Module 10

Ancient Rome
Essential Question
Was Rome more successful as a republic or as an empire?

About the Photo: The Roman Forum, In this module you will read about the history of the Roman Republic and
the ruins of which are shown above, was a Roman Empire. You will learn about Rome’s growth from a small city into
public meeting place at the heart of Rome. the center of one of the most powerful civilizations of the ancient world.

What You Will Learn…

Explore ONLINE! Lesson 1: Geography and the Rise of Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
The Big Idea Rome’s location and government helped it become a
VIDEOS, including... major power in the ancient world.
• The Growth of Rome Lesson 2: The Roman Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
• The Glory of Rome’s Forum The Big Idea Rome’s tripartite government and written laws helped
• Carthage create a stable society and paved the way for expansion.
• Hail Caesar! Lesson 3: From Republic to Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
The Big Idea Julius Caesar and Augustus led Rome’s transition from a
• Deconstructing History: Pompeii republic to an empire.
• Rome Falls Lesson 4: A Vast Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
The Big Idea After Augustus became emperor, the Roman Empire
Document-Based Investigations grew politically and economically, and life improved for the Roman
Graphic Organizers people.
Lesson 5: The Fall of Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Interactive Games The Big Idea Problems from both inside and outside caused the
Roman Empire to split and the western half to collapse.
Image with Hotspots: The Roman
Lesson 6: Rome’s Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Forum
The Big Idea Many features of Roman culture were copied by later
Interactive Map: Roman Trade civilizations and continue to influence our lives today.
Routes, AD 200
Image with Hotspots: Roman
Engineering

324 Module 10
Timeline of Events 753 BC–AD 476 Explore ONLINE!

Module Events World Events

800 BC
753 BC According to legend, Rome is founded.

c. 700 BC The Assyrians

conquer Israel.

509 BC The Roman

Republic is founded.
490 BC The Persians invade Greece.

400 BC

336–323 BC Alexander the

Great builds his empire.

c. 221–206 BC The Qin

dynasty rules China.
264–146 BC Rome and Carthage
fight in the Punic Wars.

44 BC Julius Caesar is assassinated.

51 BC Cleopatra becomes
27 BC Augustus becomes Rome’s first emperor. sole queen of Egypt.

AD 1
AD 60 Warrior queen Boudicca
burns the city of London.

AD 122 Hadrian’s Wall is

begun in northern England.

AD 220 Han dynasty ends in China.

AD 286 Diocletian divides the Roman Empire.

c. AD 320 The Gupta

Empire is founded in India.
AD 410 The Goths sack
the city of Rome.
AD 476 The last western Roman
emperor is overthrown.
AD 500

Ancient Rome 325

Reading Social Studies
THEME FOCUS:
Geography, Politics, Science and Technology
In this module, you will read about the Roman Republic, about how Rome’s
location and geography helped it become a major power in the ancient world.
You will also read about the city’s politics and discover how its three-pronged
government affected all of society. Then you will learn about the development of
Rome as it grew from a republic into a strong and vast empire. You will read about
how the Romans’ many contributions to literature, language, law, and science and
technology have shaped how people have lived for more than 2,000 years.

READING FOCUS:
Create an Outline
How can you make sense of all the facts and ideas in a module? One way is to take
notes in the form of an outline.
Outline a Lesson Here is an example of a partial outline for Lesson 1. Notice how the
writer used the lesson’s heads to determine the main and supporting ideas.

The writer picked up the first heading in the

lesson as the first main idea. She identified it
Lesson 1, Geography and the Rise of Rome
with Roman numeral I. I. The Geography of Italy
A. Physical features—many types of
The writer saw three smaller heads under the features
bigger head of The Geography of Italy and
listed them as A, B, and C. 1. Mountain ranges
2. Hills
The writer then decided it was important to
3. Rivers
note some individual facts under B.1. That’s B. Impact of Geography
why she added a and b. 1. Helped city of Rome become
powerful
The writer later identified two facts that a. Strategic location
supported II.A. She listed them as numbers
1 and 2. b. Access to resources
C. Climate—warm summers, mild winters
II. Rome’s Legendary Origins
Outline a Few Paragraphs When A. Aeneas
you need to outline only a few 1. Trojan hero
paragraphs, you can use the 2. Sailed to Italy and became ruler
same outline form. Just look for B. Romulus and Remus
the main idea of each paragraph, 1. Twin brothers
and give each one a Roman 2. Decided to build city
numeral. Supporting ideas within a. Romulus killed Remus
the paragraph can be listed b. City named for Romulus
with A, B, and so forth. You can C. Rome’s Early Kings
use Arabic numbers for specific
details and facts.

326 Module 10
You Try It! Key Terms and People
Lesson 1
Aeneas
Read the following passage from this module. Then fill in Romulus and Remus
the blanks to complete the outline. republic
dictators
Cincinnatus
plebeians
Growth of Territory Roman territory grew patricians
mainly in response to outside threats. In about Lesson 2
387 BC, a people called the Gauls attacked Rome magistrates
and took over the city. The Romans had to give consuls
the Gauls a huge amount of gold to leave the city. Roman Senate
majority rule
Inspired by the Gauls’ victory, many of Rome’s veto
neighboring cities also decided to attack. With some Latin
difficulty, the Romans fought off these attacks. As checks and balances
Rome’s attackers were defeated, the Romans took Forum
legions
over their lands. As you can see on the map, the
Punic Wars
Romans soon controlled all of the Italian Peninsula Hannibal
except far northern Italy. Lesson 3
One reason for the Roman success was the Gaius Marius
organization of the army. Soldiers were organized Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Spartacus
in legions. . . . This organization allowed the army Cicero
to be very flexible. orator
Julius Caesar
Pompey
Cleopatra VII
Complete this outline based on the passage you just read. Brutus
Marc Antony
I. Roman territory grew in response to outside threats. Augustus
A. Gauls attacked Rome in 387 BC. Lesson 4
1. Took over the city Hadrian
provinces
2. _______________________________
currency
B. The Gauls’ victory inspired other people to attack Pax Romana
Rome. Lesson 5
1. _______________________________ Diocletian
Clovis
2. Romans took lands of defeated foes. Attila
3. _______________________________ corruption
II. _____________________________________ Lesson 6
Galen
A. Soldiers were organized in legions. aqueduct
B. ___________________________________ Virgil
Ovid
As you read this module, identify the main ideas you satire
would use in an outline of the module. Romance languages
civil law

Ancient Rome 327

 Lesson 1

Geography and the

Rise of Rome
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are the ruler of a group of people looking for a site
Rome’s location and government
to build a new city. After talking with your advisors, you
helped it become a major power have narrowed your choice to two possible sites. Both
in the ancient world. locations have plenty of water and good soil for farming,
but they are otherwise very different. One is on top of a
Main Ideas
tall rocky hill overlooking a shallow river. The other is on
■ The geography of Italy made
a wide open field right next to the sea.
land travel difficult but helped
the Romans prosper. Which site will you choose for your city? Why?
■ Ancient historians were very
interested in Rome’s legendary
history.
The Geography of Italy
Rome eventually became the center of one of the greatest civili-
■ Once subject to a monarchy,
the Romans created a republic.
zations of the ancient world. In fact, the people of Rome con-
quered many of the territories you have studied in this book,
Key Terms and People including Greece, Egypt, and Asia Minor.
Aeneas Italy, where Rome was built, is a peninsula in southern
Romulus and Remus Europe. If you look at the map, you can see that Italy looks like a
republic
high-heeled boot sticking out into the Mediterranean Sea.
dictators
Cincinnatus Physical Features Look at the map again to find Italy’s two
plebeians major mountain ranges. In the north are the Alps, Europe’s
patricians
highest mountains. Another range, the Apennines (A-puh-
nynz), runs the length of the Italian Peninsula. This rugged
land made it hard for ancient people to cross from one side of
Mountains cover much of the Italian
the peninsula to the other. In addition, some of Italy’s moun-
Peninsula. These mountains are in tains, such as Mount Vesuvius, are volcanic. Their eruptions
the Alps in northern Italy. could devastate Roman towns.
Not much of Italy is flat. Most of the land that
isn’t mountainous is covered with hills. Through-
out history, people have built cities on these hills
for defense. As a result, many of the ancient cities
of Italy—including Rome—sat atop hills. Rome
was built on seven hills.
Several rivers flow out of Italy’s mountains.
Because these rivers were a source of fresh water,
people also built their cities near them. For exam-
ple, Rome lies on the Tiber (TY-buhr) River.

328 Module 10
 Impact of Geography Rome’s geography is one reason it became so
powerful during ancient times. Its strategic position atop the hills,
the roadblock created by the Alps, and the natural moat formed by the
surrounding seas protected Rome from invasion. Resources from the land
also helped the city develop economically. Building materials such as
stone and marble were abundant. Artisans used local clay to create pot-
tery and crafted other goods that they traded with other civilizations.
The Mediterranean Sea provided a route for Roman traders to reach many
other cities. These factors helped Rome’s economy to grow and Romans
to prosper. Rome’s strong economy and its military advantages allowed a
powerful government to form over time.
Climate Most of Italy, including the area around Rome, has warm, dry
Reading Check summers and mild, rainy winters. This climate is similar to that of south-
Draw Conclusions ern California. Italy’s mild climate allows people to grow a wide variety of
How did Rome’s
location affect crops. Grains, citrus fruits, grapes, and olives all grow well there. A plenti-
its early history? ful food supply was one key factor in Rome’s early growth.

Explore ONLINE!
Italy: Physical

ELEVATION A L P S
Feet Meters L. Como
6,560 2,000 L. Garda
1,640 500
Gulf of
656 200 Venice
(Sea level) 0 0 (Sea level) River
Po I
0 75 150 mi t
0 75 150 km
a Italy’s fertile coastal plains have been
l
A

Gulf of
Genoa A i settled for thousands of years.
d

A rn o P a
r

Ligurian River E a
i

N
n

Sea N t
W E i
c
N

S
Ti S
e
I

Ri
e

a
be r

N
r
ve

n
E

Rome S
i
n

s
Mt. Vesuvius
4,190 ft. u
(1,277 m) l
Sardinia Ty rrh e n i a n a
Se a
40°N

10°E
15°E I oni a n
Se a
Interpret Maps
Place What mountain range runs down the Sicily
length of the Italian Peninsula?

Ancient Rome 329

 Rome’s Legendary Origins
Rome’s early history is wrapped in mystery. No written records exist, and
we have little evidence of the city’s earliest days. All we have found are
ancient ruins that suggest people lived in the area of Rome as early as the
800s BC. However, we know very little about how they lived.
Would it surprise you to know that the ancient Romans were as curious
about their early history as we are today? Rome’s leaders wanted their city
to have a glorious past that would make the Roman people proud. Imagin-
ing that glorious past, they told legends, or stories, about great heroes and
kings who built the city.
Aeneas The Romans believed their history could be traced back to a
great Trojan hero named Aeneas (i-NEE-uhs). When the Greeks destroyed
Troy in the Trojan War, Aeneas fled with his followers. After a long and
dangerous journey, he reached Italy. The story of this trip is told in the
Aeneid (i-NEE-id), an epic poem written by a poet named Virgil (VUHR-juhl)
around 20 BC.
According to the story, when Aeneas reached Italy, he found several groups
of people living there. He formed an alliance with one of these groups, a people
called the Latins. Together they fought the other people of Italy. After defeat-
ing these opponents, Aeneas married the daughter of the Latin king. Aeneas,
his son Ascanius, and their descendants became prominent rulers in Italy.
Romulus and Remus Among the descendants of Aeneas were the found-
ers of Rome. According to Roman legends, these founders were twin
brothers named Romulus (RAHM-yuh-luhs) and Remus (REE-muhs). In the

Legendary Founding of Rome

Roman historians traced their city’s

history back to legendary figures such
Romulus and Remus
as Aeneas, Romulus, and Remus.
The Romans believed the twins Romulus and Remus
were descendants of Aeneas. In Roman legend,
Romulus and Remus were rescued and raised by a
wolf. Romulus later killed Remus and built the city of
Rome.

Aeneas
According to the Aeneid,
Aeneas carried his father
from the burning city of
Troy and then searched for
a new home for the Trojans.
After traveling around the
Mediterranean, Aeneas
finally settled in Italy.

330 Module 10
 story, these boys led exciting lives. When they were babies, they were put
in a basket and thrown into the Tiber River. They didn’t drown, though,
because a wolf rescued them. The wolf cared for the boys for many years.
Eventually, a shepherd found the boys and adopted them.
After they grew up, Romulus and Remus decided to build a city to mark
the spot where the wolf had rescued them. While they were planning the
city, Remus mocked one of his brother’s ideas. In a fit of anger, Romulus
killed Remus. He then built the city and named it Rome after himself.
Rome’s Early Kings According to ancient historians, Romulus was the
first king of Rome, taking the throne in 753 BC. Modern historians believe
that Rome could have been founded 50 years before or after that date.
Roman records list seven kings who ruled the city. Not all of them were
Roman.
Rome’s last three kings were Etruscans (i-TRUHS-kuhnz), members of a
people who lived north of Rome. The Etruscans, who had been influenced
by Greek colonies in Italy, lived in Italy before Rome was founded.
The Etruscan kings made great contributions to Roman society. They
built huge temples and Rome’s first sewer. Many historians think that the
Romans learned their alphabet and numbers from the Etruscans.
Reading Check The last Roman king was said to have been a cruel man who had many
Draw Conclusions people killed, including his own advisors. Finally, a group of nobles rose
Why did early Romans
want to get rid of the up against him. According to tradition, he was overthrown in 509 BC. The
monarchy? nobles, who no longer wanted kings, created a new government.

The Early Republic

The government the Romans created in 509 BC was a republic. In a repub-
lic, people elect leaders to govern them. Each year the Romans elected offi-
cials to rule the city. These officials had many powers but stayed in power
for only one year. This system was supposed to keep any one person from
becoming too powerful in the government.
But Rome was not a democracy. Nearly all the city’s elected officials
came from a small group of wealthy and powerful men. These wealthy and
powerful Romans held all the power, and other people had little to no say
in how the republic was run.
Challenges from Outside Shortly after the Romans created the republic,
they found themselves at war. For about 50 years, the Romans were at war
with other peoples of the region. For the most part, the Romans won these
wars. But they lost several battles, and the wars destroyed many lives and
much property.
During particularly difficult wars, the Romans chose dictators—rulers
with almost absolute power—to lead the city. They were appointed during
tough times because there was a greater need to enforce order. Dictators
were given the power to make laws, although they were held in check by
the Senate and the courts. To keep them from abusing their power, dicta-
tors could stay in power for only six months. When that time was over, the
dictator gave up his power.

Ancient Rome 331

 BIOGRAPHY

Cincinnatus c. 519 BC–?

Cincinnatus is the most famous dictator from the early Roman Republic. Because
he wasn’t eager to hold on to his power, the Romans considered Cincinnatus an
ideal leader. They admired his abilities and his loyalty to the republic. The early
citizens of the United States admired the same qualities in their leaders. In fact,
some people called George Washington the “American Cincinnatus” when he
refused to run for a third term as president. The people of the state of Ohio also
honored Cincinnatus by naming one of their major cities, Cincinnati, after him.
Draw Conclusions
Why did the Romans consider Cincinnatus an ideal leader?

One of Rome’s famous dictators was Cincinnatus (sin-suh-NAT-uhs),

who gained power in 458 BC. Although he was a farmer, the Romans chose
him to defend the city against a powerful enemy that had defeated a large
Roman army.
Cincinnatus quickly defeated the city’s enemies. Immediately, he
resigned as dictator and returned to his farm, long before his six-month
term had run out.
The victory by Cincinnatus did not end Rome’s troubles. Rome contin-
ued to fight its neighbors on and off for many years.

Explore ONLINE!
Italy, 500 BC

Interpret Maps
Location What group lived
mostly north of Rome?
Ligurian
Sea
Ad
ria
tic
Se
a
Rome

Ty rr h e n i a n
Romans Sea
Etruscans
Greeks
Carthaginians
0 30 60 mi
I oni a n
0 30 60 km
M e d ite rr a n e a n Se a
Se a

Carthage

332 Module 10
Quick Facts

Roman Society
Patricians Plebeians
t
Wealthy, powerful citizens t
Common people
t
Nobles t
Peasants, craftspeople, traders, other workers
t
Small minority of the population t
Majority of the population
t
Once controlled all aspects of government t
Gained right to participate in government
t
After 218 BC, not allowed to participate in t
Only Romans who could be traders, often
trade or commerce wealthy

Challenges Within Rome Enemy armies weren’t the only challenge facing
Rome. Within the city, Roman society was divided into two groups. Many of
Rome’s plebeians (pli-BEE-uhnz), or common people, were calling for changes
in government. They wanted more of a say in how the city was run.
Rome was run by powerful nobles called patricians (puh-TRI-shuhnz).
Only patricians could be elected to office, so they held all political power.
The plebeians were peasants, craftspeople, traders, and other workers.
Some of these plebeians, especially traders, were as rich as patricians. Even
though the plebeians outnumbered the patricians, they couldn’t take part
in the government.
In 494 BC, the plebeians formed a council and elected their own
Reading Check officials, an act that frightened many patricians. They feared that Rome
Contrast How
were patricians and would fall apart if the two groups couldn’t cooperate. The patricians
plebeians different? decided that it was time to change the government.
Summary and Preview Rome was founded as a city in Italy, ruled at first
by kings and later by a republican government. In the next lesson, you will
learn more about that government, its strengths and weaknesses, how it
worked, and how it changed over time.

Lesson 1 Assessment

Review Ideas, Terms, and People 3. a. Describe What type of government did the
Romans create in 509 BC?
1. a. Describe Where is Italy located?
b. Contrast How were patricians and plebians
b. Explain How did mountains affect life in Italy?
different?
c. Predict How do you think Rome’s location on
the Mediterranean affected its history as it began to Critical Thinking
grow into a world power?
4. Categorize As you review your notes, separate the
2. a. Identify Which brothers supposedly founded the
legends from the historical events in Rome’s founding
city of Rome?
and growth. Then use a diagram like this one to list the
b. Summarize What role did Aeneas play in the key legendary events.
founding of Rome?

Ancient Rome 333

Literature in History
A Roman Epic

Word Help About the Reading Virgil wrote the Aeneid to record the glorious
tranquilly calmly story of Rome’s founding and to celebrate the Rome of his day. At the
astray off course center of the poem stands the hero Aeneas, survivor of the Trojan War
broached crossed and son of the goddess Venus. After wandering for seven years, Aeneas
moored anchored
finally reaches southern Italy—then known as Ausonia. Here, Aeneas’s
constraint force
gale storm
friend Ilioneus leads a group of representatives to visit a nearby Latin
settlement.
➊ Both “Teucrians”
and “sons of As You Read Try to identify each group’s goals and desires.
Dardanus” are
ways of referring to From the Aeneid
Trojans. by Virgil, Translated by Robert Fitzgerald
➋ Ilioneus says Latinus
that the Trojans are
Called the Teucrians before him, saying
not lost. A seamark
Tranquilly as they entered:
is similar to a
landmark, a feature “Sons of Dardanus—
sailors use to find You see, we know your city and your nation,
their way. As all had heard you laid a westward course—
How does Ilioneus Tell me your purpose. ➊ What design or need
address the king? Has brought you through the dark blue sea so far
Why do you think he To our Ausonian coast? Either astray
does so? Or driven by rough weather, such as sailors
Often endure at sea, you’ve broached the river,
Moored ship there. Now do not turn away
From hospitality here. Know that our Latins
Come of Saturn’s race, that we are just—
Not by constraint or laws, but by our choice
And habit of our ancient god. . . .”
Latinus then fell silent, and in turn
Ilioneus began:
“Your majesty,
Most noble son of Faunus, no rough seas
Or black gale swept us to your coast, no star
Or clouded seamark put us off our course. ➋
We journey to your city by design
And general consent, driven as we are
From realms in other days greatest by far.

Aeneas, from an Italian

painting in the 1700s

334 Module 10
Word Help The Sun looked down on, passing on his way
progeny offspring From heaven’s far eastern height. ➌ Our line’s from Jove,
threshold door In his paternity the sons of Dardanus
oracle person who Exult, and highest progeny of Jove
gives advice
averted turned away
Include our king himself—Trojan Aeneas,
immobile unmoving Who sent us to your threshold. . . . ➍
So long on the vast waters, now we ask
➌ Ilioneus explains A modest settlement of the gods of home,
that the Trojans have A strip of coast that will bring harm to no one,
come to Italy “by Air and water, open and free to all. . . .
design”—both on
Our quest was for your country. Dardanus
purpose and with
help from the gods.
Had birth here, and Apollo calls us back,
Directing us by solemn oracles
➍ Aeneas and To Tuscan Tiber. . . . ➎ Here besides
Dardanus, the Aeneus gives you from his richer years
founder of Troy, were
These modest gifts, relics caught up and saved
both believed to be
descendants of Jove,
From burning Troy. . . .”
the king of the gods. Latinus heard
Ilioneus out, his countenance averted,
➎ The Romans Sitting immobile, all attention, eyes
believed that Troy’s
Downcast but turning here and there. The embroidered
founder, Dardanus,
was born in Italy. What
Purple and the scepter of King Priam
does Ilioneus ask the Moved him less in his own kingliness
king to give the Trojans? Than long thoughts on the marriage of his daughter,
As he turned over in his inmost mind
➏ Virgil included this Old Faunus’ prophecy.
vision of Rome’s great
future to point out the
“This is the man,”
city’s greatness to his he thought, “foretold as coming from abroad
readers. To be my son-in-law, by fate appointed,
Called to reign here with equal authority—
The man whose heirs will be brilliant in valor
And win the mastery of the world.”➏

Connect Literature to History

1. Analyze Rome’s leaders wanted their city to have 2. Draw Conclusions When Aeneas reached Italy, he
a glorious past that would make the Roman people formed an alliance with the Latins. Think about how
proud. What details in this passage would make Virgil portrays the Latins in this passage. What words or
Roman readers proud of their past? phrases would you use to describe them? Why might
such people make good allies?

Ancient Rome 335

 Lesson 2

The Roman Republic

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You have just been elected a government official in
Rome’s tripartite government
Rome. Your duty is to represent the plebeians, the
and written laws helped create common people. You hold office for only one year, but
a stable society and paved the you have one important power—you can stop laws from
way for expansion. being passed. Now city leaders are proposing a law that
Main Ideas will hurt the plebeians. If you stop the new law, it will
hurt your future in politics. If you let it pass, it will hurt
■ Roman government was made
up of three parts that worked the people you are supposed to protect.
together to run the city. Will you let the new law pass? Why or why not?
■ Written laws helped keep order
in Rome.
Roman Government
■ Male citizens, women, children,
slaves, and foreigners all
When the plebeians complained about Rome’s government in
played a role in Roman society. the 400s BC, the city’s leaders knew they had to do something.
If the people stayed unhappy, they might rise up and overthrow
■ The late republic period saw
the growth of territory and
the whole government.
trade. To calm the angry plebeians, the patricians made some
■ As Rome became more
changes to Rome’s government. For example, they created
powerful, it conquered land in new offices that could be held only by plebeians. The people
Europe and Africa. who held these offices protected the plebeians’ rights and
interests. Gradually, the distinctions between patricians and
Key Terms plebeians began to disappear, but that took a very long time.
magistrates
As a result of the changes the patricians made, Rome devel-
consuls
Roman Senate
oped a tripartite (try-PAHR-tyt) government, or a government
majority rule with three parts. Each part had its own responsibilities and
veto duties. To fulfill its duties, each part of the government had its
Latin own powers, rights, and privileges.
checks and balances
Forum Magistrates The first part of Rome’s government was made up
legions of elected officials, or magistrates (MA-juh-strayts). The two
Punic Wars most powerful magistrates in Rome were called consuls (KAHN-
Hannibal
a ba suhlz). These leaders were elected each year to run the city and
lead the army. There were two consuls so that no one person
would be too powerful.

336 Module 10
 Below the consuls were other magistrates. Rome had many different
types of magistrates. Each was elected for one year and had his own duties
and powers. Some were judges. Others managed Rome’s finances or orga-
nized games and festivals.
Senate The second part of Rome’s government was the Senate. The
Roman Senate was a council of wealthy and powerful Romans that
advised the city’s leaders. It was originally created to advise Rome’s kings.
After the kings were gone, the Senate continued to meet to advise consuls.
Unlike magistrates, senators—members of the Senate—held office for
life. By the time the republic was created, the Senate had 300 members. At
first most senators were patricians, but as time passed many wealthy ple-
beians became senators as well. Because magistrates became senators after
completing their terms in office, most didn’t want to anger the Senate and
risk their future jobs.
As time passed, the Senate became more powerful. It gained influence
over magistrates and took control of the city’s finances. By 200 BC the
Senate had great influence in Rome’s government.
Assemblies and Tribunes The third part of Rome’s government, the part
that protected the common people, had two branches. The first branch was

Quick Facts

Government of the Roman Republic

Magistrates Senate Assemblies and Tribunes

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Academic made up of assemblies. Both patricians and plebeians took part in these
Vocabulary assemblies. Their primary job was to elect the magistrates who ran the city
primary main, most of Rome.
important
The second branch was made up of a group of elected officials called
tribunes. Elected by the plebeians, tribunes governed by majority rule.
Majority rule means that the group that has the most members has the
power to decide what the government will do. Tribunes also had the
ability to veto (VEE-toh), or prohibit, actions by other officials. Veto means
“I forbid” in Latin, the Romans’ language. This veto power made tribunes
very powerful in Rome’s government. To keep them from abusing their
power, each tribune remained in office only one year. Only adult male citi-
zens were permitted to vote for these leaders.
Citizenship and Civic Duty Rome’s government would not have
worked without the participation of the people. Over time, the rights
of citizenship expanded to include more people, and more people could
participate in Rome’s government. For example, plebeians gained equal
voting rights in the 200s BC. Citizens could attend assembly meetings
and vote in elections. Voting in Rome was a complicated process, and
many people were not allowed to do it, including women. Those who
could, however, had a responsibility to take part in all elections. People
participated in the government because they felt it was their civic duty, or
their duty to the city. That civic duty included doing what they could to
make sure the city prospered.

Link to Today

Do as the Romans Do
The government of the Roman Republic was one
of its greatest strengths. When the founders of the
United States sat down to plan our government,
they copied many elements of the Roman
system. Like the Romans, we elect our leaders.
Our government also has three branches—the
president, the Congress, and the federal court
system. The powers of these branches are set forth
in our Constitution, just like the Roman officials’
powers were. Our government also has a system
of checks and balances to prevent any one branch
from becoming too strong. For example, Congress
can refuse to give the president money to pay for
programs. Like the Romans, Americans have a civic
duty to participate in the government to help keep
it as strong as it can be.

Make Inferences
Why do you think the founders of the United States
borrowed ideas from Roman government?

338 Module 10
 Wealthy and powerful citizens also felt it was their duty to hold public
office to help run the city. In return for their time and commitment, these
citizens were respected and admired by other Romans.
The ability to vote wasn’t the only benefit of citizenship. Citizens could
run for office, own property, get married, and have a trial. In return, they
were expected to pay taxes and serve in the military.
Checks and Balances In addition to limiting terms of office, the Romans
established limited government by putting other restrictions on their lead-
ers’ power. Limited government is a system that allows the powers of the
government to be restricted. They did this by giving government officials
the ability to restrict the powers of other officials. For example, one consul
could block the actions of the other.
Laws proposed by the Senate had to be approved by magistrates and
ratified by assemblies. We call these methods to balance power checks and
balances. Checks and balances keep any one part of a government from
becoming stronger or more influential than the others.
Checks and balances made Rome’s government very complicated. Some-
times quarrels arose when officials had different ideas or opinions. When
officials worked together, however, Rome’s government was strong and
efficient, as one Roman historian noted:

“In unison [together] they are a match for any and all emergencies,
the result being that it is impossible to find a constitution that is
Reading Check better constructed. For whenever some common external danger
Find Main Ideas should come upon them and should compel [force] them to band
What were the three together in counsel [thought] and in action, the power of their state
parts of the Roman
government?
becomes so great that nothing that is required is neglected [ignored].”
—Polybius, from The Constitution of the Roman Republic

Written Laws Keep Order

Rome’s officials believed in the rule of law, the belief that all people must
follow an established set of rules. The officials were responsible for making
the city’s laws and making sure that people obeyed them. At
first these laws weren’t written down. The only people who
knew all the laws were the patricians who had made them.
Many people were unhappy with this situation. They did
not want to be punished for breaking laws they didn’t even
know existed. As a result, they began to call for Rome’s laws
to be written down and made accessible to everybody.
Rome’s first written law code was produced in 450 BC
on 12 bronze tables, or tablets. These tables were displayed
in the Forum, Rome’s public meeting place. Because of how
it was displayed, this code was called the Law of the Twelve
The Law of the Twelve Tables,
inscribed on 12 bronze tablets, Tables. In addition to listing laws people had to follow, it listed many
was originally displayed in the rights, including the right to a trial, an assurance that a person would
Roman Forum for all to see.
have 30 days to pay off a debt, and guarantees regarding property.

Ancient Rome 339

 DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Law of the Twelve A Roman

who did not [from Table I] If anyone summons a man
Tables before the magistrate, he must go. If the man
appear before
The Law of the Twelve a government summoned does not go, let the one summoning
Tables governed many official when
him call the bystanders to witness and then take
called or did
parts of Roman life. him by force.
not pay his
Some laws were written debts could be [from Table III] One who has confessed a debt, or
to protect the rights arrested. against whom judgment has been pronounced,
of all Romans. Others
shall have thirty days to pay it. After that forcible
protected only the
seizure of his person is allowed . . . unless he pays
patricians. The laws Women—even
listed here should give as adults— the amount of the judgment.
you an idea of the were legally [from Table V] Females should remain in
considered to guardianship even when they have attained their
kinds of laws the tables be children.
included. majority.
No one in [from Table IX] Putting to death of any man,
Rome could whosoever he might be, unconvicted is forbidden.
Analyze Historical Sources
be executed
How are these laws similar without a trial.
—Law of the Twelve Tables, translated in
The Library of Original Sources edited
to and different from our by Oliver J. Thatcher
laws today?

Over time, Rome’s leaders passed many new laws. They were established
in a variety of ways. For example, magistrates issued proclamations called
edicts, the Senate passed legislation, and plebeians enacted resolutions.
Still, throughout their history, the Romans looked to the Law of the Twelve
Reading Check Tables as a symbol of Roman law and of their rights as Roman citizens.
Make Inferences Enforcing the law was the responsibility of the magistrates. However,
Why did many people
want a written law Roman officials sometimes struggled to maintain order, since there was no
code? police force.

Life in Ancient Rome

The laws and government of Rome helped shape the way society func-
tioned. The roles and responsibilities of different members of society
shaped daily life in Rome. In addition to male citizens, women, children,
slaves, and foreigners all played a part.
Women and Children Women were expected to run the household and
take care of children. They taught their daughters homemaking skills.
Despite their responsibilities, mothers did not have legal rights over chil-
dren. However, Roman women did have more freedom and power than
women in some later cultures because a woman could inherit money from
her father when he died.
Children in Roman society shared some similarities with children
today. They played games and had dolls and toys. They also owned pets

340 Module 10
 like dogs and birds. However, girls sometimes married as early as age 12
and were expected to be married by the age of 16. Boys could get married
later. Most children did not go to school, because they had to work to help
their families. Only rich families could afford to pay a teacher.
Slaves and Foreigners Slaves played a very significant role in Rome. In
fact, about 30 percent of the population was enslaved. They were treated
cruelly and were often whipped and beaten. They worked in homes as
servants and as laborers on farms, in factories, and in mines. They also
worked for the government building roads, aqueducts, and buildings.
Foreigners enjoyed a slightly higher social standing than slaves, though
neither group had legal protection. Even so, foreigners had more rights in
Rome than they did in Greek city-states. They could also be granted citi-
zenship if they adopted Roman ways.
The Roman Forum The Roman Forum, the place where the Law of the
Twelve Tables was kept, was the heart of the city of Rome. It was the site
of important government buildings and temples. Government and religion
were only part of what made the Forum so important, though. It was also a
popular meeting place for Roman citizens. People met there to shop, chat,
and gossip.

The Roman Forum

The Forum was the center of life in ancient Rome. The
city’s most important temples and government buildings
were located there, and Romans met there to talk about
the issues of the day. The word forum means “public place.”

The Temple of Jupiter stood atop the

Capitoline Hill, overlooking the Forum.

Important government The Senate met

records were stored in here in the curia,
the Tabularium. or Senate House.

Roman citizens often wore togas,

loose-fitting garments wrapped
around the body. Togas were
symbols of Roman citizenship.

Public officials often

Analyze Visuals addressed people
What can you see in this illustration that from this platform.
indicates the Forum was an important place?

Ancient Rome 341

 The Forum lay in the center of Rome, between two major hills. On one
side was the Palatine (PA-luh-tyn) Hill, where Rome’s richest people lived.
Across the forum was the Capitoline (KA-pet-uhl-yn) Hill, where Rome’s
grandest temples stood. Because of this location, city leaders could often be
found in or near the forum, mingling with the common people. These lead-
ers used the Forum as a speaking area, delivering speeches to the crowds.
But the Forum also had attractions for people not interested in
speeches. Various shops lined the open square, and public ceremonies
were commonly held there. Crowds also gathered for fights between
gladiators or prisoners. These fights were a popular and violent spectator
Reading Check sport. Seneca, a Roman philosopher, said this about them:
Form Generalizations
How was the Forum “But now all the trifling is put aside and it is pure murder. The men
the heart of Roman have no defensive armor. They are exposed to blows at all points. . . .”
society? —Seneca, Epistle 7: On Crowds

Growth of Territory and Trade

After about 400 BC the Roman Republic grew quickly, both geographically
and economically. Within 200 years the Roman army had conquered nearly
all of Italy. Meanwhile Roman traders had begun to ship goods back and
forth around the Mediterranean in search of new products and wealth.
Growth of Territory Roman territory grew mainly in response to outside
threats. In about 387 BC a people called the Gauls attacked Rome and took
over the city. The Romans had to give the Gauls a huge amount of gold to
leave the city.

Link to Economics

Roman Banking
Rome had a large system of state and private banks. Banking
helped money flow all across Roman territories, encouraging
economic growth and trade. People exchanged money to pay
taxes and conduct trade. Banks lent money to individuals and
businesses to help them meet needs. People could also give
money and valuable goods to banks for safekeeping. Special
state bankers were responsible for removing old, worn coins from
circulation and replacing them with newly minted one.
The Roman government developed rules for bankers. Banks had
to keep records showing each transaction. This kept banks honest
and served as legal proof of loans and deposits. Improvements
in recordkeeping also allowed banks to send money using paper
notes instead of coins, which could be stolen.

Analyze Information
In what ways is banking in the United States today similar to Roman banking?

342 Module 10
 Inspired by the Gauls’ victory, many of Rome’s neighboring cities also
decided to attack. With some difficulty, the Romans fought off these
attacks. As Rome’s attackers were defeated, the Romans took over their
lands. As you can see on the map, the Romans soon controlled all of the
Italian Peninsula except far northern Italy.
One reason for the Roman success was the organization of the army.
Soldiers were organized in legions (LEE-juhnz), or groups of up to 6,000
soldiers. Each legion was divided into centuries, or groups of 100 soldiers.
This organization allowed the army to be very flexible. It could fight as a
large group or as several small ones. This flexibility allowed the Romans to
defeat most enemies.
Farming and Trade Before Rome conquered Italy, most Romans were
farmers. As the republic grew, many people left their farms for Rome. In
place of these small farms, wealthy Romans built large farms in the coun-
tryside. These farms were worked by slaves who grew one or two crops.
The owners of the farms didn’t usually live on them. Instead, they stayed
in Rome or other cities and let others run the farms for them.
Roman trade also expanded as the republic grew. Rome’s farmers
couldn’t grow enough food to support the city’s increasing population, so
Reading Check merchants brought food from other parts of the Mediterranean. These
Analyze Causes merchants also brought metal goods and slaves to Rome. To pay for these
Why did the Romans
conquer their goods, the Romans made coins out of copper, silver, and other metals.
neighbors? Roman coins began to appear in markets all around the Mediterranean.

Explore ONLINE!
The Roman Republic, 509–270 BC

Ligurian Roman lands in 509 BC

Sea Roman lands in 270 BC
0 75 150 mi
Ad 0 75 150 km
ria
tic
Se
Rome a

Ty rr h e n ia n
Se a

Ionia n
M e d i t e rr a n e a n Se a
Se a
N
Interpret Maps
E
W
Location What seas bordered
Carthage
S Roman lands in 270 BC?

Ancient Rome 343

 Rome Grows Beyond Italy
As Rome’s power grew, other countries came to see the Romans as a threat
to their own power and declared war on them. In the end, the Romans
defeated their opponents, and Rome gained territory throughout the
Mediterranean.
The Punic Wars The fiercest of the wars Rome fought were the Punic
(PYOO -nik) Wars, a series of wars against Carthage, a city in northern
Africa. The word Punic means “Phoenician” in Latin. As you might recall,
the Phoenicians, who had built the city of Carthage, were an ancient
civilization.
Rome and Carthage went to war three times between 264 and 146 BC.
The wars began when Carthage sent its armies to Sicily, an island just
southwest of Italy. In response, the Romans also sent an army to the
island. Before long, war broke out between them. After almost 20 years of
fighting, the Romans forced their enemies out and took control of Sicily.
In 218 BC Carthage tried to attack Rome itself. An army led by the brilliant
general Hannibal set out for Rome. Although he forced the Romans right
to the edge of defeat, Hannibal was never able to capture Rome itself. In the
meantime, the Romans sent an army to attack Carthage. Hannibal rushed
home to defend his city, but his troops were defeated at Zama (ZAY-muh).
By the 140s BC many senators had grown alarmed that Carthage was
growing powerful again. They convinced Rome’s consuls to declare war
on Carthage, and once again the Romans sent an army to Africa and
destroyed Carthage. After this victory, the Romans burned the city, killed
most of its people, and sold the rest of the people into slavery. They also
took control of northern Africa.
Later Expansion During the Punic Wars, Rome took control of Sicily,
Corsica, Spain, and North Africa. As a result, Rome controlled most of the
western Mediterranean region. As more land was conquered, more people
were recruited to join the Roman army.
In the years that followed, Roman legions marched north and east as
well. Rome went on to conquer Greece, as well as parts of Gaul and Asia.

BIOGRAPHY

Hannibal 247–183 BC
Many historians consider Hannibal to be one of the greatest generals of the
ancient world. From an early age, he hated Rome. In 218 BC, he began the Second
Punic War by attacking one of Rome’s allies in Spain. After the war he became the
leader of Carthage, but later the Romans forced him to flee the city. He went to
Asia and joined with a king fighting the Romans there. The king was defeated, and
Hannibal killed himself so that he wouldn’t become a Roman prisoner.
Analyze Motives
Why do you think Hannibal began by attacking Rome’s ally?

344 Module 10
 Explore ONLINE!
Rome Battles Carthage

The Roman general Scipio attacked Carthage Battle of Zama, 202 BC

Carthage. Hannibal had to leave Roman Republic Hannibal’s route
Italy to defend his homeland. 0 150 300 Miles Scipio’s route

0 150 300 Kilometers

Rome

Carthage N
Interpret Maps
Movement Describe the route W E

Scipio used to get to Carthage.

S

Although the Romans took over Greece, they were greatly changed
Reading Check by the experience. We would normally expect the victor to change the
Summarize How
did the Romans gain conquered country. Instead, the Romans adopted ideas about literature,
territory? art, philosophy, religion, and education from the Greeks.
Summary and Preview A republic in which citizens could vote and had
rights was the basic structure of Roman government. During this period,
Rome grew economically and geographically. In the next lesson, you will
learn about Rome’s transition from a republic to an empire.

Lesson 2 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People 5. a. Recall Who fought in the Punic Wars?
1. a. Identify Who were the consuls? b. Summarize What led to the beginning of the Punic
Wars?
b. Explain Why did the Romans create a system of
checks and balances? c. Elaborate Why do you think the Romans borrowed
many ideas from Greek culture?
c. Draw Conclusions How do you think the Roman
Senate gained power? Critical Thinking
2. a. Recall What was Rome’s first written law code
called? 6. Summarize Use this diagram to note information
about the powers of the parts of Rome’s government.
b. Analyze Why did Romans want their laws written
down?
3. a. Describe What were the responsibilities of women Magistrates
in Rome?
4. a. Define What was a Roman legion?
b. Explain Why did the Romans decide to conquer all
of Italy? Senate Assemblies
and Tribunes
c. Analyze How did the growth of territory help
increase Roman trade?

Ancient Rome 345

 Lesson 3

From Republic to Empire

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a friend of a Roman senator. Your friend is wor-
Julius Caesar and Augustus
ried about the growing power of military men in Rome’s
led Rome’s transition from a government. Some other senators want to take violent
republic to an empire. action to stop generals from taking over as dictators.
Your friend wants your advice: Is violence justified to
Main Ideas
save the Roman Republic?
■ Several crises struck the
republic in later years. What advice will you give your friend?
■ As Rome descended into
chaos, many called for change
in government.
Crises Strike the Republic
As the Romans’ territory grew, problems arose in the republic.
■ Julius Caesar rose to power
Rich citizens were getting richer, and many leaders feared that
and became the sole ruler
violence would erupt between rich and poor.
of Rome.
■ After Caesar’s death, Augustus Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus Among the first leaders to
became emperor. address Rome’s problems were brothers named Tiberius (ty-BIR-
Key Terms and People ee-uhs) and Gaius Gracchus (GY-uhs GRAK-uhs). Both served as
tribunes.
Gaius Marius
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Tiberius, who took office in 133 BC, wanted to create farms
Spartacus for poor Romans. The purpose of these farms was to keep the
Cicero poor citizens happy and prevent rebellions. Tiberius wanted
orator to create his farms on public land that wealthy citizens had
Julius Caesar illegally taken over. The public supported this idea, but the
Pompey wealthy citizens opposed it. Conflict over the idea led to riots
Cleopatra VII
in the city, during which Tiberius was killed.
Brutus
Marc Antony A few years later Gaius also tried to create new farms. He
Augustus also began to sell food cheaply to Rome’s poor citizens. Like his
brother, Gaius angered many powerful Romans and was killed
for his ideas.
Academic The violent deaths of the Gracchus brothers changed Roman
Vocabulary politics. From that time on, people saw violence as a politi-
purpose the
reason something cal weapon. They often attacked leaders with whom they
is done disagreed.
Marius and Sulla In the late 100s BC, another social change
nearly led to the end of the republic. In 107 BC, the Roman
army desperately needed more troops. In response, a consul

346 Module 10
 BIOGRAPHY

Lucius Cornelius Sulla 138–78 BC

Although the two eventually became enemies, Sulla learned much of what he
knew about military affairs from Gaius Marius. He had been an assistant to Marius
before he became consul. Sulla changed Rome’s government forever when he
became dictator, but he actually had many traditional ideas. For example, he
believed the Senate should be the main ruling group in Rome, and he increased
its power during his rule.
Analyze Issues
Do you think Sulla was a traditional Roman leader? Why or why not?

named Gaius Marius (MER-ee-uhs) encouraged poor people to join the

army. Before, only people who owned property had been allowed to join.
As a result of this change, thousands of poor and unemployed citizens
joined Rome’s army.
Because Marius was a good general, his troops were more loyal to him
than they were to Rome. The army’s support gave Marius great political
power. Following his example, other ambitious politicians also sought
their armies’ support.
One such politician, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (LOO -shuhs kawr-NEEL-
yuhs SUHL-uh), became consul in 88 BC. Sulla soon came into conflict
with Marius, a conflict that led to a civil war in Rome. A civil war is a war

Explore ONLINE!

The Roman Republic, 270–100 BC

ATLANTIC
OCEAN Bay of
GAUL Roman lands in 270 BC
Biscay
Roman lands in 100 BC
Po River 0 150 300 mi

0 150 300 km
Ligurian
Ad
Tib

Sea Black
SPAIN
ria
er R .

c Sea
ti

Se
a
Rome MACEDONIA

GREECE
Tyrrhenian
Sea ASIA
Aegean MINOR
Strait of Mediterra Sea
Gibraltar nea
n

Carthage Ionian
S

Sea
ea

AFRICA N

W E

S
Interpret Maps
Place What new lands did Rome add between 270 and 100 BC?

Ancient Rome 347

 between citizens of the same country. In the end Sulla defeated Marius. He
later named himself dictator and used his power to punish his enemies.
Spartacus Not long after Sulla died, another crisis arose to challenge
Rome’s leaders. Thousands of slaves led by a former gladiator, Spartacus
(SPAHR-tuh-kuhs), rose up and demanded freedom. Spartacus was widely
admired. The Greek historian Plutarch said he “had a great spirit and great
physical strength, [and] was, much more than one would expect from his
condition, most intelligent and cultured.”
Spartacus and his followers defeated an army sent to stop them and
Reading Check took over much of southern Italy. Eventually, though, Spartacus was
Contrast How did killed in battle. Without his leadership, the revolt fell apart. Victorious,
the reforms of the the Romans executed 6,000 rebellious slaves as an example to others
Gracchus brothers
differ from those of who thought about rebelling. The rebellion was over, but the republic’s
Gaius Marius? problems were not.

The Call for Change

Cicero was a gifted
lawyer and public Rome in the 70s BC was a dangerous place. Politicians and
speaker. He was also generals went to war to increase their power even as politi-
a strong supporter of cal order broke down in Rome. Unemployed Romans rioted
Rome’s republican form
of government. in the streets because they couldn’t get enough food. All
the while more and more people from all around the republic
flooded into the city, further adding to the confusion.
Some Romans tried to stop the chaos in Rome’s govern-
ment. One such person was Cicero (SIS-uh-roh), a gifted
philosopher and orator, or public speaker. In his speeches
Cicero called on Romans to make Rome a better place. One way
to do this, he argued, was to limit the power of generals. Cicero wanted the
Romans to give more support to the Senate and to restore the checks and
balances on government.
Reading Check But Cicero was unsuccessful. Many Romans didn’t agree with him.
Summarize What
did Cicero want Others were too caught up in their own affairs to pay any attention.
Romans to do? Rome’s government did not change.

Caesar’s Rise to Power

As Cicero was calling on the Romans to take power away from the gener-
als, a new group of generals was working to take over the government. The
most powerful of these generals was Julius Caesar (JOOL-yuhs SEE-zuhr).
Caesar the General Caesar was probably the greatest general in Roman
history. Other Romans admired him for his bravery and skill in battle. At
the same time, his soldiers respected him because he treated them well.
Between 58 and 50 BC, Caesar conquered nearly all of Gaul—a region
that included much of modern France, Germany, and northern Italy. When
he invaded Britain in 55 BC, however, he encountered a fierce fighting
force. The Britons fought bravely, and Caesar was forced to retreat. He
returned a year later with an additional 30,000 soldiers and this time
conquered part of Britain.

348 Module 10
 He wrote a description of this conquest, describing in great detail how
he defeated each of the tribes he faced. Here he describes how he defeated
a group called the Menapii. Notice how he refers to himself as “Caesar.”

“Caesar, having divided his forces . . . and having hastily [quickly]

constructed some bridges, enters their country in three divisions,
burns their houses and villages, and gets possession of a large
number of cattle and men. Constrained [forced] by these
circumstances the Menapii send ambassadors to him for the
purpose of suing [asking] for peace.”
—Julius Caesar, from The Gallic Wars

Caesar’s military successes made him a major figure in Roman politics.

In addition to being a good leader, Caesar was an excellent speaker. He won
Academic many people to his side with his speeches in the forum.
Vocabulary Caesar also had powerful friends. Before he went to Gaul, he made an
agreement a decision
reached by two or more agreement with two of the most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and
people or groups Crassus. The three agreed to work together to fight against the Senate.
Together, Caesar and his allies changed the course of Roman history.
Conflict with an Ally At the end of the fighting in Gaul, Caesar was one of
the most powerful men in the Roman Republic. He was so powerful that
even his friends were jealous and afraid of him. This jealousy and fear
changed Caesar’s relationship with Pompey.
In 50 BC, Pompey’s allies in the Senate ordered Caesar to give up com-
mand of his armies and return to Rome. Caesar refused. He knew that
Pompey was trying to take power away from him and would arrest him
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and added it to the empire.
This painting from the late 1800s shows a Frankish leader
surrendering to Caesar by dropping his weapons at Caesar’s feet.

Ancient Rome 349

 if he gave up his command. As a result, Caesar led his army into Italy. In
49 BC, Caesar and his troops crossed the Rubicon River, the boundary
between Gaul and Italy.
Because Roman law said that no general could enter Italy with his army,
Pompey and the Senate considered Caesar’s return to Italy a sign of war.
Afraid that Caesar would attack him, Pompey and his allies fled Italy. They
didn’t think they had enough troops to defeat Caesar.
Caesar and his army chased Pompey’s forces around the Mediterranean
for a year. Eventually they drove Pompey into Egypt, where he was killed.
In 46 BC, Julius Caesar
There Caesar met Cleopatra VII, whom he made queen of Egypt. As queen,
founded the southern
French town of Arles. In Cleopatra became his new ally.
2007, archaeologists
and divers discovered Conflict with the Senate Finally, Caesar returned to Rome. When he got
this bust at the bottom there, he forced the Senate to name him dictator for ten years. Later this
of the Rhône River near
Arles. It is believed to
term was extended, and Caesar became dictator for life.
be the only known Although Caesar wanted to improve Roman society, some people resented
statue of Caesar carved the way he had gained power. They feared that Caesar was trying to make
during his lifetime.
himself the king of Rome. The Romans certainly didn’t want a king.

The Death of Julius Caesar

Caesar was stabbed to death on March 15, 44 BC. To the Romans, March 15 was called the
Ides of March, and before Caesar was killed he was warned to “beware the Ides of March.”

350 Module 10
 Some Senators were especially angry
with Caesar. On March 15—a date the
Romans called the Ides of March—in
44 BC, a group of Senators attacked
Caesar in the Senate house and stabbed
him to death.
Among the attackers was a young
Senator named Brutus (BROOT-uhs),
who had been a friend and ally of
Caesar’s. Some Romans even believed
that Brutus may have been Caesar’s
son but didn’t know it. According
to Roman historians, Caesar was
shocked by Brutus’s betrayal and
stopped fighting against his attack-
ers when he recognized him. Plutarch
described the scene by writing, “[W]
hen he saw Brutus’s sword drawn, he
covered his face with his robe and
submitted, letting himself fall. . . .”
The military of the Roman Empire used symbols to inspire
pride and to communicate on the battlefield. These were
called standards, and soldiers would attach them to a
staff or pole to identify their legion. The aquila, or eagle,
which represented strength, is the best known Roman
standard. It was made of gold or silver.

DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Views of Caesar
“So the affair began, and those who were
Different people held contrasting views of not privy to the plot were filled with
Julius Caesar’s death. Some Senators admired consternation [dismay] and horror at what
Caesar and were horrified by his murder. The was going on; they dared not fly, nor go to
biographer Plutarch (PLOO-tahrk) described
Caesar’s help, nay, nor even utter a word.”
their reactions to the event. The historian
—Plutarch
Suetonius (swe-TOH-nee-uhs) explained that from Life of Caesar
other Senators thought Caesar deserved to be
killed because his actions were threatening the “He abused his power and was justly slain.
republic. For not only did he accept excessive honors,
such as an uninterrupted consulship, the
dictatorship for life, and the censorship of
public morals . . . but he also allowed honors
to be bestowed on him which were too great
for mortal man.”
Analyze Historical Sources
—Suetonius
Contrast how Plutarch and Suetonius each wrote from The Lives of the Caesars, The Deified Julius
about Caesar’s death.

Ancient Rome 351

 Reading Check Rather than becoming heroes, Caesar’s murderers were forced to flee for
Analyze Events their lives. Rome was shocked by Caesar’s murder, and many people were
What were the events furious about it. He had been loved by many common people, and many of
that led to Caesar’s
gaining power in
these people rioted after his death. From the chaos that followed Caesar’s
Rome? assassination, the Senate had to act quickly to restore order.

Augustus the Emperor

Two leaders emerged to take control of Roman politics. One was Caesar’s
former assistant, Marc Antony. The other was Caesar’s adopted son
Octavian (ahk-TAY-veeuhn), later called Augustus (aw- GUHS-tuhs).
Antony and Octavian Antony and Octavian worked to punish the people
who had killed Caesar. At Caesar’s funeral, Antony delivered a famous
speech that turned even more Romans against the killers. Shortly after-
ward, he and Octavian set out with an army to try to avenge Caesar’s death.
Their army caught up to the killers near Philippi (FI-luh-py) in northern
Greece. In 42 BC, Antony and Octavian soundly defeated their opponents.
After the battle, the leaders of the plot to kill Caesar, including Brutus,
killed themselves.
Octavian Becomes Emperor After the Battle of Philippi, Octavian
returned to Italy while Antony went east to fight Rome’s enemies. In
Turkey, Antony met Cleopatra VII, the queen of Egypt, and the two fell
in love. Antony divorced his wife, Octavian’s sister, to be with Cleopatra.
Octavian saw this divorce as an insult to his sister and to himself.
Antony’s behavior led to civil war in Rome. In 31 BC, Octavian sent a
fleet to attack Antony. Antony sailed out to meet it, and the two forces met
just west of Greece in the Battle of Actium (AK-shee-uhm). Antony’s fleet
was defeated, but he escaped back to Egypt with Cleopatra. There the two
committed suicide, so they wouldn’t be taken prisoner by Octavian.
With Antony’s death, Octavian became Rome’s sole ruler. Over the next
few years, he gained power. In 27 BC, Octavian announced that he was
giving up all his power to the Senate, but, in reality, he kept much power.
He took the title princeps (PRIN-seps), or first citizen. The Senate gave him
a new name—Augustus, which means “revered one.” Modern historians

BIOGRAPHY

Cleopatra VII 69–30 BC

Cleopatra was a devoted ally of Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, but
she didn’t like Octavian. After the Battle of Actium, she feared that
Octavian would arrest her and take over Egypt. Rather than see
Octavian running her kingdom, Cleopatra chose to commit suicide.
According to tradition, she poisoned herself with the venom of a
deadly snake.
Draw Conclusions
Why do you think Cleopatra feared that Octavian would take over Egypt?

352 Module 10
 consider the naming of Augustus the end of the Roman Republic and the
beginning of the Roman Empire.
Reading Check Augustus made many improvements in the city of Rome. He created a
Summarize How did fire department and a police force to protect people. He built new aque-
the Roman Republic
become ducts and repaired old ones to increase Rome’s water supply. Augustus also
an empire? worked on improving and expanding Rome’s road network.
Summary and Preview Julius Caesar, and later Augustus, gained power
in times of crisis and made the Roman Republic into an empire. In the
next lesson you’ll learn what he and his successors did as the heads of
that empire.

Lesson 3 Assessment

Review Ideas, Terms, and People 4. a. Identify Who took over Rome after Caesar’s death?
1. a. Identify Who was Spartacus? b. Summarize How did Octavian take power from
Marc Antony?
b. Explain How did the deaths of the Gracchus
brothers change Roman politics? Critical Thinking
2. a. Recall Whom did Cicero want Romans to give
power to? 5. Sequence Draw a timeline like the one shown here.
Use it to identify key events in Rome’s change from a
b. Explain Why did some Romans call for change in
republic to an empire.
their government?
3. a. Identify Who killed Julius Ceasar?
b. Explain Why did many senators consider Caesar
a threat?
c. Elaborate Why do you think Caesar wanted the
title of dictator for life?

Ancient Rome 353

 Lesson 4

A Vast Empire
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You live in the Roman town of Londinium, in the Roman
After Augustus became emperor,
province of Britannia. Your people were conquered by
the Roman Empire grew politi- the Roman army many years ago. Roman soldiers have
cally and economically, and life mixed with your people, and many have settled down
improved for the Roman people. here. Many Britons in Londinium have adopted Roman
Main Ideas customs. You live in a Roman-style house and eat from
pottery made in Italy. Your cousins in the country live
■ The Roman Empire expanded
to control the entire very differently, however. They still think of the Romans
Mediterranean world. as invaders.
■ Trade increased in Rome, both How do you like being part of the Roman Empire?
within the empire and with
other people.
■ The Pax Romana was a period
The Empire Expands
of peace and prosperity in the When Rome became an empire, it already controlled most of
cities and the country. the Mediterranean world. Within about 150 years, though, the
■ The Romans were very
empire had grown even bigger. Augustus and the emperors who
religious and worshipped followed him pushed the boundaries of their empire, taking
many gods. over huge chunks of Europe, Africa, and Asia. At its height Rome
ruled one of the largest empires in all of world history.
Key Terms and People
Hadrian Emperors After Augustus Augustus was the first of the five
provinces emperors who belonged to the Julio-Claudian family. None
currency of his followers lived up to his success. Augustus named his
Pax Romana stepson, Tiberius, to be emperor after him. Tiberius was a less
skillful ruler, and his harsh policies were unpopular with the
Roman people. The next emperor, Caligula, was even worse.
Members of his personal guard assassinated Caligula in AD 41
after a few short years of rule. The guard declared Caligula’s
uncle Claudius the new emperor. After Claudius died, his
adopted son Nero became emperor.
The last Julio-Claudian, Nero, seemed like a good ruler when
he first came to power in AD 54. He undid some of the harsh
policies of past emperors. He ended secret trials, gave more
independence to the Senate, and allowed slaves to sue their
masters for poor treatment.

354 Module 10
 However, Nero changed over time. He later ordered soldiers to kill his
mother and his wife. When he realized he would not be punished for his
behavior, he began to act very strangely. He played music in public and
performed on stage, which the Roman people believed was shameful
behavior for an emperor.
The people of Rome grew more uncomfortable with Nero’s leadership
and extravagant spending. He made many enemies and was eventually
overthrown. Nero did not leave behind a successor and with no leader to
rule the empire, a series of civil wars followed. However, he did have some
military successes under his rule.
The Roman Military Like the Gupta Empire in ancient India, the Roman
Empire expanded through military might. Rome’s military was success-
ful in part because it was well organized. They adopted a structure with
different ranks that is similar to modern armies. Forces were led by high-
ranking officers, who oversaw triarii, principes, and hastati. These ranks
were similar to modern-day lieutenants, sergeants, and privates.
The military’s tactics were also highly organized. In battle, soldiers
would form several lines in an open field. The first line would rush toward
the center to attack the enemy. They would fight for a period of time
and then the second line would advance. The survivors from the first
line would then reorganize in a line behind them, and the process would
continue until the battle ended.
Reasons for Expansion Why did emperors add so much land to the
empire? They had many reasons. One of these reasons was to control
hostile neighbors. Some countries that shared borders with Rome were
threatening Rome. To keep these countries from attacking the empire or
its citizens, the Romans conquered them.
Not all of the territories the Romans conquered were political threats.
Some were conquered for economic reasons. The people who lived in
conquered lands were required to pay taxes. The money was used to pay
for the military and for public works projects such as roads.
Many of these territories had vast supplies of gold, good farmlands,
or other resources the Romans wanted. Other areas were conquered for
another reason: some emperors liked a good fight.
Expanded Citizenship As the Roman Empire’s territory expanded, some
people in the newly conquered lands became citizens. Rome’s rulers gave
citizenship to the upper-class members of these places to make them loyal
to the empire. Over time, citizenship was granted to all free men and
women of the empire.
Citizenship had changed since the days of the Roman Republic. For
example, in the Roman Empire, voting was no longer allowed and military
service was not required. However, citizens were still required to pay taxes.
Even though citizenship offered fewer benefits than it had during the
Roman Republic, it was still considered an honor.

Ancient Rome 355

 Explore ONLINE!
Population Density and Roman Expansion, 146 BC–AD 117
N
W

Interpret Maps Roman Empire by 146 BC

E
S Roman Empire by 44 BC
1. Place Where were the borders of
Nort h the empire in AD 117?
Roman Empire by AD 117
Sea Each dot represents one
2. Population About how many million people in AD 117
0 250 500 mi
people lived in the Roman Empire
ATLANTIC 0 250 500 km
OCEAN in AD 117?

GAUL
(FRANCE)
Ca
sp
SPAIN

ia
IT

n
Bla ck Se a
A

Sea
LY

ASIA
GREECE MINOR

Me
dit
e rr
an e
a n Sea
Pe
rs
ia
n G
ulf

N O RT H A F R I C A EGYPT A RA BIA
R
ed
Se
a

Directions of Expansion As the map shows, the Roman Empire grew after
Augustus died. By the early 100s, the Romans had taken over Gaul and
much of central Europe. Its boundary in Europe was formed by the Danube
River and the Rhine River.
By the time of the emperor Hadrian, the Romans had also conquered
most of the island of Britain. The people of Britain, the Celts (KELTZ), had
fought fiercely against the Roman army. Fearing attacks by barbarian invad-
ers in the north, Hadrian built a huge wall across northern Britain. Hadri-
an’s Wall marked the border between Roman and non-Roman territory.
In the east, the empire stretched all the way into Mesopotamia. Other
Asian territories the Romans ruled included Asia Minor and the eastern
coast of the Mediterranean. All of the North African coast belonged to
Rome as well, so the Romans controlled everything that bordered the
Mediterranean. In fact, Roman control of the Mediterranean was so great
that they called it Mare Nostrum, or “Our Sea.”
In order to effectively control such a vast amount of territory, the empire
Reading Check decentralized its government. It would have been nearly impossible to govern
Draw Conclusions distant lands from Rome, so the Roman leaders transferred power to more
Why did Roman
emperors want to local leaders. Regional governors, who had a strong understanding of what
expand the empire? imperial leaders wanted, were put in charge.

356 Module 10
 Trade Increases
As the empire grew, the Romans met many different peoples. In many
cases, these peoples had goods that the Romans wanted. Thinking that
there would be a market for these products in Rome, merchants began to
travel all over the empire, as you can see on the map.
People in the city of Rome needed raw materials that they couldn’t pro-
duce themselves. Many of the materials could be found, though, in Rome’s
provinces, the areas outside of Italy that the Romans controlled. Traders
brought cloth, metals, and food from the provinces to the city. They also
brought more exotic goods, such as spices from Asia and animals from
Africa. In return, the Romans sent goods made by artisans to the prov-
inces. These goods included jewelry, glass, and clothing.
Some Roman traders also traveled beyond the empire’s borders. The
Mediterranean Sea provided an easy way to reach the Middle East, Africa,
and other areas in Europe. The Roman navy protected trading ships from
pirate attacks. The unity of the Roman Empire led to a period of peace that
allowed trade to grow around the Mediterranean and elsewhere.
Roman traders sailed as far as eastern Africa, India, and what is now
Vietnam to find goods they couldn’t get in the empire. Traders also used
the roads that the Roman government had spent money to build. They
traveled overland into Asia to meet merchants bringing goods from China
on the Silk Road. Silk was especially popular in Rome. Wealthy Romans
were willing to pay high prices for it.

Explore ONLINE!
Roman Trade Routes, AD 200

N
W Roman Empire, Grains Silk
c. AD 200
E
Olives/olive oil Spices
S Trade route
Grapes/wine Gold
BRITAIN
AT L A NT I C 0 100 200 mi Iron

O CE A N 0 100 200 km

GAUL

Black
Sea Caspian
Sea
SPAIN Massilia Rome Byzantium

Carthago
Nova Antioch

Carthage

Athens SYRIA
Me
dite Damascus
rr a n e a
n Se a
Alexandria
Interpret Maps
Movement What were some goods that
EGYPT
traveled along Roman trade routes?
Re
d
Se
a

Ancient Rome 357

 To pay for their trade goods, Romans used currency, or money. They
traded coins made of gold and silver for the items they wanted. These coins
Reading Check allowed the Romans to trade with people even if they had no items their
Form Generalizations
How did currency help trade partners wanted. Because the empire had established a uniform cur-
Roman trade grow? rency, everybody used the same money, which helped trade grow even more.

The Pax Romana

The first 200 years of the Roman Empire were a time of general peace and
prosperity. Several characteristics, such as a stable government and an orga-
nized military, helped the empire thrive and maintain peace during these
years. There were no major wars or rebellions in the empire. We call this peace-
ful period the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. It lasted until about AD 180.
Academic During the Pax Romana the empire’s population grew. Trade continued to
Vocabulary increase, and many Romans became wealthy through this trade. One effect
effect the result of of these changes was an improvement in the quality of life for people living
an action or decision
in Rome and in its provinces.
Life in Cities During the Pax Romana many
Romans lived in cities scattered throughout
the empire. Some of these cities, like
Alexandria in Egypt, were major centers

Pompeii: A City Preserved

Pompeii was located at the foot of a volcano called Mount Vesuvius. In AD 79, This famous painting shows a
Vesuvius suddenly erupted, and ash buried Pompeii. The well-preserved remains young couple who lived in Pompeii.
of Pompeii have taught us a great deal about life in the Roman Empire.

Analyze Visuals
From the ruins, does it look like Pompeii was
an urban or rural area? How can you tell?

358 Module 10
Chariot racing was the most popular sport in ancient Rome. Slaves, soldiers,
senators, and emperors all loved to go to the track and watch thrilling
competitions. Devoted fans cheered for their favorite teams and drivers.

of trade and had huge populations. Other cities, like Pompeii (pom-PAY) in
Italy, had much smaller populations.
By far the largest city in the empire was, of course, Rome. Some histo-
rians think that Rome may have had more than a million residents at its
height. Although many were wealthy, many were not, and that large popu-
lation led to difficulties for the city’s poorer residents. Many poor Romans
lived in crowded, sometimes dangerous, apartment buildings.
Despite their poor living conditions, the people of Rome enjoyed vari-
ous types of entertainment. They could go to comic plays, thrilling chariot
races, or fierce gladiator fights. Those who wanted more peace and quiet
could head for one of Rome’s public baths. The huge bath complexes in
Rome were more like spas or health clubs than bathtubs. At the bath,
people could swim, soak in a hot pool, or mingle with other Romans.
Romans looking for fun could also just tour the city. Rome was filled
with beautiful temples and monuments built by city leaders. The Romans
were proud of their city and took great pride in how it looked.

“In great buildings as well as in other things the rest of the world has
been outdone by us Romans. If, indeed, all the buildings in our City
are considered . . . together in one vast mass, the united grandeur
of them would lead one to imagine that we were describing another
world, accumulated in a single spot.”
–Pliny the Elder, from Natural History

Roman cities in the provinces became more like Rome after they were
conquered. Their new rulers introduced Roman architecture, art, and
fashion. The Romans also brought technological change, building roads
and aqueducts.

Ancient Rome 359

 Life in the Country When we think of life in the Roman Empire, we often
think of a city. In truth, though, more people lived in the country than in
the empire’s cities. People outside the cities had a very different way of life
than city dwellers did.
In rural areas, most people farmed. On their small farms, they grew
just enough food for themselves and their families. People on larger farms
used improved technology to increase output. They cut flat surfaces
into the sides of hills to create more farmable land. This practice was
called terracing. Farmers in dry regions began using irrigation, aided by
aqueducts.
Many of these farmers spoke languages other than Latin. In fact, many
people in the country didn’t seem Roman at all. These people had kept
many of their own customs and traditions when they were conquered by
the Romans.
Scattered among the groups of farmers, though, were large farms and
villas, or country homes, belonging to rich Romans. Many people from the
cities liked to have a house outside the city. They visited these homes when
they wanted a break from the city crowds.
At their villas, these wealthy Romans lived much like they did at home.
They hosted huge, elaborate dinner parties where they served exotic foods.
Some of the foods served at these parties sound very unusual to mod-
ern people. For example, Romans cooked and served peacocks, ostriches,
Reading Check jellyfish, and even mice!
Contrast How These meals were often served by slaves who worked in the villas. Other
was life different in
the country than in slaves worked in the villa owners’ fields. The sale of crops grown in these
the city? fields helped pay for the villa owners’ extravagant expenses.

Romans Allow Many Religions

The Romans were a very religious people. Many Roman myths were about
the founding and rulers of Rome. These often connected the rulers of the
past to a divine source such as a god or goddess. To celebrate their religious
beliefs, the Romans held many festivals in honor of their gods. Because of
the empire’s huge size and diverse population, the nature of these festivals
varied widely from place to place.
As you have read, the Romans were a very practical people. This prac-
ticality also extended into their religious lives. For example, the Romans
worshipped lares, or household dieties. The Romans believed that they
were the spirits of the dead who would protect houses, crossroads, and
cities. They also worshipped the penates who were responsible for the
wealth and prosperity of the Roman household. Most families had shrines
in their homes dedicated to the lares and penates.
Another example of Roman practicality was in the number of gods
they worshipped. The Romans didn’t think that they could be sure which
gods did or did not exist. To avoid offending any gods who did exist, the
Romans prayed to a wide range of gods and goddesses. Many of the most
popular gods in the Roman Empire were adopted from people the Romans
had conquered. For example, many Romans worshipped the Olympian

360 Module 10
 gods of Greece. When the Romans
conquered Greece, they learned
about Greek mythology. Before
long, the Greek gods became the
main gods of Rome as well, but with
different names. Romans wor-
shipped the Greek goddess Hera, for
example, as the goddess Juno. In the
same way, Roman mythology was
also inspired by the gods from the
Egyptians, Gauls, or Persians. The
Romans had many gods, including
ones whose names you might recog-
nize: Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Neptune, Saturn, Uranus, and Pluto.
Jupiter was the main Roman god
and the god of the sky. Mars, the god
of war, was the second-most impor-
tant deity in Rome. The gods were This statue of Neptune, god of the sea, is part
of Rome’s famous Trevi Fountain.
Reading Check very important in Roman society,
Find Main Ideas and many had temples built in their honor. Roman mythology continues
Why did the Romans
worship such a wide
to influence our culture, even today. For example, our planets are named
range of gods? after Roman gods, and the month of June is named after Juno.
Summary and Preview The Roman Empire grew and changed during its
first 200 years. In the next lesson, you will learn about the great advances
made in art, engineering, and other fields.

Lesson 4 Assessment

Review Ideas, Terms, and People 4. a. Summarize What were some of the
origins of Roman gods and goddesses?
1. a. Identify Which areas of the world did the Romans
take over? b. Identify What were some of the major Roman
gods?
b. Explain Why did Hadrian build a wall in northern
Britain? Critical Thinking
c. Explain Why did a series of civil wars follow the
overthrow of Nero? 5. Contrast Draw two houses like these. In the house on
the left, write two facts about life in a Roman city. In
2. a. Define What were provinces?
the house on the right, write two facts about life in the
b. Summarize Why did trade increase as the Roman country.
Empire expanded?
c. Evaluate What might have happened if there
hadn’t been a uniform currency?
3. a. Explain Why is the period before AD 180 called the City Country
Pax Romana?
b. Evaluate Would you prefer to have lived in a Roman
city or the country? Why?

Ancient Rome 361

History and Geography

Roman Roads
The Romans are famous for their roads. They built a road network so large
and well constructed that parts of it remain today, roughly 2,000 years later.
Roads helped the Romans run their empire and get to places that had been
difficult to reach before. Armies, travelers, messengers, and merchants all
used the roads to get around. They stretched to every corner of the empire in
a network so vast that people even today say that “all roads lead to Rome.”

Roman roads
stretched as
far north as
Scotland.

E U R O P E
The Romans built about
50,000 miles of roads.
That’s enough to circle
the earth—twice!

PYRE
NEE
S
ITALY

Rome

In the west, roads

crisscrossed Spain.

Mediterranean
Roman roads in the south Sea
connected different parts
of North Africa.

A F R I C A

362 Module 10
 Paving stones

Drainage ditch

Curbstones

Sand, clay,
and gravel

Stone chips
Gravel
concrete

Roman roads were built to last. They

were constructed of layers of sand,
concrete, rock, and stone. Drainage
ditches let water drain off, preventing
water damage.

The roads were built by and for the

military. The main purpose of the
roads was to allow Rome’s armies to
travel quickly throughout the empire. In the east,
Roman roads
stretched into
Southwest Asia.

The Romans built tall “milestones”

along their roads to mark distances.
Just like modern highway signs,
the markers told travelers how far it
Interpret Maps was to the next town.
1. Movement Why did the Romans build their roads?
2. Location How does the map show that “all roads
lead to Rome”?

Ancient Rome 363

 Lesson 5

The Fall of Rome

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a former Roman soldier who has settled on lands
Problems from both inside and
in Gaul. In the last few months, groups of barbarians
outside caused the Roman have been raiding local towns and burning farms. The
Empire to split and the western commander of the local army garrison is an old friend,
half to collapse. but he says he is short of loyal soldiers. Many troops
Main Ideas have been called back to Rome. You don’t know when
the next raid will come.
■ Many problems threatened the
Roman Empire, leading one How will you defend your lands?
emperor to divide it in half.
Barbarians invaded Rome in
■

the 300s and 400s.

Problems Threaten the Empire
At its height the Roman Empire included all the land around the
■ Many factors contributed to
Rome’s fall.
Mediterranean Sea. The empire in the early AD 100s stretched
from Britain south to Egypt, and from the Atlantic Ocean all the
Key Terms and People way to the Persian Gulf.
Diocletian But the empire did not stay that large for long. By the end of
Clovis the 100s, emperors had given up some of the land the Roman
Attila
army had conquered. These emperors feared that the empire
corruption
had become too large to defend or govern efficiently. As later
rulers discovered, these emperors were right.
Problems in the Empire Even as emperors were giving up ter-
ritory, new threats to the empire were appearing. Tribes of Ger-
manic warriors, whom the Romans called barbarians, attacked
Rome’s northern borders. At the same time, Persian armies
invaded in the east. The Romans defended themselves for 200
years, but only at great cost.
The Romans struggled with problems within the empire
as well. As frontier areas were abandoned because they were
too dangerous, Germanic tribes moved in. A large army
meant that there weren’t enough farmers. To help produce
more food, the Romans invited Germanic farmers to grow
crops on Roman lands. These farmers often came from the
same tribes that threatened Rome’s borders. Over time,
whole German communities had moved into the empire.

364 Module 10
Timeline: Key Events in Roman History
500 BC BC 1 AD

c. 509 BC 264–146 27 BC The AD 117

AD 286
Rome BC Rome Roman The AD 381 All
Diocletian AD 410
sets up a battles Republic Roman non-Christian AD 476
divides The
republic. Carthage becomes Empire religions are The
the Roman Goths
during the the Roman reaches banned in western
Empire in sack
Punic Wars. Empire. its height. Rome. Roman
two. Rome. Empire
falls.

Interpret Timelines
About how long did the Roman Empire last?

They chose their own leaders and largely ignored the emperors, which
caused problems for the Romans.
Other internal problems also threatened Rome’s survival. Disease swept
through the empire, killing many people. The government increased taxes to
pay for the defense of the empire. Desperate, the Romans looked for a strong
emperor to solve their problems.
Division of the Empire The emperor the Romans were looking for was
Diocletian (dy-uh-KLEE-shuhn), who took power in the late 200s. Convinced
that the empire was too big for one person to rule, Diocletian divided the
empire. He ruled the eastern half of the empire and named a co-emperor to
rule the west.

Explore ONLINE!
The Eastern and Western Empires

Western Empire
Eastern Empire
N North Capital
W Sea
0 300 600 mi
E BRITAIN
S 0 300 600 km
Rh

EUROPE
ine R.

ATLANTIC
Danu
OCEAN be
GAUL
R ive
r
Black Sea
ITALY
SPAIN
Constantinople
Rome
ASIA
GREECE

Mediterranean Sea
Interpret Maps
Place What was the capital of AFRICA
the eastern Roman Empire?
EGYPT
Ni
Re

l
d
e

Se
Riv

a
er

Ancient Rome 365

 Not long after Diocletian left power, Emperor Constantine (KAHN-stuhn-
teen) reunited the two halves of the Roman Empire for a short time. Con-
stantine went on to become one of the empire’s most influential leaders. In
his book Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius of Caesaria described Constantine:
“He was the kindest and mildest of emperors, and the only one of those in
our day that passed all the time of his government in a manner worthy of
his office.”
Constantine moved the empire’s capital to the east into what is now
Turkey. He built a grand new capital city there. It was called Constantinople
(KAHN-stant-uhn-oh-puhl), which means “the city of Constantine.”
Constantinople was located on the Black Sea and was close to the
Mediterranean Sea. As the doorway between Europe and Asia, it held
great strategic importance, both economically and militarily. Many trade
Reading Check routes passed through the city, and it was difficult to attack because it
Analyze Causes was accessible by land from only one direction. Although the empire was
Why did Diocletian
divide the Roman still called the Roman Empire, Rome was no longer the real seat of power.
Empire in two? Power had moved to the east.

Barbarians Invade Rome

Not long after Constantine moved Rome’s capital, German barbarians—
people the Romans considered uncivilized—from the north began to raid
the Roman Empire. As you have already read, barbarian tribes had settled
along the empire’s northern border in the 200s. For more than 100 years
these tribes mostly stayed out of Roman territory. Late in the 300s,
though, the barbarians began raiding deep into the heart of the empire.

The Goths and Huns were just two of the groups

that invaded the Roman Empire. In this illustration,
a Goth warrior is shown on the right, and a Hun
is shown on the left. These invaders also battled
each other, as Huns attacked Goths and fought for
territory and riches.

366 Module 10
 Explore ONLINE!
Invasions of the Roman Empire, 340–500

Western Roman Empire

Eastern Roman Empire
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Interpret Maps
Location Which group invaded Italy before
moving on to Spain?

Early Invasions The source of these raids was a new group of people who
moved into Europe. Called the Huns, they were fierce warriors from Cen-
tral Asia.
As you can see on the map, the Huns invaded southeastern Europe.
From there they launched raids on nearby kingdoms. Among the victims
of these raids were several groups of people called the Goths.
The Goths could not defeat the Huns in battle. As the Huns continued
to raid their territories, the Goths fled. Trapped between the Huns and
Rome, they had nowhere to go but into Roman territory.

Ancient Rome 367

 Rome’s leaders were afraid that the Goths would destroy Roman land
and property. To stop this destruction, the emperors fought to keep the
Goths out of Roman lands. In the east, the armies were largely success-
ful. They forced the Goths to move farther west. As a result, however,
the western armies were defeated by the Goths, who moved into Roman
territory.
The Sack of Rome The Romans fought desperately to keep the Goths
away from Rome. They also paid the Goths not to attack them. For many
years this strategy worked. In 408, however, the Romans stopped making
payments. This made the Goths furious. Despite the Romans’ best efforts
to defend their city, the Goths sacked, or destroyed, Rome in 410.
The destruction of Rome absolutely devastated the Romans. No one had
attacked their city in nearly 800 years. For the first time, many Romans
began to feel afraid for the safety of their empire.

In 410, the Goths sacked The Empire in Chaos Unfortunately for Rome, the city’s fall to the Goths in
Rome and destroyed 410 wasn’t the end of the invasions. The Gothic victory served as an example
the city. This was the
beginning of the end
for other barbarian groups to invade the western half of the empire.
for the Roman Empire. In the early 400s, the Vandals invaded Spain. Then they crossed into
northern Africa and destroyed Roman settlements there. As they passed
through Roman areas, the Vandals destroyed nearly everything in their
path. At about the same time, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded
Britain, and the Franks invaded Gaul.
By the 480s, a Frankish king named Clovis had built a huge kingdom in
Gaul. Clovis, a Christian, was one of the most powerful of all the German
kings.
Meanwhile, the Huns, under a new leader named Attila (AT-uhl-uh),
raided Roman territory in the east. Attila was a brilliant leader and a very
scary enemy. Here is one account that describes him as terrifying.

“He was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands,
who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad
concerning him.”
—Jordanes, from History of the Goths

The Fall of Empires

Roman Empire Gupta Empire Han Dynasty

Weakened by corruption Weakened by corruption Weakened by corruption

Difficulty communicating over Unable to enforce law and Could not raise enough taxes
vast distances order over such a large area to fund such a large empire
and army

Political unrest Unskilled political leaders Internal political conflict

Fell to invaders Fell to invaders Fell to invaders

368 Module 10
 Attila led the Huns in raids against Constantinople, Greece, Gaul, and
parts of northern Italy. But because he was told that diseases ran wild in
southern Italy, he decided not to go south to Rome.
The End of the Western Empire Rome needed strong leaders to survive
these constant attacks, but the emperors of the 400s were weak. As attacks
on Rome’s borders increased, military leaders took power away from the
emperors. By the 450s military leaders ruled Rome.
Unfortunately for Rome, most of these military leaders were too busy
fighting among themselves to protect the empire. Barbarian leaders
Reading Check took advantage of this situation and invaded Rome. In 476, a barbarian
Analyze Events Why general overthrew the last emperor in Rome and named himself king of
did Rome fall
to barbarians in Italy. Many historians consider this event the end of the western Roman
the 400s? Empire.

Academic Factors in Rome’s Fall

Vocabulary Barbarian invasions are often considered the cause of Rome’s decline. In
cause the reason truth, they were only one of several causes.
something happens
One cause of Rome’s decline was the vast size of the empire. In some ways,
Rome had simply grown too big to govern. Communication among various
parts of the empire was difficult, even in peaceful times. During times of
conflict, it became even more difficult.
Political crises also contributed to the decline. By the 400s, corruption,
the decay of people’s values, had become widespread in Rome’s govern-
ment. Corrupt officials used threats and bribery to achieve their goals,
often ignoring the needs of Roman citizens. Because of officials like these,
Rome’s government was no longer as efficient as it had been in the past.
In the face of this corruption, many wealthy citizens fled the city of
Rome to their country estates. This action created a series of causes and
effects that further weakened the empire.
Outside Rome, many landowners used slaves or serfs to work on their
lands. To protect their estates and their wealth, many landowners created
their own armies. Ambitious landowners used these personal armies to
overthrow emperors and take power for themselves.

Quick Facts

Why Rome Fell

Problems Inside the Empire Problems Outside the Empire
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 As wealthy citizens abandoned Rome and other cities, city life became
Reading Check more difficult for those who remained. Rome’s population decreased, and
Find Main Ideas schools closed. At the same time taxes and prices soared, leaving more and
How did corruption
change Roman society more Romans poor. By the end of the 400s, Rome was no longer the city it
in the 400s? had once been. As it changed, the empire slowly collapsed around it.
Summary and Preview By the early 500s, Rome no longer ruled western
Europe. Factors inside and outside the Roman Empire led to its decline. In
the next lesson, you will learn about the accomplishments of Romans and
the lasting impact of these achievements.

Lesson 5 Assessment
1. a. Recall Where did Constantine move Rome’s Critical Thinking
capital?
4. Draw Conclusions Draw a word web like the one
b. Explain Why did Diocletian divide the empire in shown here. In each of the outer circles, list a factor
two? that helped lead to the fall of the western Roman
2. a. Identify Who was Attila? Empire. You may add more circles if needed.
b. Summarize Why did the Goths move into the
Roman Empire in the 300s?
c. Elaborate Why do you think the sack of Rome was Fall of Rome
so devastating?
3. a. Describe What kinds of problems did Rome’s size
cause for its emperors?
b. Form Generalizations How did corruption weaken
Rome in the 400s?

370 Module 10
 Lesson 6

Rome’s Legacy
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You live on a farm in Gaul but are visiting your older
Many features of Roman culture
brother in town. You are amazed by the city’s beauti-
were copied by later civilizations ful temples and towers. Another surprise is the water!
and continue to influence our At home you must draw up water from a well. But here,
lives today. water bubbles out of fountains all over the city. It even
Main Ideas runs through pipes in the public baths. One day your
brother introduces you to the engineer who maintains
■ The Romans looked for ways to
use science and engineering to the water system.
improve their lives. What questions will you ask the engineer?
■ Roman architecture and art
were largely based on Greek
ideas. Roman Science and Engineering
■ Roman literature and language
The Romans took a practical approach to their study of science
have influenced how people and engineering. Unlike the Greeks, who studied the world just
write and speak. to know about it, the Romans were more concerned with find-
■ Roman law serves as a model
ing knowledge that they could use to improve their lives.
for modern law codes around Science Roman scientists wanted to produce results that could
the world.
benefit their society. For example, they studied the stars not
■ The Romans made important just to know about them but to produce a calendar. They stud-
contributions to the fields of ied plants and animals to learn how to produce better crops
philosophy and history.
and meat.
Key Terms and People The practical Roman approach to science can also be seen in
Galen medicine. Most of the greatest doctors in the Roman Empire
aqueducts were Greek. One doctor in the empire was Galen, who lived in
Virgil the AD 100s. He was a Greek surgeon who made many discov-
Ovid eries about the body. For example, Galen described the valves
satire
of the heart and noted differences between arteries and veins.
Romance languages
civil law
For centuries, doctors based their ideas on Galen’s teachings
and writings.
Engineering The Romans’ practical use of science can also
be seen in their engineering. The Romans were great build-
ers. Even today people walk along Roman roads and drive over
Roman bridges built almost 2,000 years ago. How have these
structures survived for so long?

Ancient Rome 371

 The Romans developed some new building materials to help their
structures last. The most important of these materials was cement. They
made cement by mixing a mineral called lime with volcanic rock and ash.
The resulting material dried to be very hard and watertight.
More important than the materials they used, though, were the designs
the Romans had for their structures. For example, they built their roads
in layers. This layered construction made the road durable. Many Roman
roads have not worn down even after centuries have passed.
Another way the Romans created structures to last was by using arches.
Because of its rounded shape, an arch can support much heavier weights
than other shapes can. This strength has allowed arched structures such as
Roman bridges to last until the present. Engineers used the same technol-
ogy to invent the arch dam. Because the arch strengthens the structure,
arch dams require less material than any other type of dam.
The Romans also used arches in their aqueducts (A-kwuh-duhkts). An aque-
duct was a channel used to carry water from mountains into cities. When they
crossed deep valleys, aqueducts were supported by rows of arches. The Romans’
aqueducts were so well built that many still stand. Engineering helped the
Romans modify their environment in ways that had not been possible before.
Roman builders also learned how to combine arches to create vaults. A
vault is a set of arches that supports the roof of a building. The Romans
used vaults to create huge, open areas within buildings. As a result, Roman
buildings were much larger than anything that had come before.
Living conditions improved as a result of Roman inventiveness. For
Reading Check example, the Romans developed central heating. They designed buildings
Summarize with open spaces below floors and between walls through which hot air
What were two ways
the Romans built could travel. Sanitation also improved. They invented a flush toilet and
strong structures? built sewer systems, making Roman cities cleaner places to live.

The Roman Arch

The Romans were the first people to make wide use of the arch. A Roman aqueduct might be
supported by hundreds of arches. The drawing shows how Roman engineers built their tall and
strong arches. The final piece was the keystone, placed at the top to lock all the stones into place.

Analyze Visuals
How did the Romans
support arches during their
construction?

372 Module 10
The Colosseum
The Colosseum was a huge arena in ancient Rome.
The giant building was more than 150 feet tall
and could seat about 50,000 people, who came to
watch events like gladiator fights. The building’s By combining many arches,
design was based on many arches and vaults, the Romans created long
hallmarks of Roman engineering. vaulted passageways for
the crowd to walk through.

Trap doors in the floor were

The arches on the opened to allow animals
outside of the building and gladiators to enter the
were decorated with arena.
statues of Roman gods.

People entered the This is a

Colosseum through 80 vault, or
arched entrances, each combination
with its own number. of arches.

Underneath the
floor was a system of
animal cages, rooms,
and tunnels.

Although it has
been damaged
through the years,
the Colosseum
remains a powerful Analyze Visuals
symbol of the What architectural innovation supported
Roman Empire. the creation of such a large venue?

Architecture and Art

The Romans weren’t interested only in practicality, though. They also admired
beauty. Roman appreciation for beauty can be seen in their architecture and
art. People still admire their magnificent buildings, statues, and paintings.
Architecture Roman architecture was based largely on older Greek designs.
Like the ancient Greeks, the Romans used columns to make their public build-
ings look stately and impressive. Also like the Greeks, the Romans covered
many of their buildings with marble to make them more majestic.
But Roman engineering techniques allowed them to take architecture
beyond what the Greeks had done. For example, the Roman vault let them
build huge structures, much larger than anything the Greeks could build.
One such Roman structure that used vaults was the Colosseum. It was built

Ancient Rome 373

 to hold fights between gladiators. Similar arenas were built throughout the
empire. Plays, athletic competitions, and chariot races were held there.
The Romans also used more domes in their architecture than the Greeks
had. Domes were difficult to build and required a great deal of support.
Once the Romans developed cement, they could provide that support. Many
Roman structures are topped with huge domes, some of the largest ever built.
Art The artists of the Roman Empire were known for their beautiful mosa-
ics, paintings, and statues. Mosaics and paintings were used to decorate
Roman buildings. Many Roman homes and businesses had elaborate mosa-
ics built into their floors. The walls of these buildings were often covered
with paintings. Landscapes found in and around Rome, such as woods,
groves, hills, gardens, and rivers, were popular subjects. Most Roman
paintings were frescoes. A fresco is a type of painting done on wet plaster.
Many Roman artists were particularly skilled at creating portraits, or
pictures of people. When they made a portrait, artists tried to show their
subject’s personality. We can guess a great deal about individual Romans
by studying their portraits.
Roman sculptors were also talented. They created some original works
and used their skills to honor the gods, such as Jupiter, Mars, and Venus.
Reading Check Many Roman statues, however, are actually copies of older Greek works.
Draw Conclusions Although their works are not original, we owe a great deal to these Roman
Why did many Roman artists. Many of the original Greek works they copied have been destroyed
architects and artists
base their work on over time. Without the Roman copies, the world would know little about
earlier Greek works? many Greek masterpieces.

A Roman Fresco Analyze Visuals

A fresco is a type of painting in which paint is applied to wet plaster and then What activities can you see in this
left to dry. Roman artists painted many beautiful frescoes like this one. fresco?

374 Module 10
 Literature and Language
Like Roman artists, Roman authors are greatly admired. In addition, the works
they created and the language they used have shaped our language today.
Literature The Romans admired good writers. Many emperors encour-
aged authors to write. As a result, Rome was home to many of the greatest
authors of the ancient world. One such author was Virgil, who wrote a
great epic about the founding of Rome, the Aeneid. Another was Ovid (AHV-
Ovid was a Roman poet. uhd), who wrote poems about Roman mythology. In his epic poem Meta-
His works were popular morphoses, he wrote: “In the make-up of human beings, intelligence counts
during his lifetime,
and his collection
for more than our hands, and that is our true strength.”
of 250 myths titled The Romans also excelled in other types of writing:
Metamorphoses is t
satire, a style of writing that pokes fun at people or society
considered to be his
greatest work. t
history and speeches
t
drama, both tragedies and comedies
Many of these works have served as models for hundreds of years and
are still enjoyed today.
Language Virgil, Ovid, and other poets wrote in Latin, the language of ancient
Rome. The Roman Empire was huge, and it had two official languages. In the
east, some people spoke Greek. People throughout the western Roman world
wrote, conducted business, and kept records in Latin. This wide use of Latin
helped tie people in various parts of the empire together.
After the Roman Empire ended, Latin developed into many different
languages. Together, the languages that developed from Latin are called
Romance languages. The main Romance languages are Italian, French,
Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. They share many elements with one
another and with Latin.
Over time, Latin also influenced other languages. For example, many Latin
words entered non-Romance languages, including English. Words like et cetera,
circus, and veto were all originally Latin terms. Latin words are also common
in scientific terms and mottoes. For example, the motto of the United States is
the Latin phrase e pluribus unum (ee PLOOHR-uh-buhs OO -nuhm), which means
“out of many, one.” Many legal terms also come from Latin.
Reading Check Although most people stopped speaking Latin more than 1,000 years ago,
Find Main Ideas it continued to be used in education long afterward. It was widely taught
How did Roman in European schools until the 18th century. Latin has not disappeared
literature and
language influence completely. It is still used in scientific names and is spoken in some Roman
later societies? Catholic religious services.

The Beginning of Civil Law

Perhaps even more influential than Rome’s artistic and literary traditions
was its system of law. Roman law was enforced across much of Europe.
After the empire fell apart, Roman laws continued to exist.
Over time, Roman law inspired a system called civil law. Civil law is
a legal system based on a written code of laws, like the one created by
the Romans.

Ancient Rome 375

 Reading Check Most countries in Europe today have civil-law traditions. In the 1500s
Summarize How
and 1600s, European explorers and colonists carried civil law around
are Roman legal
ideas reflected in the the world. As a result, some countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas
modern world? developed law codes as well.

Philosophy and History

Although the Romans were heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, they
still made important contributions of their own. For example, many of the
words that are often used in philosophy come from Latin, such as morality,
argument, and proof. Roman leaders often used philosophy when talking to
the public.
In addition to poetry and philosophy, Romans studied and wrote about
their own history. Roman historians were influenced by Greek writers and
Reading Check documented the way the republic and empire changed over time. Livy, one
Summarize What of the best-known Roman historians, wrote about the founding of the city
are two ways the
Greeks influenced the of Rome and the establishment of the Roman Empire. Others, like Caesar
Romans? and Tacitus, also wrote about Roman history.
Summary You have read about just some of the contributions of Romans
in the fields of science, architecture, literature, law, and philosophy. The
Roman Republic and Empire made many contributions to the world and
continue to influence our society.

Lesson 6 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People 5. Recall In what ways did Romans have an impact on
philosophy?
1. a. Contrast How was the Romans’ attitude toward
science different from the Greeks’? Critical Thinking
b. Identify What were aqueducts used for?
6. Compare and Contrast Draw a chart like this one. In
2. a. Define What is a fresco?
the first column, list two ways Greek and Roman archi-
b. Explain What influence did Greek art have on tecture were similar. In the other, list two ways they
Roman art? were different.
3. a. Recall What were three forms of writing in which
the Romans excelled? Same Different
b. Elaborate Why did Latin develop into different
languages after the fall of the Roman Empire?
4. Identify What type of law is based on the Roman
law code?

376 Module 10
Social Studies Skills
Interpret Globes
Define the Skill
A globe is a sphere on which a map of the earth
is shown. Globes help us understand where
countries, bodies of water, and other features
are located in relationship to one another. In
many ways, they are more informative than flat
maps, which can be misleading because the
earth is not flat. The people who make flat maps
sometimes change the sizes of some places to
make them fit. At other times, the shapes of
places are changed. Since spheres are closer to
the earth’s shape, globes are the most realistic
maps. Therefore, being able to interpret them
is important for understanding history and
geography. Practice the Skill
Use the globe pictured here and the one in your
classroom to answer the following questions.
Learn the Skill
1. What are the differences between the globe
Follow these guidelines to interpret a globe. and a flat map?
1. Start with map basics. Note the labels, leg- 2. Compare a globe to a flat map. Do some
end, and scale. Like a flat map, a globe also places look bigger or smaller on the globe?
has lines of longitude and latitude. You can Why do you think this is?
use these lines to find and describe any loca-
3. Locate the Mediterranean Sea on the globe.
tion on the globe.
Using your finger, trace the trade routes
2. Study the globe as a whole. Locate features Roman ships might have taken to Egypt,
such as the North and South Poles, the equa- Greece, Turkey and Spain. Which of these
tor, and the hemispheres. journeys do you think would have been the
3. Next, examine the location of different coun- fastest?
tries. Ask yourself how they relate to the rest
of the world. Is a particular country larger or
smaller than its neighbors? What bodies of
water or other natural features might affect
its history or culture?
4. Finally, connect the information on the globe
to any written information about the subject
in the text.

Ancient Rome 377

Module 10 Assessment
Review Vocabulary, Terms, and People
Match each numbered definition with the correct lettered vocabulary term.
1. a leader with absolute power for six months a. republic
2. the emperor who divided the empire b. plebeians
3. a government in which people elect leaders c. dictator
4. a legal system based on a written code of laws d. civil law
e. Roman Senate
5. the common people of Rome
f. patricians
6. a channel used to carry water from mountains into cities
g. consuls
7. a council that advised Rome’s leaders h. aqueduct
8. the two most powerful officials in Rome i. Diocletian
9. noble, powerful Romans j. Pax Romana
10. Roman Peace

Comprehension and Critical Thinking

Lesson 1 b. Analyze How did Roman occupations,
11. a. Describe What are two legends that economics, and society change during
describe Rome’s founding? How are the the Late Republic?
two legends connected? c. Evaluate How did Augustus’s improve-
b. Compare and Contrast What roles did ments to the city of Rome strengthen his
the plebeians and the patricians take rule?
in the early Roman government? In Lesson 4
what other ways were the two groups 14. a. Evaluate Why were the emperors after
different? Augustus unpopular with the Roman
c. Predict How do you think Italy’s geogra- people?
phy and Rome’s location would affect the b. Compare How did both the Roman
spread of Rome’s influence? Empire and Gupta Empire expand?
Lesson 2 c. Describe What did the Romans do to
12. a. Describe What were the three parts of grow their wealth?
Rome’s government? d. Explain Which class of people had most
b. Analyze How do checks and balances government control in Rome?
protect the rights of the people? How do Lesson 5
written laws do the same thing? 15. a. Identify Who were the Huns? Who were
c. Elaborate What are some places in mod- the Goths?
ern society that serve purposes similar to b. Compare and Contrast What did Diocle-
those of the Roman Forum? tian and Constantine have in common?
Lesson 3 How did their actions differ?
13. a. Identify What difficulties did Hannibal, c. Evaluate Of all the causes for the fall of
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Spartacus the western Roman Empire, which, if any,
cause for Rome? could have been prevented? Explain your
answer.

378 Module 10
Module 10 Assessment, continued
Lesson 6 Social Studies Skills
16. a. Describe What were the main Roman Interpret Globes Look at the globe in Social
achievements in architecture? In litera- Studies Skills and the one in your classroom. Then
ture and language? answer the following questions.
b. Contrast How did the Roman attitude
21. Which geographic feature do you think
toward science compare to the tradi-
helped Rome become so strong?
tional Greek attitude? What is an example
of the Roman attitude? 22. Which continents are nearest to Rome?
Explain how that might have influenced the
c. Evaluate Of all the Romans’ achieve-
direction of the empire’s expansion.
ments, which do you think has affected
the most people? Defend your answer.
Focus On Writing
Review Themes 23. Write and Present a Legend Aeneas,
Romulus, and Remus are all part of Rome’s
17. Politics Why did Roman magistrates hold
founding legends. Think about the differ-
office for only one year?
ent elements of a legend, including a main
18. Science and Technology What Roman character, the gods or mythological figures
achievement in science or engineering do who helped them, the setting, and the
you think is most impressive? Why? event or topic of the legend. Then, choose
19. Geography How do you think Rome’s a subject from this module for a legend you
location helped the Romans in their quest will create. Your subject could be a person
to conquer the entire Mediterranean or an event from history. Brainstorm the
region? elements of your own legend. Then, as you
write your legend, focus on exciting details
Reading Skills that will bring the subject to life in your
Create an Outline Use the Reading Skills taught listeners’ minds. Once you’ve finished writ-
in this module to answer the question below. ing, share your legend with the class. Try to
make your legend exciting as you present it.
20. Look back at the discussion “Crises Strike Remember to alter the tone and volume of
the Republic” in Lesson 3. Prepare an outline your voice to convey the appropriate mood.
that will help clarify the people, events,
and ideas of this discussion. Before you
prepare your outline, decide what your
major headings will be. Then choose the
details that will appear below each heading.
Remember that most outlines follow this
basic format:

I. Main Idea
A. Supporting Idea
B. Supporting Idea
1. Detail
2. Detail
II. Main Idea
A. Supporting Idea

Ancient Rome 379

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

The Roman Empire was one of the largest and most Roman engineers made advances in city planning, road
powerful empires in ancient history. With its strong and bridge design, water and sewage systems, and many
military, the Roman Empire expanded to dominate the other areas.
entire Mediterranean region, including much of western Explore some of the incredible monuments and
Europe and northern Africa. Keys to this expansion were engineering achievements of the Roman Empire online.
the engineering and construction innovations made by You can find a wealth of information, video clips, primary
Roman engineers. As the empire grew and prospered, sources, and activities through your online textbook.

379 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 The Glory of the Colosseum
Watch the video to go inside the Colosseum, Rome’s premier Go online to view these and
entertainment venue and one of the most famous buildings other HISTORY® resources.
of the Roman Empire.

Caesar Builds an Empire

Watch the video to learn why Julius Caesar built a
bridge across the Rhine River as a demonstration of
Roman power.

Growth of the Roman Empire

Explore the map to analyze the growth of one of
the largest empires of the ancient world.

Arches, Angles, Innovations

Watch the video to learn about Roman engineering
advances and the construction of aqueducts.

ROME: ENGINEERING AN EMPIRE 379 MC2

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