are
usually depicted with the use of symbols
to designate the different alleles.
Lowercase letters are traditionally used
to designate recessive alleles, and
uppercase letters are for dominant
alleles.
Wild type- common allele for a character,
usually found in the wild
- Often symbolized by one or more letters
and a plus sign (+)
NOTES: Better learn most of chapter 3 at
youtube. (kyargun sabotun sa libro)
Dihybrid Crosses- Mendel crossed varieties of
peas that differed in two characteristics
Principle of independent assortment- this
principle states that alleles at different loci
separate independently of one another
Goodness-of-fit chi-square test- to evaluate the
role of chance in producing deviations between
observed and expected values.