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Chapter 1
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Concepts and Operations

of Sets

1.1 Key Points of Knowledge and Basic Methods

Set is one of the most important concepts s in mathematics, and the theory
of sets is the foundation of modern mathematics. Set is a primitive concept
that is not defined. In general, some objects are put together to form a set,
and each object in the set is called an element of the set. For a given set,
its elements are definite, distinct, and order-irrelevant.
Expressing a set correctly is a basis for learning mathematics. Descrip-
tion is an important method to represent a set. It is based on the following
generalization principle.
Generalization Principle: Given any property p, there exists a unique
set S that consists of all the objects satisfying the property p. In other
words,
S = {x|p(x)},
where p(x) is the abbreviation for “the property p that the object x satis-
fies.”
Relations between two sets can be reflected with subsets, intersections,
and unions. When dealing with problems , one usually begins the discussion
from the perspective of elements. Here it reflects the mathematical thought
of “from part to whole.”
Apart from intersections and unions, operations of sets also include
complements and differences. The set consisting of all elements of A that
are not in B is called the difference of A and B, denoted A\B (or sometimes

1
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2 Problems and Solutions in Mathematical Olympiad: High School 1

A − B), namely A\B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈

/ B}. Operations of sets satisfy
the following rules:
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Distributive Laws:
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
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De Morgan’s Laws:
U (Ā ∪ B) = (U Ā) ∩ (U B),
U (Ā ∩ B) = (U Ā) ∪ (U B).

1.2 Illustrative Examples

Example 1. Let sets A = {2, 0, 1, 3} and B = {x| − x ∈ A, 2 − x2 ∈

/ A}.
Compute the sum of all elements in B.

Solution. By the assumption, B ⊆ {2, 0, 1, 3}. If x = −2 or −3, then

2 − x2 = −2 or −7, so 2 − x2 ∈ / A. If x = 0 or −1, then 2 − x2 = 2
2
or 1, so 2 − x ∈ A. Therefore, from the definition of B, we know that
B = {−2, −3}, and the sum of all elements in B is −5.

Example 2. A proper subset S of R (the set of all real numbers) is said

to be closed under addition and subtraction if for any x, y ∈ S, we have
x + y ∈ S and x − y ∈ S.
(1) Find an example of S that is closed under addition and subtraction.
(2) Show that if S1 and S2 are two proper subsets of R that are closed under
addition and subtraction then there exists c ∈ R such that c ∈ / S1 ∪ S 2 .

Solution. (1) Examples include S = {2k|k ∈ Z}.

(2) Since S1 is a proper subset of R, there exists a ∈ R such that a ∈ / S1 .
If a ∈/ S2 , then the statement holds; otherwise a ∈ S2 . Similarly, there
exists b ∈ R such that b ∈ / S2 , and the statement holds unless b ∈ S1 . Let
c = a + b, and we will show that c ∈ / (S1 ∪ S2 ). Assume for contradiction
that c ∈ (S1 ∪ S2 ). Then, without loss of generality, we may assume that
c ∈ S1 , that is, a + b ∈ S1 . Since b ∈ S1 , we also have a + b − b = a ∈ S1 ,
which leads to a contradiction.
Remark. The choice of c is not unique. Letting c = a − b or c = b − a also
works.
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1. Concepts and Operations of Sets 3

Example 3 (2011 China West Mathematical Invitational). Let

M ⊆ {1, 2, . . . , 2011} be such that for any three elements of M , we can
find two of them a and b such that a|b or b|a. Find the maximum value of
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|M | (here |M | denotes the number of elements in the set M ).

Solution. Let M = {1, 2, 22, 23 , . . . , 210 , 3, 3 × 2, 3 × 22 , . . . , 3 × 29 }, which

satisfies the requirements, and |M | = 21.
For any M that satisfies the reauirements of the problem, if |M | ≥ 22,
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then suppose the elements of M are a1 < a2 . . . < ak (k ≥ 22).

First we observe that an+2 ≥ 2an for each n, because otherwise an <
an+1 < an+2 < 2an , and the triplet (an , an+1 , an+2 ) contradicts the rule.
With this property, we have

a4 ≥ 2a2 ≥ 4,
a6 ≥ 2a4 ≥ 8,
...
a22 ≥ 2a20 ≥ 211 > 2011,

which gives a contradiction. Therefore, the maximum value of |M | is 21.

Example 4. Let a function f (x) = x2 + ax + b(a, b ∈ R) and sets

A = {x|x = f (x), x ∈ R}, B = {x|x = f (f (x)), x ∈ R}.

(1) Show that A ⊆ B.

(2) If A = {−1, 3}, find B.

Solution. (1) For any x0 ∈ A, we have x0 = f (x0 ), so

x0 = f (x0 ) = f (f (x0 )),

and thus x0 ∈ B. Hence A ⊆ B.

(2) If A = {−1, 3}, then −1 = f (−1) and 3 = f (3), namely

(−1)2 + a(−1) + b = −1,
32 + a · 3 + b = 3.

Solving the equations gives that a = −1 and b = −3. Therefore, f (x) =

x2 − x − 3. If x = f (f (x)), then

(x2 − x − 3)2 − (x2 − x − 3) − x − 3 = 0.

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4 Problems and Solutions in Mathematical Olympiad: High School 1

By (1), we know that −1 and 3 belong to B, so they are roots of the above
equation. This allows us to factorize the left side of the equation, resulting
in
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(x2 − 2x − 3)(x2 − 3) = 0,
√ √ √
so its roots are x = −1, 3, and ± 3. Therefore, B = {−1, 3, − 3, 3}.

Example 5. Sets A, B, and C (not necessarily distinct) have the union

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A∪B∪C = {1, 2, . . . , 10}. Find the number of the ordered triplets (A, B, C)
with such a property.

Solution. In the Venn diagram shown on the right, the sets A, B, and C
generate seven disjoint regions, whose union is A ∪ B ∪ C. Each element
in {1, 2, . . . , 10} belongs to one of the seven regions, and the sets A, B,
and C are uniquely determined by the locations of these elements. By the
multiplication principle, there are 710 such triplets.
Remark. When determining the number of triplets, we made use of the
assumption that A, B, and C are not necessarily distinct and they are
ordered triplets. This is an interesting application of Venn diagrams.

Example 6. Let n ∈ N∗ (the set of all positive integers), n ≥ 15, and

A and B be proper subsets of I = {1, 2, . . . , n}, with A ∩ B = Ø and
A ∪ B = I. Show that either A or B contains two distinct numbers, whose
sum is a perfect square.

Solution. Since A ∩ B = Ø and A ∪ B = I, we may assume without loss

of generality that 1 ∈ A, and prove the statement by contradiction.
Suppose neither A nor B has two elements whose sum is a perfect square.
Then 3 ∈ B, so 6 ∈ A and 10 ∈ B. Next, if 15 ∈ B, then 10 + 15 = 25
is a perfect square, and if 15 ∈ A, then 1 + 15 = 16 is a perfect square.
Thus, 15 cannot belong to A or B, which is a contradiction. Therefore, the
proposition holds.
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1. Concepts and Operations of Sets 5

Remark. “Assuming without loss of generality that 1 ∈ A” is a technique

that should be mastered. Artificially making reasonable assumtions can
simplify the problem when dealing with objects in problems with symmetry.
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Example 7 (2015 China Mathematical Competition). Let a1 , a2 ,

a3 , and a4 be four rational numbers such that
 
3 1
{ai aj |1 ≤ i < j ≤ 4} = −24, −2, − , − , 1, 3 .
2 8
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Find the value of a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 .

Solution. Observe that ai aj (1 ≤ i < j ≤ 4) are six distinct numbers

and no two of them sum to 0, so no two of a1 , a2 , a3 , and a4 sum to 0.
Without loss of generality, we assume that |a1 | < |a2 | < |a3 | < |a4 |. Then
among |ai ||aj |(1 ≤ i < j ≤ 4), the smallest and second smallest numbers
are |a1 ||a2 | and |a1 ||a3 |, respectively, and the largest and second largest
numbers are |a3 ||a4 | and |a2 ||a4 |, respectively. So it is necessary that
⎧ 1
⎪
⎪ a1 a2 = − ,
⎪
⎪ 8
⎪
⎨
a1 a3 = 1,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ a2 a4 = 3,
⎪
⎩
a3 a4 = −24,

and hence a2 = − 8a11 , a3 = 1

a1 , and a4 = 3
= −24a1 . Therefore,
a2
   
1 2 3
{a2 a3 , a1 a4 } = − 2 , −24a1 = −2, − .
8a1 2
Together with the fact that a1 ∈ Q (the set of rational numbers), we have
a1 = ± 14 .
Consequently, (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) = 14 , − 12 , 4, −6 or − 14 , 12 , −4, 6 . It is
simple to verify that both solutions satisfy the requirements. Therefore,
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = ± 49 .
Example 8 (2010 China Mathematical Olympiad). Let m and n be
given integers greater than 1 and a1 < a2 < · · · < am be integers. Show
that there exists a subset T of the set of integers such that
am − a1
|T | ≤ 1 + ,
2n + 1
and for each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}, there exist t ∈ T and s ∈ [−n, n] such that
ai = t + s.
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6 Problems and Solutions in Mathematical Olympiad: High School 1

Solution. Let a1 = a and am = b. Using the division with remainder, we

can write b − a = (2n + 1)q + r, where q, r ∈ Z and 0 ≤ r ≤ 2n.
Choose T = {a + n + (2n + 1)k|k = 0, 1, . . . , q}. Then |T | = q + 1 ≤
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b−a
1 + 2n+1 , and the set

B = {t + s|t ∈ T, s = −n, −n + 1, . . . , n}
= {a, a + 1, . . . , a + (2n + 1)q + 2n}.
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Note that a + (2n + 1)q + 2n ≥ a + (2n + 1)q + r = b, so each ai is in B,

and the assertion is valid.

Example 9. Let A be a set of positive integers with the following proper-

ties:
(1) A has at least three elements.
(2) If a ∈ A, then all the positive divisors of a belong to A.
(3) If a ∈ A, b ∈ A, and 1 < a < b, then 1 + ab ∈ A.
Solve the following problems:
(1) Show that 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are all elements of A.
(2) Is 2005 an element of A?

Solution. (1) First, apparently 1 ∈ A. Suppose a ∈ A, b ∈ A, and 1 <

a < b. If at least one of a and b is even, then 2 ∈ A, and if both a and b
are odd, then 1 + ab is even. Thus, 2 ∈ A.
Suppose 1, 2, a ∈ A(a > 2). Then

1 + 2a ∈ A, 1 + 2(1 + 2a) = 3 + 4a ∈ A,
1 + (1 + 2a)(3 + 4a) = 4 + 10a + 8a2 ∈ A.

If a is even, then 4|(4 + 10a + 8a2), so 4 ∈ A. If a is odd, then 4 + 10a + 8a2

is even, and replacing a with 4 + 10a + 8a2 in the discussion above still gives
4 ∈ A.
Also, 1+2×4 = 9 ∈ A, so 3 ∈ A, 1+2×3 = 7 ∈ A, and 1+2×7 = 15 ∈ A,
which gives 5 ∈ A. Therefore, 1,2,3,4, and 5 are all elements of A.
(2) Since 1 + 3 × 5 = 16, we have 8 ∈ A, and hence

1 + 4 × 8 = 33, 1 + 3 × 33 = 100,
1 + 5 × 100 = 501, 1 + 4 × 501 = 2005,

which all belong to A. Therefore, 2005 is an element of A.

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1. Concepts and Operations of Sets 7

Remark. In fact, we can prove that A = N∗ .

We know from (1) that 1,2,3,4, and 5 all belong to A. Assume that
1, 2, . . . , n ∈ A(n ≥ 5). We show that n + 1 ∈ A.
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If n + 1 = 2k + 1 is odd, then 3 ≤ k < n, so n + 1 = 1 + 2k ∈ A; if

n + 1 = 2k is even, then 3 ≤ k < n, thus n = 2k − 1 ∈ A and 1 + 2k ∈ A.
Hence, 1+(2k−1)(2k+1) = 4k 2 ∈ A, from which 2k ∈ A, namely n+1 ∈ A.
By the induction principle, we have proven that A = N∗ .
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1.3 Exercises
Group A
1. (2012 China Mathematical Competition Test B) We call b−a the length
of the set {x|a ≤ x ≤ b}. Let sets
A = {x|a ≤ x ≤ a + 1981}, B = {x|b − 1014 ≤ x ≤ b}
be subsets of U = {x|0 ≤ x ≤ 2012}. Then the minimal length of A∩B
is .
2. (2011 China Mathematical Competition) Let A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 }. If
B = {−1, 3, 5, 8} is the set of all the sums of three-element subsets of
A, then A = .
3. Suppose x, y, and z are nonzero real numbers. Find the set of all pos-
sible values of
x y z xy xyz
+ + + +
|x| |y| |z| |xy| |xyz|
by listing its elements.
4. Let
A = {2, 4, a3 − 2a2 − a + 7},
1 3
B = {1, 5a − 5, − a2 + a + 4, a3 + a2 + 3a + 7}.
2 2
Prove or disprove that there exists a ∈ R such that A ∩ B = {2, 5}.
5. Let X be the set of the real solutions to the equation x2 + px + q = 0,
and
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {1, 4, 7, 10},
with X ∩ A = Ø and X ∩ B = X. Find the values of p and q.
6. Suppose A = {(x, y)|y = ax + 2} and B = {(x, y)|y = |x + 1|}, where a
is a real number and A ∩ B is a one-element set. Find the value range
of a.
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8 Problems and Solutions in Mathematical Olympiad: High School 1

7. Let
A = {x|x = a2 + 1, a ∈ N∗ },
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B = {y|y = b2 − 6b + 10, b ∈ N∗ }.
What is the relationship between A and B?
8. Let M = {x, xy, lg(xy)} and N = {0, |x|, y} be such that M = N . Find
the value of
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1 1 1 1
x+ + x2 + 2 + x3 + 3 + · · · + x2006 + 2006 .
y y y y
9. Let M and n be the  maximal and minimal elements of the set
3
a + b|1 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ 2 , respectively. Find M − m.
10. Let A be the set consisting of all sums of the squares of two integers,
that is,
A = {x|x = m2 + n2 , m, n ∈ Z}
(here Z is the set of integers).
(1) Show that if s, t ∈ A, then st ∈ A.
s
(2) Show that if s, t ∈ A with t = 0, then t = p2 + q 2 , where p and q
are rational numbers.
11. Suppose S is a subset of {1, 2, . . . , 50} and the sum of the squares of
any two elements of S is not divisible by 7. Find the maximum value
of |S|.
12. Let M be a subset of the set of positive integers such that 1 ∈ M ,
2006 ∈ M , and
2007  ∈
/ M . Suppose M has the property that if a,
a2 +b2
b ∈ M , then 2 ∈ M . How many nonempty subsets does M
have? (The notation [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.)
13. Let S1 , S2 , and S3 be three nonempty sets of integers. Suppose for
i, j, k being any permutation of 1, 2, 3, if x ∈ Si and y ∈ Sj , then
x − y ∈ Sk . Show that two of S1 , S2 , and S3 are identical.
14. Suppose A = {(x, y)|ax + y = 1}, B = {(x, y)|x + ay = 1}, and C =
{(x, y)|x2 + y 2 = 1}, where a is a real number.
(1) For what values of a is (A ∪ B) ∩ C a two-element set?
(2) For what values of a is (A ∪ B) ∩ C a three-element set?
15. Suppose A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 } and B = {a21 , a22 , a23 , a24 , a25 }, where
ai (1 ≤ i ≤ 5) are positive integers, with a1 < a2 < a3 < a4 < a5
and a1 + a4 = 10. If A ∩ B = {a1 , a4 } and the sum of elements in A ∪ B
is 224, find A.
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1. Concepts and Operations of Sets 9

Group B
16. Suppose A is a subset of {1, 2, . . . , 2000} with the following property:
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no element of A is equal to five times another element of A. What is

the maximum value of |A|?
17. Suppose a collection of sets A1 , A2 ,. . . , An has the following properties:
(1) Each Ai has 30 elements.
(2) For each pair i and j with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n, the set Ai ∩ Aj has
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exactly one element.

(3) A1 ∩ A2 ∩ . . . ∩ An = Ø.
Find the maximum value of n for such a collection of sets to exist.
18. Suppose A ⊆ {1, 2, . . . , 2000} and the difference of any two elements in
A is not equal to 4 or 7. Find the maximum value of |A|.
19. Let A = {a1 , a2 , a3 } and T be a collection of subsets of A, containing
Ø and A. Suppose the intersection and union of any two elements of T
also belong to T . Find the number of all such T .
20. (2011 China West Mathematical Invitational) Let an integer n ≥ 2 be
given.
(1) Show that there exists a permutation of all the subsets of
{1, 2, . . . , n}, namely A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n , such that the difference of
the numbers of elements in Ai and Ai+1 is exactly 1 for each
i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n , where A2n +1 = A1 .
(2) Suppose A1 , A2 , . . . n, A2n satisfy the condition in (1). Find all pos-
2 i

sible values of i=1 (−1) S(Ai ), where S(Ai ) = x∈Ai x and
S(Ø) = 0.