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 -1888
Wheeler Logarithms

88
808
Math
Math 808.88

SCIENCE CENTER LIBRARY

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TO HAEMI
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FROM THE LIBRARY OF

FRANCIS PEABODY MAGOUN

Class of 1890

THE GIFT OF HIS SON

FRANCIS PEABODY MAGOUN, JR.

Class of 1916
LOGARITHMS.

BY

H. N. WHEELER.

CAMBRIDGE :
CHARLES W. SEVER, UNIVERSITY BOOKSELLER
1888 .
 LIBRARY

OF

GEO. B. GLIDDEN ,

23 Greenville Street,

BOSTON.
LOGARITHMS .

BY

H. N. WHEELER.

CAMBRIDGE :
CHARLES W. SEVER, UNIVERSITY BOOKSELLER.
1888 .
Math 808.88

13ARY
LITARY OF
FRANCIS FOPOLY MACOUN
THE GIFT OF HIS SON
MAY 8, 1929

COPYRIGHT,
BY H. N. WHEELER,
1882.

J. S. CUSHING & Co. , PRINTERS, 115 HIGH STREET, BOSTON.

USED AT HARVARD COLLEGE IN CONNECTION WITH WHEELER'S
TRIGONOMETRY AND PEIRCE'S LOGARITHM TABLES.

Parts of the Trigonometry omitted by the Harvard Freshmen

of 1881-82 : -
Chapter I. , §§ 6-10.
Chapter II. , § 44 and Examples 33-35.
Chapter III. , § 52 and Examples 35-40, 43, 44.
Chapter IV. , §§ 54-61 .
Chapter V. , last part of § 68.
Chapter VI. , §§ 74, 78-82, 86 , 89.
 LOGARITHMS .

§ 1. The logarithm of a number N is the exponent de-

noting the power to which a fixed number called the base
must be raised in order to produce N.
Thus , if N = b², then is log , N = x ; or, in words , when
the base is b the logarithm of N is x.

What is log28 ? 8 = 23 ; ... log , 8 = 3.

1 1 4 1
What is log ? = ; ... log + 16 = 4.
16 16 (
1
What is log , 3 ? 3 = 91 ; ... log, 3 = 1.
2
What is log 10 1000 ? 1000 10³ ; ... log 10 1000 = 3 .
What is log , 27? Ans. 3.

What is log464 ? Ans. 3.

What is the number whose logarithm is 5 when the base

is 2 ? log, N = 5 ; N= 25 = 32.

What is the number whose logarithm is 3 when the base

is 3? Ans. 27.

What is the number whose logarithm is 3 when the base

is 10 ? Ans . 1000.

What is the number whose logarithm is ― 2 when the

base is 8 ? 1 - 1·
log , N= -2 ; .. N = 8-2 =
82 64
2 LOGARITHMS.

What is the number whose logarithm is 2 when the

base is 10 ? 1
Ans.
100
2
What is the number whose logarithm is - when the
3
base is 27 ? Ans.

§ 2. The logarithms of all numbers referred to the same

base are said to belong to the same system of logarithms.
Thus , log 106 , log 107 , log 1084 , log 10 768 , all belong to the
denary or common system.

§ 3. In any system of logarithms the logarithm of the

base itself is 1 .
For ... log , 2 = 1 :
221 ; ..
1010¹ ; .. log 10 10 = 1 :
and , in general, b = b¹ ; ... log b = 1.

§ 4. In every system of logarithms the logarithm of 1 is 0.

For 1 = 20 ; ... log21 = 0 :
1 = 10° ; .. log 101 = 0 :
=
and , in general, 16° ; ... log , 1 = 0.

§ 5. In any system the logarithm of the reciprocal of a

number is the negative ofthe logarithm of the number .
1 1 =
Proof: 1/12 is the reciprocal of b * ; now
bx

log₁ = log₁b =- x = -
- log, b*.
1
What is log4: ?
16
1 = 1 =
4-2 ;
16 42
1 1
.. log 4 log 4-2 = - 2 ; or log4: =-- log , 16 =
= −2.
16 16
 LOGARITHMS. 3

1
What is log 100.1 ? 0.1 = = 10-1 ; .. log 100.1 = -1 .
10
1
What is logs 27 ? Ans . — 3 .

What is the number whose logarithm is - when the

4
base is 16 ?
1 -1
N = 16- =
16 32
What is the number whose logarithm is - 3 when the
base is 10 ? Ans. 0.001 .

§ 6. In any system the logarithm of the product of two

or more numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of
the numbers .
Proof: If l = b², m = b", n = b²,
then is log, l = x, log, m = y, log¸n = z ;
now 1 x m x n = bª × by × b² = b²c + y + zx ;
... log(lx m × n) = x + y + z = logl + log m + logn .
It is evident that this principle may be applied to any
number of factors .

What is log (8 x 4 x 32) ?

82 ; ... log , 8 = 3 :
4 = 22 ; log 24 = 2 :
3225 ; ... log , 32 = 5 :
log2 (8 x 4 x 32 ) = log , 8 + log , 4+ log , 32
= 3 +2 + 5 = 10.

Ans . - 2 + 1 + 4 = 3 .
What is log.x3x81)?

If log 10 123 = 2.0899 , what is log 10 12300 ?

12300 100 × 123 = 102 × 102.0899 ;
... log 10 12300 = 2 +2.0899 = 4.0899 .
If log 10 2 = 0.3010 , what is log 10 200 ? Ans. 2.3010 .
4 LOGARITHMS.

§ 7. In any system the logarithm of a fraction is equal

to the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of
the denominator.
Proof: If l = b", mb", then is log, l = x, log, m = y ;
bx ι -
now - - bx-y ; ..log- = x − y = log l — log¿m.
m bv m
8
What is log2 ?
32
log2
= log , 8 - log , 323-5 = -2.
32
9/28
Given : log 103 = 0.4771 and log 102 = 0.3010 ; what is
3
log102? Ans. 0.1761 .

Given : log 10 123 = 2.0899 ; what is log 100.123 ?

Ans. 2.0899 - 3 == 1.0899.

§ 8. In any system the logarithm of any power of a

number is equal to the logarithm of the number multiplied
by the exponent ofthe power.
Proof: If l = b², then is log , l = x, lm = (bx) m = bmx ;
log 7m = mx = mx logl .
Under this head may be brought a root, for a root may
be regarded as a fractional power.
1 1 x 1 X 1
= 2x m = bm ; - x log l.
.log Im = - = m
m
What is log24º? log , 4º = 6 x log24 = 6 x 2 = 12.

What is log283? log , 8 = log , 8 × 3-2.

What is log 10 100 ?

100 = 102- 103 ; ... log 10 √100 = —-
3
What is log, V16³? Ans .
2
 LOGARITHMS. 5

COMMON LOGARITHMS.

§ 9. The logarithms most convenient for practical use

are the so-called common logarithms in which the base is
10. The following table contains the common logarithms
of certain integral powers of 10, and also shows between
what limits the logarithms of certain other numbers must
lie.

10000 = 10¹ ; ... log 10000 = 4.

9648 103+ a decimal ... log 9648 === 3 + a decimal.

1000 = 103 ; ... log 1000 = 3.

768 102+a decimal ; .. log 768 = 2+ a decimal.
100 = 102 ; ... log 100 = 2.
88 = 101+ adecimal ; ... log 88 = 1+ a decimal.

10 = 10¹ ; ... log 10 = 1.

7 = 100+a decimal ... log 7 = 0 + a decimal.
1 = 10° ; ... log 1 =
= 0.
0.66 10-1 + a decimal ; ... log 0.66 == 1+ a decimal.
1
0.1 = = 10-¹ ; ... log 0.1 -1 .
10
0.079 = 10-2+adecimal ... log 0.07 == 2+ a decimal.
1 = 1
0.01 = 10-2 ; ... log 0.01 ==-2 .
100 102
0.00684 10-3 +a decimal ; ... log 0.00684 = 3+ a decimal.
1 1
0.001 =- = -10-3 · log 0.001 = -3.
1000 10³
0.000795 10-4+a decimal ... log 0.000795 = - 4+ a decimal.
1 1
0.0001 = = = 10- ; .. log 0.0001 = -4.
10000 104
6 LOGARITHMS.

§ 10. From § 9 we see that the logarithm of a number

which is not an integral power of 10 is an integer plus a
decimal. Take 9648 for example ; it is between 1000 [ 10³]
and 10000 [ 10 ] , therefore its logarithm is between 3 and
4 , i.e. its logarithm is 3+ a decimal. Take 0.000795 ; it
is between 0.0001 [ 10-4] and 0.001 [ 10 -³] , therefore its
logarithm , being between 3 and 4, can be written
either 3 - a decimal, or - 4+ a decimal. The latter
method will be adopted .
Suppose the decimal part of the logarithm of 0.000795
to be 0.9004 , then is log 0.000795 =- 4 + 0.9004. Since
we shall make the decimal part always +, its sign need not
be written ; and in order to denote that the negative sign
applies to the integral part only, we write it above the
integer ; thus, log 0.000795 = 4.9004.
Let us take an example to show the advantage to be
gained by making the decimal part of the logarithm always
positive.
Suppose log 726 2.8609 ; find log 0.0726 .
726 726
0.0726 := = ;
10000 104

... log 0.0726 = log 726 - log 10 = 2.8609-42.8609.

Comparing this result with the given logarithm , we see

that the decimal parts are exactly the same ; this will not
be the case if log 0.0726 is expressed in the other way, for
then we shall get
-1.1391 or -1-0.1391 .
-2 +0.8609 ·==
Let us take another example.

Given : log 0.0726 = 2.8609 ; find log 7.26 .

7.26 = 0.0726 × 100 ;
..log 7.26 = 2.8609 + 2 = 0.8609 ;
 LOGARITHMS . 7

and again we see that the decimal part of the result is the
same as that of the given logarithm. If, then, we always
make the decimal part of a logarithm +, the following
statement will be true :
Numbers which consist of the same series offigures, i.e. ,
which differ only in respect to the position ofthe decimal
point, will have the same decimal parts to their logarithms;
and the integral parts of the logarithms will depend upon
the position of the decimal point; for a change in the posi-
tion of the decimal point is equivalent merely to multiply-
ing or dividing by an integral power of 10, and this process
will only increase or diminish the logarithm (exponent) by
an integer.

§ 11. The integral part of a logarithm is called its

characteristic, and the decimal part its mantissa.
The characteristic, when the number is not an integral
power of 10 , may be found easily by noting between what
adjacent integral powers of 10 the number lies.
Thus, 9648 ( see § 9) lies between 103 [ 1000 ] and 10ª
[10000 ] ; therefore the characteristic of log 9648 is 3 :
0.000765 lies between 0.0001 [ 10-4] and 0.001 [ 10 -³] ;
therefore the characteristic of log 0.000765 is -— 4 .
Thus we see that the characteristic of the logarithm of a
number depends wholly on the position of the decimal
point, and not at all on the figures which the number
contains .
From what precedes we can readily deduce the following
rule for finding the characteristic of the logarithm of any
number :
The characteristic of the logarithm of a number is equal
to the number of places by which the first significant figure
ofthe number is removed from the units' place, and is posi-
8 LOGARITHMS.

tive for numbers greater than unity (i.e. , where the first
significant figure is to the LEFT of the decimal point) , and
negative for numbers less than unity ( i.e. , where the first
significant figure is to the RIGHT of the decimal point) ; it is
O when the first significant figure is IN the units' place.

Examples : Find by the above rule the characteristics

of the logarithms of the following numbers : -
3210 210
(1) 1689 ; (2 ) 168.9 ; (3) 1.689 ;
0 -1 0-1-2 0-1-2-3-4
(4) 0.1689 ; (5) 0.0 1689 ; (6) 0.0 0 0 1689 .
Answers. (1 ) 3 ; (2) 2 ; (3) 0 ;
(4) −1 ; (5 ) —2 ; ( 6) —4 .

§ 12. The mantissas, or decimal parts of the logarithms

of numbers , have been computed to different degrees of
accuracy, the results for some numbers having been carried
out to more than 25 places of decimals . A collection of
these mantissas is called a logarithm-table. Tables are
characterized by putting before the word logarithm the
expression 3-place, 4-place , 5-place , 7-place , 9-place, etc. ,
according to the number of places of decimals to which the
results are given. Thus , a 4-place logarithm-table is one
in which the results are given to four places of decimals.

§ 13. Examples offinding logarithms from the tables.

Find log 495000 .
Referring to p. 2 of Peirce's Tables, we seek 49 at the
left of the table in the column headed N, and run along
the horizontal line in which this lies until we reach the ver-
tical column which has 5 at the top, where we find 6946 ,
and this is the mantissa or decimal part (accurate to 4
 LOGARITHMS . 9

places) of the logarithms of all numbers whose significant

figures form the series 495 ;
... mantissa of log 495000 = .6946.
By the rule of § 11 the characteristic is 5 ;
... log 495000 = 5.6946.
Find the logarithms of
(1 ) 9.84 ; (2) 0.729 ; (3) 6690 ;
(4) 0.066 ; (5) 0.00000543 ; (6) 0.007 .
Answers . ( 1 ) 0.9930 ; ( 2) 1.8627 ; ( 3 ) 3.8254 ;
(4) 2.8195 ; ( 5) 6.7348 ; ( 6 ) 3.8451 .
What is log 24150 ?
We do not find this number in the table ; we do find,
however, log 24100 = 4.3820 ,
and log 24200 = 4.3838 .
The given number 24150 is half-way between 24100 and
24200 ; i.e. , it is equal to the first of these numbers plus
half the distance between the first and second. Assuming *
that the required logarithm is half-way between 4.3820 and
* The assumption that numbers vary proportionally with their
logarithms - that in the above example, for instance, if a num-
ber is half-way between two numbers , its logarithm is half-way
between the logarithms of these numbers — is only approxi-
mately correct ; but, when the difference between the numbers
is small, the error to which this assumption leads us is small ;
and in every properly-constructed table the differences or inter-
vals between the successive numbers of the table are so small
that the error in a logarithm found as above will not affect the
last place of decimals .
This method of finding the logarithm of a number which lies
between two successive numbers of a table is called the method
of interpolation .
If we refer to a 7-place table, we find from the table, without
interpolation, log 24150 = 4.3829171 , and this carried to only 4
places of decimals is 4.3829, which is the result obtained from
the 4-place table by interpolation.
10 LOGARITHMS .

4.3838 , i.e. that it is equal to the first of these logarithms

plus half the distance from the first logarithm to the sec-
ond , we get
log 24150 := 4.3820 + .5 x 0.0018 = 4.3829 .
We can, if we wish, find .5 of 0.0018 from the part of
the table on the right of the page headed P. P. (proportional
parts); thus : running along the horizontal line that contains
the logarithm of 24100 until we reach the vertical column
(under P. P. ) that has 5 at the top , we find 9 , which, if put
in the fourth place of decimals , is evidently .5 of 0.0018 .
What is log 5677 ?
This number lies between 5670 and 5680 ; and, referring
it to the nearest of these two numbers, we see that 5677 is
equal to 5680 minus of the distance from 5670 to 5680 .
Now log 5680 = 3.7543 ,
log 5670 = 3.7536 ,
and the difference between these logarithms is 0.0007 ;
... log 56773.7543 - (0.0007)
= 3.7543 -
— 0.00021 *
=
= 3.7541 .
What is log 0.2809 ?
log 0.2810 = 1.4487 ,
log 0.2800 = 1.4472 .
Difference in logs == 0.0015 ;
... log 0.2809 = 1.4487 — (0.0015 )
= 1.4487 -— 0.00015 †
= 1.4485 .

* This being nearer 2 than 3 in the fourth place, we will call it 2.

† This being half-way between 1 and 2 in the fourth place, we
can call it either 1 or 2 ; but, whenever there is a choice between
two numbers, computers generally choose the even number for
the sake of uniformity ; we will therefore call this number 2.
 LOGARITHMS. 11

What is log 21.567 ?

log 21.600 = 1.3345 ,
log 21.500 = 1.3324.
Difference in logs = 0.0021 ;
... log 21.5671.3324+ (0.0021 )
or = 1.3345-33 (0.0021 )
= 1.3345 - 0.0007
== 1.3338 .

Referring to our table, pages 2 and 3, we find : —

log 102 2.0086

diff. in logs = 0.0043
log 101 2.0043

log 1892.2765
diff. in logs = 0.0023
log 1882.2742

( log 383 = 2.5832 diff. in logs = 0.0011

log 384 = 2.5821
log 673 = 2.8280
diff. in logs = 0.0006
log 672 = 2.8274

log 999 2.9996 diff. in logs := 0.0005

log 9982.9991
From the above we see that for a difference of 1 in the
third significant figure of a number the corresponding dif-
ference in logarithm decreases as we go fromthe beginning
of the table (top of p . 2 ) to the end of the table (bottom of
p . 3 ) . Now, where the difference between successive log-
arithms of a table is large, the method of interpolation is
more difficult to apply, and is less likely to give accurate
results than where this difference is small. For this reason
the logarithms of numbers of four significant figures , be-
tween 1000 and 2000 , have been given on pages 4 and 5 .

Find log 1111 . Ans. , from p . 4 , 3.0457 .

12 LOGARITHMS.

Find the logarithms of

(1 ) 10.09 ; ( 2 ) 190.16 ; (3) 1000.4 ; (4) 0.12168 .
Answers. (1 ) 1.0039 ; (2) 2.2791 ;
(3 ) 3.0002 ; (4 ) 1.0852.
Examples : Find the logarithms of the following numbers :
1.834 19.98 0.01592 1.2899
54.97 1587.1 10.041 1000
9990 9999 0.09998 0.00000000010007
79930000 0.0001001 50090 0.6394.
Answers :
0.2634 1.3006 2.2019 0.1106
1.7402 3.2006 1.0018 3.0000
3.9996 4.0000 2.9999 10.0003
7.9027 4.0004 4.6997 1.8058.
.
§ 14. To find the number which corresponds to a given
logarithm .
Of what number is 1.8156 the logarithm ?
We find the mantissa .8156 on p. 3, in the same hori-
zontal line with 65 ( on the left) and in the vertical column
headed 4 , therefore the significant figures of our number
are 654 ; now the characteristic of our logarithm being 1 ,
the first significant figure 6 of our number must be the first
to the left of the units' place, hence 5 is in the units' place,
and the required number is 65.4.
Find the numbers whose logarithms are
(1) 2.7789 ; (2) 4.3160 ; ( 3) 0.5478.
Answers. (1 ) 0.0601 ; (2) 20700 ; ( 3) 3.530 .
Find the number ( N) whose logarithm is 0.5506 .
We do not find this logarithm in the table ; we do find ,
however, two successive logarithms between which this
lies. Thus ,
 LOGARITHMS. 13

log 3.550 0.5502 ,

log N =: 0.5506 ,
log 3.560 0.5514 .
The difference between 0.5502 and 0.5506 is 4 (in the 4th
place) , and the difference between 0.5502 and 0.5514 is 12 ;
... log N = log 3.550+ of (log 3.560 - log 3.550) ;
hence, by the method of interpolation ,
4
N = 3.550 + 2 (3.560-3.550)
= 3.550+ 14 (0.010) = 3.550 +0.003
-- 3.553 .

of 10 may be found in the table of proportional parts ;

thus , in the same horizontal line with our logarithm we
find 4 , and vertically above this at the top we find 3 , which
is the fourth significant figure of the number whose log-
arithm exceeds 5502 by 4.

Given : log N = 3.5449 ; find N.

Seeking in the table the logarithm nearest the given
logarithm , we find log 0.0035103.5453 , which exceeds
the given logarithm by 4 ; and above 4 in the table of pro-
portional parts we find 3 , which is in this case to be sub-
tracted from the fourth significant figure of the number
whose logarithm is 3.5453 ;
... N = 0.003510-0.000003 = 0.003507 .
Examples : Find the numbers which correspond to the
following logarithms : -
1.8359 2.4089 1.8058 3.4429
3.4631 4.0003 4.6997 9.9016
1.0020 1.1109 0.0001 3.7402 .
Answers :
68.53 0.02564 0.6394 2773
0.002905 0.00010008 50090 0.000000007972
10.046 12.91 1.0002 5498 .
14 LOGARITHMS .

§ 15. Examples of PRODUCTS illustrating § 6 .

1. Find the product of 78.05 , 0.6178 , 34100 , 10.009 ,
and 0.0009.
Solution : We find by the tables ,
log 78.05 = 1.8924
log 0.6178 = 9.7909 - 10 *
log 34100 = 4.5328
log 10.009 = 1.0004
log 0.0009 = 6.9542-10
log of prod. = 24.1707-204.1707 ;
.. the required product is 14815 .
* In order to avoid the use of negative characteristics , com-
puters generally add 10 to each negative characteristic, and then
write -10 after the logarithm.

2. Find the product of

(1) 4.31 , 0.39 , 64 , and 1.02 ;
(2) 361 , 0.043 , and 0.00621 ;
(3 ) 3.81 , 97.6 , 3120 , and 0.00081 ;
(4) 2.358 , 4.321 , 0.8765 , and 1.12 .
Answers. ( 1 ) 109.75 ; (2) 0.0964 ;
(3) 939.8 ; (4 ) 10 .

§ 16. The ARITHMETICAL COMPLEMENT of a logarithm,

and examples of reciprocals illustrating § 5.
The arithmetical complement of a logarithm - written
colog —is the remainder which we get after subtracting the
logarithm from 10.
Thus, if log 78.05 1.8924 ,
then is - 10
colog 78.05 = — 1.8924
= 8.1076.
Find colog 6.912 .
log 6.9120.8396 ;
... colog 6.912 = 9.1604.
 LOGARITHMS. 15

The arithmetical complement of a given logarithm may

be obtained with great ease if we note that subtracting a
logarithm from 10 is equivalent to subtracting the last sig-
nificant figure from 10 , and each of the other figures from
9. In getting colog 6.912 , for instance,
10.0000
log 6.9120.8396
colog 6.9129.1604
we can begin on the left, and say, 0 from 9 is 9 , 8 from 9
is 1 , 3 from 9 is 6 , 9 from 9 is 0 , and 6 from 10 is 4.

Find cologs of (1 ) 7.36 ; ( 2 ) 0.0134 ; ( 3 ) 81.2 ; (4 ) 3041 .

Answers. (1 ) 9.1331 ; (2) 11.8729 ;
(3) 8.0904 ; (4) 6.5170 .
We have, in general,
colog N = 10 - – log N ;
subtracting 10 from both sides of this equation we get
colog N - 10 = -log N,
and from this we see that colog N diminished by 10 is the
same as the negative of log N.
From § 5 we have
1
log ==―log N = (by the above) colog N– 10 .
N
Hence , the logarithm ofthe reciprocal ofa number is equal
to the arithmetical complement of the logarithm diminished
by 10.
1
Find log
273
1
log = colog 273-10 = 7.5638 - 10 3.5638.
=
273
Using the colog here has enabled us to obtain very easily
1
a positive mantissa for log 273
16 LOGARITHMS.

Find the values of

1 1 1 1
(1 ) ; (2 ) ; (3) ; (4)
319 0.0173 36.18 0.000123
Answers. (1) 0.003135 ; ( 2 ) 57.81 ;
(3) 0.02764 ; (4) 8130 .

§ 17. Examples of FRACTIONS illustrating § 7.

1. Divide 0.01478 by 0.9243.
Solution : We have , by the tables ,
log 0.014788.1697-10
log 0.92439.9658-10
subtracting, we get log of quotient = 2.2039
... the required quotient is 0.01599 .

Remembering that colog N- 10 = log N, we can do

the above example as follows :
log0.01478 = 8.1697 - 10
colog 0.9243-10 = 0.0342

and adding, we get log of quotient = 8.2039 - 10

= 2.2039

894 x 0.1786 × 41
2. Find the value of
0.86 × 0.0007952 × 9001

log894 = 2.9513 log 0.86 = 9.9345-10

log 0.1786 9.2519-10 log 0.0007952 = 6.900510
log41 = 1.6128 log 9001 = 3.9542

log numer. = 13.8160-10 log denom. = 20.7892 - 20

= 3.8160 = 0.7892
0.7892

..log quot. = 3.0268 and the required quotient is 1063.8.

 LOGARITHMS . 17

We will now do the above by the aid of cologs.

log894 = 2.9513
log 0.1786 = 9.2519-10
log 41 = 1.6128
colog 0.86 10 = 0.0655
colog 0.000795210 - 3.0995
colog 900110 = 6.0458-10

23.0268-20
= 3.0268
A comparison of these two methods of solution shows
the advantage to be gained by the use of cologs .
Find the values of
3176 x 4.31 x .023 731 × 9.16
(1) ; (2) ;
6.4x.231 2113 × 27
6.19 × 37000 × .002 49880 x .03754 × 68.1
(3) ; (4)
31.96 x 40.1 7.816 x 578.9 × 28.43
Answers. (1 ) 212.9 ; (2 ) 0.1174 ;
(3) 0.3575 ; (4) 0.9910 .

§ 18. Examples of POWERS and Roots illustrating § 8.

1. Find the fourth power of 0.9857 .
Solution : We have by the tables ,
log 0.9857 1= 9.9937-10
multiply by 4 .

log (0.9857) = 39.974840 = 1.9748 ;

... (0.9857) = 0.9436 .
2. Find the values of
(1) (7.013 ) ; (2) (.3009)5 ;
(3 ) (1.04)13 ; (4) (2.314) .
Answers. ( 1 ) 344.9 ; ( 2 ) .002469 ;
(3) 1.663 ; (4 ) 153.4 .
18 LOGARITHMS.

3. Find the cube root of 63.

Solution : We have by the tables ,
log 631.7993,
dividing this by 3 (multiplying by 1) we get
log V63 = 0.5998 ;
.. 633.979.
4. Find the fifth root of 0.02814.
Solution : We have by the tables ,

log 0.028142.4493 ;
if we divide the logarithm by 5 we get - for a character-
istic ; we will therefore increase the characteristic -2 by
50 * and write -50 after the logarithm ; thus ,
log 0.02814 = 48.4493-50 ;
now, dividing by 5, we get
5
log 0.02814 = 9.6899 – 10
= 1.6899 ;
V0.02814 = 0.4897.
* A number of tens equal to the exponent of the root ; i.e., in
this example, 5 tens , or 50.

5. Find the cube root of 0.27.

log 0.271.4314 ;
increasing the characteristic −1 by 3 tens, or 30 , we get
log0.27 = 29.4314 — 30 ;
..log 0.27 = 9.8105 - 10
= 1.8105 ;
.. 0.27 = 0.6464 .
6. Find log (0.1684 ) 3 .
First find log (0.1684 ) , and then divide this logarithm
by 3. Ans. 1.4842.
 LOGARITHMS. 19

Find the values of

(1 ) 7.1 ; ( 2 ) √.0041 ; (3 ) √31430 ;
20 13
(4) 4.003 ; (5) 37.19 ; ( 6) V0.0000492 .
Answers. ( 1 ) 1.922 ; ( 2 ) 0.2530 ; ( 3) 7.933 ;
(4) 1.072 ; (5) 1.321 ; (6 ) 0.3321.-

§ 19. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS AND EXAMPLES .

1. Given the exponential equation 202 ; find x.
By § 8 we have
log 20 = x x log 2 ;
1.3010
..x = log 20
log 2 0.3010
.. loga = log (log 20) — log (log 2)
== log 1.3010 – log 0.3010 .
log 1.30100.1143
log 0.30101.4786
log x = 0.6357
..x = 4.322.

We see from the definition of a logarithm ( § 1 ) that the

above value of x is the logarithm of 20 to the base 2 ;
... log2204.322 .
We can in like manner work out, by the aid of common
logarithms, the logarithms of all numbers to any base.

2. Find log20.6.
Put 0.6 = 2* ; • is log 0.6 = x × log2 ;
.* . x = log 0.6 1.7782
log2 0.3010

In order to obtain the value of x from this equation, we

must observe that the form 1.7782 , although sometimes
convenient for purposes of addition and subtraction , is not
20 LOGARITHMS .

suitable for purposes of multiplication or division ; we will

therefore reduce it to its equivalent,
1 +0.7782 =: -0.2218 ;
-0.2218 = [0.2218 *
.'. x =
0.3010 0.3010

The value of the part in brackets, being positive , can be

found in the usual manner.
Thus , log 0.22181.3460
log 0.30101.4786
1.8674
0.2218
= 0.7368 ;
0.3010
..x = --0.7368 .
* Negative numbers have no real logarithms ; for we can give
to 10 no exponent which will produce a negative number, since
10 with any exponent (positive or negative ) gives always a pos-
itive quantity, greater than unity if the exponent is positive, and
between zero and unity if the exponent is negative.
3. The number 2.7183 is the base of the so-called natu-
ral system of logarithms , a system much used in the higher
mathematics .
Find , with this number for a base , the logarithms of
0.7, 0.8 , and 0.9 .
Answers. — 0.3566 , — 0.2231 , and -
— 0.1055.

4. How many digits are there in the integral part of

(1.04 )6000?
Put (1.04 )6000 = N,
then 6000 log 1.04 = log N,
6000 × 0.0170 := 102.00 = log N.
The first significant figure of N is removed 102 steps
from the units' place, and there are therefore 103 digits in
the integral part of N.
 LOGARITHMS . 21

5. Show that there is only one digit in the integral part

of ( 1.02 ) 81.
6. Show that there are 20 digits in 264.
7. If $1 be put at 3% interest , in how many years will
it amount to $2, if the interest is compounded annually?
The amount at the end of one year is $ 1.03 ; this amount
now forms a new principal , so that , at the end of the sec-
ond year, every dollar of this $ 1.03 amounts in turn to
$ 1.03 , and the whole amount is $ ( 1.03 ) ( 1.03 ) = $ ( 1.03 ) ².
At the end of the third year the amount is evidently
$ (1.03) , and at the end of m years , $ ( 1.03) ".
In this example we are required to find a value m such
that
(1.03 )" = 2,
m log 1.03 = log 2 ;
0.3010
..m = log2 = = 23.5 .
log 1.03 0.0128
In general , if $P be put at interest at a rate r, com-
pounded annually, the amount at the end of m years will
be
$A $P( 1 +r ) .

8. In how many years will $ 1000 amount to $ 1800 , at

5 per cent compound interest ?
1800 = 1000 ( 1.05) " ;

... m = log 1.8 = 12 , nearly.

log 1.05
9. Show that a sum of money at compound interest will
double itself in about 7 years if the rate be 10 per cent,
and in about 17 years if the rate be 4 per cent.
10. Show that, if the population of a given State increases
byth of itself in every year, the number of inhabitants
at the end of 14.2 years will be twice as great as it was at
the beginning of the interval .
22 LOGARITHMS.

[11. * log 0.
= 10-* ; 1 1-
... log x.
10% 10x
Let x = ∞ (meaning by this that x is a variable quantity which
is supposed to increase indefinitely, that is, to increase without
1
limit) , then 10 will become ∞ , and we shall have log - -∞.
or when x∞ , is not 0 ; it is a quantity which may be
10%
made to approach 0 as nearly as we please , but it can never be
made to reach 0 ; such a quantity is called an infinitesimal , and
is denoted by some authors by the symbol . (I believe that
this notation was first introduced by Professor C. H. Judson of
South Carolina .)
Zero has no logarithm ; many authors say , however, that the
logarithm of zero is — ∞ , meaning thereby, perhaps , that ∞ is
the logarithm of an infinitesimal, that is , of a variable which has
0 for its limit.
I very much prefer to use some symbol- a horizontal zero ,
for instance - for an infinitesimal ; I can then say with strict
accuracy that log = ∞ . I also express this by putting
log 0 == - , using the dot over the sign of infinity to denote
that log 0 is impossible , and retaining the symbol - because
it expresses the logarithm of a quantity whose limit is 0. I be-
lieve that this mode of expression can be used advantageously
in other cases, and that its adoption, or the adoption of some
other method whereby we are not compelled to regard a vari-
able as reaching its limit, will make perfectly clear to the stu-
dent of mathematics many things which he now accepts on
faith.
The following are examples of cases to which I would apply
what has been stated above :

(1) 층 = ∞ [not 0 = ∞] ; 0 = co.

(2) ∞ X = a, not ∞ X0 = a, for ∞ X0 = 0.
(3) tan 90° = ∞ , not tan 90° ∞.
(4) Two parallel lines do not meet at infinity ; they may be,
however, the limits approached by two lines whose point of inter-
section recedes indefinitely.]
* This is intended for the teacher rather than for the student.
 LOGARITHMS. 23

12. Find the value of

V0.0432 × (3.122 ) × (0.0001 )
(1862)2 x 0.0048

log0.0432 = 58.6355-60 log√0.0432 = 9.7726—10

(log3.12 2 = 0.4945
log (3.122)8 = 3.9560 log(3.122) = 0.5651
log 0.0001 = 4.0000 log(0.0001 ) 1.0000
( log 1862 = 3.2700
( log ( 1862 ) ² = 6.5400 colog ( 1862 ) 2-10 = 3.4600-10
(log0.0048 = 3.6812
log 0.0048 = 1.2271 cologV0.0048-10-10.7729-10
23.5706-30
or 7.5706
... the required value is 0.0000003721 .

Find the values of

13. ( (0.507) 140 Ans. 0.5549.
v0.4 x 67

14 . 5 (8.763 ) 3 100 Ans . 6 .

9x V0.1109 x (4.9)
3
15 . 5 (0.012 ) x 0.27 Ans. 0.0281 .
(64) 2 × 0.00651

16 . 27.4+ (0.9)7 Ans . 184.97.

0.0001021
3
17. (134.9) 2 x 16 Ans. 0.0003164 .
1845 × 46.49
( 10000

0.001019004 × 0.9999
18. 3 Ans. 0.000004442 .
760 x 0.02751
24 LOGARITHMS.

§ 20. THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.

The trigonometric functions of angles between 0° and 90°,
at intervals of 10 ' , are given in the tables on pages 22-27.
Let us find the functions of 15° 12' for example. Under
, in the left-hand column of the third division of page 22 ,
we find 15° immediately followed by 10' ; in the same
horizontal line with the latter, and in the column headed
sin , we find .2616 , which is sin 15° 10'.
.. sin 15° 10' = 0.2616 , and similarly
sin 15° 20' = 0.2644
difference = 28.
Now, by the method of interpolation ( see § 13) , the
amount to be added to 0.2616 in order to produce
sin 15° 12 ' is .2 of 28 , or 5.6 , which we call 6 ;
0.2616
.. sin 15° 12' :=
{+.0006
= 0.2622.

In like manner , from page 22 and from pages 24 and 26 ,

cos 15° 12':= 0.9650 *
tan 15° 12' = 0.2717 sec 15° 12' = 1.036
ctn 15° 12' = 3.681 csc 15° 12' = 3.814 .

By the above method we find :

sin 13° 28' = 0.2328 sin 28° 13' = 0.4728
cos 13° 28' = 0.9725 cos 28° 13' = 0.8812
* Cos 15° 20' being less than cos 15° 10' , .2 of the difference
was subtracted from cos 15° 10' . The student should carefully
consider whether the amount obtained by the method of inter-
polation is to be added or subtracted.
We learn, either from Trigonometry or from an examination
of the tables , that the sine, tangent, and secant increase, and
that the cosine, cotangent, and cosecant decrease, as the angle
increases from 0° to 90°.
 LOGARITHMS. 25

tan 13° 28' = 0.2395 tan 28° 13 ' = 0.5365

ctn 13° 28' = 4.176 ctn 28° 13 ' = 1.864
sec 13° 28' = 1.028 sec 28° 13 ' = 1.135
csc 13° 28' = 4.294 csc 28° 13' = 2.115 ,

and in a similar way are to be found the functions of all

angles between 0° and 45°.

§ 21. We will now show how to find the trigonometric

functions of angles between 45° and 90 ° .
Let us take 58° 24 ' for example . At the bottom of the
right-hand column of the middle division of page 23 we
find ; we run up this column until we find 58° , and im-
mediately above this 10 ' , 20 ' , etc .; in the same horizontal
line with 20 ' , and in the column which has sine at the bot-
tom , we find .8511 , which is the sine of 58 ° 20 '. Now, by
the method of interpolation, we get sin 58° 24 ′ = 0.8517 .
Similarly : -
cos 58° 24' = 0.524 sec 58° 24' = 1.909
tan 58° 24' = 1.625 ctn 58° 24' = 0.6152
csc 58° 24' = 1.174
sin 84° 13' = 0.9949 sin 46° 28' = 0.7250
cos 84° 13' = 0.10077 cos 46° 28' = 0.6888
tan 84° 13 ' = 9.88 tan 46° 28 ′ = 1.053
ctn 84° 13 ' = 0.10128 ctn 46° 28 ′ = 0.9501
sec 84° 13' = 9.93 sec 46° 28' = 1.452
csc 84° 13' = 1.0051 csc 46° 28' = 1.380 .

From the above we see that when the angle is between

45 ° and 90° it is to be sought in the right-hand column ,
that the name of the required function is to be found at
the bottom of the page, and that the columns are to be
read upwards.
26 LOGARITHMS.

§ 22. When a function of an angle is given, the angle

can be found from the tables by a method similar to that
already explained for finding a number from its logarithm .
Thus , if sin A = 0.6792 , we find on page 23 ,
sin 42° 40' = 0.6777
sin 42° 50' = 0.6799

difference = 0.0022
and sin 42° 50'sin A = 0.0007 ;
7
.. A = 42° 50' - X 10' 42° 47'.
22
Examples : Find A from the tables in each of the fol-
lowing cases :
(1 ) sin A = 0.9621 ; (4) sec A = 1.111 ;
(2) cos A = 0.1268 ; (5 ) ctn A = 0.0079 ;
(3) tan A == 2.172 ; (6) csc A = 9.872 .
Answers : ( 1 ) 74° 10 ′ ; ( 3 ) 65 ° 17' ; (5 ) 89 ° 33' ;
(2 ) 82° 43 ' ; (4) 25° 50 ' ; ( 6 ) 5° 49'.

§ 23. Referring to the tables , pages 22-27 , we notice

that the angles in the right-hand columns are the comple-
ments of the angles in the left-hand columns. Thus , oppo-
site 41° 10' on the left we find 48° 50 ' on the right, and we
also find
sin 41° 10' = 0.6583 = cos 48° 50'
cos 41° 10' = 0.7528 = sin 48° 50'.
These results are in accordance with the principles of
Trigonometry, for Trigonometry tells us that the functions
of any angle (4) are the complementary functions of its
complement (90° — $) .

§ 24. The functions of angles greater than 90° can be

expressed in terms of the functions of angles less than 90° ,
by the aid of the formulas of §§ 31 and 32 , Plane Trigo-
nometry.
 LOGARITHMS. 27

Examples :
sin 259° 25 ' = sin ( 180° + 79° 25') ==
= - sin 79 ° 25 ' = - 0.9830
cos 259° 25 ' = cos ( 180 ° 79° 25 ') = cos 79° 25 ' -- 0.1836
sin 123° 32' = 0.8336 ctn 258° 19' = 0.2068
tan 123° 32' =- 1.509 sin 258° 19' =- 0.9792
sec 300° 18':= 1.982 cos 174° 12' —— 0.9949
cos 300° 18':= 0.5045 ctn 174° 12' = - 9.85 .
Find A in each of the following cases :
(1 ) sin A == 0.5621 ; (7) csc A == 2.842 ;
(2) sin A = - 0.9021 ; (8) csc A =- -1.469 ;
(3) tan A = 1.451 ; (9) ctn A = 2.177 ;
(4) tan A = 0.6921 ; (10) ctn A =-- 0.9221 ;
(5) sec A = 1.0084 ; ( 11 ) cos A - 0.4682 ;
(6) sec A - 2.964 ; (12 ) cos A = -0.8196 .
Answers :
(1) 34° 12' or 145° 48 ' ; (7) 20° 36′ or 159 ° 24 ' ;
(2) 244° 26 ' or 295 ° 34 ' ; (8) 222° 54' or 317° 06 ' ;
(3) 55° 26' or 235° 26' ; (9) 24° 40′ or 204° 40 ' ;
(4) 145° 19' or 325° 19 ' ; ( 10 ) 132° 39 ' or 312 ° 39' ;
(5) 7° 25' or 352° 35 ' ; ( 11 ) 62° 05′ or 297° 55' ;
(6) 109° 43 ′ or 250° 17 ' ; ( 12 ) 145° 02 ' or 214° 58'.

§ 25. " When logarithms were invented they were called

artificial numbers , and the originals , for which logarithms
were computed , were accordingly called natural numbers ."
DE MORGAN.
The tables just explained , §§ 20-24 , are therefore called
tables of the natural functions of an angle.

§ 26. LOGARITHMS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.

Having found the natural functions of an angle by the
methods just explained , we can find the logarithms of
38 LOGARITHMS.

§ 36. Explanation of the formulas by the aid of which

the small table, at the top of page 10 of the tables, may be
used.

We know from Trigonometry that , in a circle with radius

unity, when is small , sino and tan are very nearly
equal to arc , or, where & has been reduced to minutes ,
that
sin 4 = arc $ = 4 arc 1 ' , approximately,
and tan = arco arc 1 ' , approximately ;
.. ( 1 ) log sin = log + log arc 1 ' , approximately.
(2) log tan = log + log arc 1 ' , approximately.
We know also that sin < arco and that tan > arco ;
therefore, log sin obtained by ( 1 ) will be a little too
small , and log tan obtained by (2) will be a little too
large ; let us denote the amount by which log sin is too
small bye and the amount by which log tan & is too large
by e' , then we get
log sin = log + log arc 1'— €,
log tan = log + log arc 1 ' + e'.

Now, denoting log arc 1 ' - e by S and log arc 1 ' + e' by
T , we get
I. log sin = log + S.
II. log tan & = log & + T.
These are the formulas by the aid of which the small
table is to be used.

Let us compute S and T when = 0° 44 ' .

From I. , S = log sin - log 4,
and from II. , T = logtan log ;
log sin 0° 44 ' = 8.1072 log.tan 0° 44' = 8.1072
log 44 = 1.6435 log 44 = 1.6435

S = 6.4637 T = 6.4637.
 LOGARITHMS . 39

Let us now compute log arc 1'.

π
Arc 360° = 2πr = 2π ; .. arc 1 ° =
180
π 3.1416
... arc 1 ' =
60 x 180 10800
log 3.1416 = 0.4971
log 10800 4.0334
log arc 1' = 6.4637
and this is the same as the values of S and T found above.
Hence we see that when = 0° 44 ′ (or less ) , S and T
differ from log arc 1 ' by quantities too small to affect the
fourth place of decimals. In like manner have been com-
puted the different values of S and T given in the small
table . In this table the first three figures of S and T are
printed in full-faced type at the top of the column , while
the last two figures are to be found below. Referring to
this table we see that , as a small angle & increases , S and
T vary very slowly and differ little from log arc 1 ' [ 6.4637] .

§ 37. The logarithms of the functions of angles near 0°

or 90° by the aid of the small table at the top ofpage 10 of
the tables.
I. Angles between 0° and 6°.
log sec is readily found from the third division of the
small table, where the first three figures of the logarithm
are printed in full-faced type at the top of the column
and the last two figures are given below. Thus , to get
log sec 0° 18 ' we refer to the column headed in the third
division of the table, and find that 0° 18 ' , falling between
0° 00' and 0° 52 ' , has a log sec equal to 0.0000 . In like
manner we find
log sec 1 ° 02' = 0.0001 log sec 4° 12' = 0.0012
log sec 5° 50' = 0.0023 log sec 2° 50' = 0.0005.
28 LOGARITHMS.

these functions from the table of the logarithms of num-

bers (pages 2-5 of the Tables) : it more often happens ,
however, that the natural functions themselves are of no
service to the computer ; he generally wishes only the
logarithms of these functions . If, for example ,
a = 16 sin 28° csc 32°,
we have log a = log 16+ log sin 28° + log csc 32° ;
and hence , in order to find the value of a we do not need
sin 28° and csc 32° but their logarithms . For the above
reason tables have been constructed (see pages 8-15 of the
Tables) , by the aid of which the logarithms of the trigono-
metric functions can be found directly from the angles .

$ 27. Angles between 6° 00' and 84° 00′ inclusive.

(Tables : pages 10-15 . )
To the student who is familiar with the tables already
discussed [Tables : pages 2-5 and pages 22-27 ] only two
things need be explained in regard to pages 10-15 .
FIRST. In order to avoid the use of negative character-
istics , each logarithm whose characteristic is negative has
been increased by 10. Thus, from page 10 we find
log sin 7° 00' = 9.0859 , and this , the tabular logarithm of
sin 7° 00', is 10 too large.
.. true log sin 7° 00' = tabular log sin 7° 00' -
— 10
= 9.0859 - 10 = 1.0859.

Now, the characteristic of the logarithm of any trigono-

metric function will be negative when the function itself
is less than 1 , and positive when the function is greater
than 1 ; and we know either from Trigonometry or from
the tables of natural functions , pages 22-27 of the tables ,
that the sines and cosines of all angles, the tangents of
angles between 0° and 45° , and the cotangents of angles
 LOGARITHMS . 29

between 45° and 90° , are less than 1 , while the secants and
cosecants of all angles, the tangents of angles between
45° and 90°, and the cotangents of angles between 0° and
45°, are greater than 1. Consequently, the tabular loga-
rithms of all sines and cosines , of the tangents of angles
between 0° and 45° , and of the cotangents of angles be-
tween 45° and 90° , are 10 too large.

Examples : true log sin 81° 20′ = 9.9950 — 10

true log tan 81° 20′ = 0.8169
true log tan 42° 10' == 9.9570 - 10
true log ctn42° 10 ' := 0.0930.

SECOND. The numbers printed in smaller type are dif-

ferences to be used in interpolating ; we find , for example ,
between log sin 7° 00 ′ and log csc 7° 00 ' , the number 103 in
smaller type, and this is the difference to be used in find-
ing, by the method of interpolation , the logarithms of the
sines and cosecants of angles between 6° 55' and 7° 05 ',
i.e. , of angles that are nearer to 7° 00 ′ than they are to the
angle which precedes or follows it.

Let us find log sin 7° 02′ and log csc 7° 02'.

log sin 7° 00′ = 9.0859 log csc 7° 00' = 0.9141
.2 of 103 = 21 .2 of 103 = 21

... log sin 7° 02' = 9.0880 ; ... log csc 7° 02 ' = 0.9120.

Find log sin 7° 08′.

7° 08′ is nearer to 7° 10' than it is to 7° 00' , therefore we
·
use for our difference the number 100 (opposite 7° 10 ′) . '
log sin 7° 10' = 9.0961
.2 of 100 = 20

... log sin 7° 08 ' = 9.0941 .

30 LOGARITHMS.

Find log ctn 7° 08 ′ and log cos 7° 07'.

log ctn 7° 10' = 0.9005 log cos 7° 10' = 9.9966
.2 of 102 = 20 . .3 of 2 = 1

... log ctn 7° 08 ′ = 0.9025 ; .. log cos 7° 07' = 9.9967.

Suppose we wish to find log sin 7° 05 ' ; this angle being

half way between 7° 00' and 7° 10' , we will take for our
difference 101 , which is half way between 103 (opposite
7° 00′) and 100 ( opposite 7° 10') .
log sin 7° 00' = 9.0859
.5 of 101 = 51

log sin 7° 05 ':= 9.0910 .

The student has doubtless noticed that the number 103

(opposite sine and cosecant of 7° 00 ′) is not the actual
difference between two successive logarithms of our table ,
for log sin 7° 00 ' -
— log sin 6° 50 ′ = 104 ,
and log sin 7° 10' - log sin 7° 00 ′ = 102 ;
if we refer to a 7-place table, however, we find
log sin 7° 05 ' = 9.0910 082
log sin 6° 55′ = 9.0807 189
difference = 0.0102 893

and this difference carried out to four places we call 103.

103 , then, is a more accurate difference for us to use in
finding the log sine and the log cosecant of angles which
fall between 6° 55' and 7° 05' than the actual difference
between successive logarithms of our table would be. We
see from the above how the numbers in smaller type have
been obtained ; these numbers never differ much, and in
most cases not at all from the differences between succes-
sive logarithms of our table.
 LOGARITHMS. 31

§ 28. Examples :
log sin 9° 02′ = 9.1959 log cos 14° 06 ' == 9.9867
log sin 62° 01 ′ = 9.9460 log cos 59° 04′ == 9.7110
log sin 75° 18' = 9.9855 log cos 70° 15' = = 9.5288
log sin 128° 06' = 9.8959 log [ -cos 210° 26 ′] * = 9.9357
log[-sin 200° 16 ' ] * 9.5395 log [ -cos 99° 18 ′] * = 9.2085
log tan 24° 02′ = 9.6493 log ctn 18° 04' = = 0.4865
log tan 60° 12' =
= 0.2421 log ctn 48° 12' = 9.9514
log [-tan 120° 04 ′]= 0.2374 log [ - ctn 99 ° 02 '] = 9.2013
log tan 260° 18' == 0.7672 log ctn 210° 16' = 0.2339
log sec 16° 02′ = 0.0173 log csc 22° 01 ' = 0.4261
log sec 70° 16 ' = 0.4715 log csc 48° 02′ = 0.1287
c
log [-se 100° 18 '] = 0.74 76 log csc 102° 58 ' = 0.0112
log [-sec 200° 02 '] = 0.0271 log [-esc 216 ° 46 '] = 0.2229
Find A in each of the following cases :
(1 ) log sin A = 9.6021 ; (8 ) log [ -tan 4] = 9.9966 ;
(2) log sin A = 9.8588 ;; ( 9) log ctn A == 0.2174 ;
(3) log [ -sin A ] = 9.8120 ; ( 10 ) log [ -ctn A ] = 9.7218 ;
(4) log cos 49.6821 ; ( 11 ) log sec A = 0.1261 ;
(5) log cos A = 9.8266 ; ( 12 ) log [ -sec A] = 0.6879 ;
(6) log [ -cos A ] = 9.7692 ; ( 13 ) log csc A = 0.6428 ;
(7) log tan A = 0.6868 ; ( 14 ) log [ -cscД] = 0.6999 .
Answers :

(1 ) 23° 35 ' or 156 ° 25 ' ; (8) 135° 14′ or 315° 14' ;

(2) 46° 15 ' or 133 ° 45 ' ; (9) 31 ° 07 ' or 211 ° 07' ;
(3) 220° 27' or 319 ° 33 ' ; ( 10) 117° 47' or 297° 47' ;
(4) 61 ° 15 ' or 298° 45 ' ; ( 11 ) 41 ° 35 ' or 318 ° 25 ' ;
(5) 47° 52 ′ or 312 ° 08 ' ; ( 12) 101 ° 50 ' or 258° 10 ′ ;
( 6) 126° 00′ or 234° 00 ' ; ( 13 ) 13° 09' or 166° 51 ' ;
(7) 78° 23' or 258° 23' ; (14) 191 ° 31 ′ or 348° 29'.

* See Example 2, pp. 19 , 20, and note, p. 20.

32 LOGARITHMS .

ANGLES BETWEEN 0° AND 6° AND BETWEEN 84° AND 90°.

(Tables pages 8 , 9.)
§ 29. When an angle is near 0° or 90° , the difference
between successive logarithms of certain of its functions is
comparatively large, and when the interval in angle is as
great as 10 ' , this difference is so large that we cannot
obtain accurate results by the method of interpolation for
angles which lie within the interval. (See note on page 9 ,
and also last paragraph of page 11. )
We find, therefore, on pages 8 and 9 of the tables , a sep-
arate table for angles between 0° and 6° and between 84°
and 90°, where the interval between the successive angles
of the table is only 1'.

$ 30. log sin, log tan, and log sec of angles between 0°
and 6°.

(a) log sin. Let us find log sin 1 ° 35 ' . At the top of the
middle division of page 8 of the tables we find 1º , 1 sin,
1 tan , and 1 sec ; running down the column headed 1 sin
until we reach the horizontal line which has 35 ' on the left,
we find 8.4414 , which is log sin 1° 35'.
Find log sin 2° 18.6' : in the third division of page 8 of
the tables we find
log sin 2° 19' = 8.6066 ,
and on the right, in smaller type, the difference 31 ;
.4 of 31 = 12 ;
... log sin 2° 18'.6 8.6054.
Find log sin 3° 30'.2. Ans. 8.7861.

(b) log tan. The log tan of an angle between 0° and

6° differs little from its log sin ; they are, in general , the
same, except in the last two figures of the mantissa.
 LOGARITHMS. 33

Therefore, in order to save space , only the last two figures

of the log tan are given in the table.
Find log tan 1° 35 ' : on the right of log sin 1 ° 35 ' , in the
column headed 1 tn , we find 16 , the last two figures of the
required mantissa ; therefore , remembering that the char-
acteristic and first two figures of the mantissa are the same
as in log sin 1 ° 35 ' , we get log tan 1° 35' = 8.4416 .
Find log tan 2° 18 '. Ans . 8.6038 .
Find log tan 5° 13 ' . We find in the third division of
page 9 of the tables , in the column headed 1 tn, the figures
05 , and just to the left of these figures a star ; this star
indicates that the characteristic and first two figures of the
mantissa are to be taken not from the logarithm to the left
of 05, but from the following logarithm ; thus ,
log tan 5° 13 ' = 8.9605.
In this case log tan 5° 13 ' is a little above 8.9600 ,
and has therefore 8.96 for its first three figures , while
log sin 5° 13 ' , being a little below 8.9600 , has 8.95 for its
first three figures.
Find log tan 3° 42'. Ans. 8.8107.

Where there are two stars in succession the first three

figures are to be taken from the log sin which follows the
second star ; thus, log tan 5° 20′ = 8.9701 ,
log tan 5° 35' == 8.9901 .

Find, by interpolating,
log tan 0° 54'.4 . Ans. 8.1994 .
log tan 1° 02'.8 . Ans. 8.2617.

(c) log sec. The characteristic, and the first two figures
of the mantissa , of log sec of any angle between 0° and 6°
are zeros , and are not given in the table.
34 LOGARITHMS .

Find log sec 1° 35 ' ; in the secant (sc) column for 1º, and
opposite 35 ' on the left, we find 02 , the last two figures of
log sec ; prefixing zeros for the other figures we get
log sec 1 ° 35' = 0.0002 .
Find (1 ) log sec 0° 35 ' ; (3) log sec 2° 18'.
(2) log sec 4° 29' ;
Answers : ( 1 ) 0.0000* ; (2 ) 0.0013 ; (3 ) 0.0004.

§ 31. log cos, log ctn, and log csc of angles between 84°
and 90°.
We proceed as in § 30 , except that the angles and names
of the functions are to be found at the bottom of pages 8
and 9 of the tables , while the minute column is to be found
on the right, and all the columns are to be read upwards.
Thus :
log cos 84° 16' = 8.9996 , log ctn 84° 16 ' = 9.0017 ,
log csc 84° 16' = 0.0022 , log cos 89° 05'.6 = 8.1993 ,
log ctn 89° 05′.6 = 8.1994 , log csc 89° 05'.6 = 0.0001 .

§ 32. To find an angle (between 0° and 6°) from its

log sin, log tan, or log sec.
Given :
(1 ) log sin A = 8.8140 ; (4) log tan A = 9.0103 ;
(2) log sin A = 8.9116 ; (5) log tan A = 8.9903.
(3 ) log tan A = 8.6424 ;
Find A in each case.
Answers : ( 1 ) 3 ° 44′.2 ; ( 2 ) 4° 40′.8 ; (3 ) 2° 30'.8 ;
(4) 5 ° 50′.8 ; (5) 5 ° 35′.2 .
* If an angle is near 0° its secant is near 1 , and therefore the
log sec is near 0 ; the table gives log sec 0° 35′ = 0.0000 , which
means that log sec 0° 35' differs from 0 by an amount too small
to affect the fourth place of decimals.
 LOGARITHMS. 35

Given : log sec A = 0.0016 ; find A.

Referring to page 8 of the tables , we find that 0.0016 is
the log sec of all angles from 4° 51 ′ to 4° 59 ' inclusive ; we
cannot, therefore, find an angle with definiteness from its
log sec when the angle is near 0°.

§ 33. To find an angle (between 84° and 90° ) from its

log cos, log ctn, or log csc.
Given :
(1) log cos A = 9.0076 ; (4) log ctn A = 8.6870 ;
(2) log cos A = 8.5360 ; (5 ) log csc A = 0.00055 ;
(3) log ctn A = 8.4190 ; (6 ) log csc A = 0.0012.
Find A in each case.
Answers: ( 1 ) 84° 09'.5 ; (3) 88° 29'.8 ;
(2 ) 88° 01'.9 ; (4) 87° 12'.9 ;
(5 ) Any angle from 87° 08 ' to 87° 23 ', inclusive.
(6) Any angle * from 85° 40' to 85° 49 ' , inclusive.

$ 34. log cse, log ctn, and log cos of angles between 0°
and 6° ; and log sec, log tan, and log sin of angles between
84° and 90°.
We cannot find these logarithms directly from the table ;
we know from Trigonometry , however, that
1 1 1
esc ф = ctn = " cos =
sin tan & sec ф
1 1 1 •
seco = " tan = " sin & =
cos ctn p csco
From § 16 we know that the logarithm of the reciprocal of
a quantity is the colog of the quantity minus 10 , therefore :
log csc = colog sin -10 log seccolog cos -10
log ctncolog tan -10 log tan = colog ctn 4-10
log cos = colog sec -10 log sin = colog cscp - 10

* An angle near 90° cannot be found with definiteness from

its log csc.
36 LOGARITHMS.

Let us find log csc 2° 16' ; from the table (p . 8) we get :

tabular * log sin 2° 16' ― 8.5972 ;
... true log sin 2° 16' = 2.5972 ;
... log csc 2° 16 ' 11.4028 —-- 10 = 1.4028 .
What was done above is equivalent to subtracting tabular
log sin from 10 , for
log csc 2° 16 ' = colog sin 2° 16 ' - 10
= (102.5972 ) -- 10
= 10 -
− (2.5972 + 10)
= 10-8.5972 (tab. log) = 1.4028 ;
... log csc 2° 16' = 10 - tab. log sin 2° 16' ;
and in the same way it may be shown that when is any
angle between 0° and 6°,
(1 ) log csc = 10 - tab. log sin 4,
-
(2) log ctn = 10 tab. log tano,
and when is between 84° and 90°*
(3) log sec = 10 - tab. log cos ,
(4) log tan = 10 tab. log ctn .
If we also put
(5) log cos = 10 tab. log sec ,
(6) log sin = 10 tab. log csc 4,
we shall get results which, although 10 too large, will accord
with other tabular logarithms . (See § 27 , first part. )
After a little practice the student can tell at a glance
whether a logarithm is 10 too large ; he will then be able
to use the following rule :
To get the logarithm of the reciprocal of a function sub-
tract the tabular logarithm of the function from 10 , and the
result will be either the required logarithm or one which
differs from it by 10.
* See § 27 , first part.
 :

LOGARITHMS . 37

Examples :
log csc 0° 30' = 2.0592 log csc 2° 53' = 1.2984
log ctn 0° 30' = 2.0591 log ctn 2° 53' = 1.2979
log cos 0° 30' = 0.0000 log cos 2° 53' = 9.9994
log sec 86° 18 ' = 1.1902 log sec 88° 02',4 = 1.4660
log tan 86° 18' = 1.1893 log tan88° 02'.4 = 1.4657
log sin 86° 18′ = 9.9991 log sin 88° 02'.4 = 9.9997 .

§ 35. To find an angle (between 0° and 6°) from its

log csc, log ctn, or log cos ; and an angle (between 84° and
90°) from its log cos , log tan, or log csc.
( 1) Given : log csc A = 1.2458 ; find A.
From § 34 (1 ) log csc A = 10 - tab. log sin A ;
... tab. log sin A = 10 — log csc A = 10-1.2458
= 8.7542 .
.. from the table , A = 3 ° 15'.3 ..
(2) Given: log ctn A = 1.444 ; find A.
Ans. (from § 34 ( 2 ) and then from table) A = 2° 03'.5.
Find A in each of the following cases :

(3) log cos A = 9.9988 ; (6) log cos A = 9.9976 ;

(4) log csc A = 1.7921 ; (7) log csc A = 1.1111 ;
(5) log ctn A = 1.3221 ; (8) log ctn A = 1.1086 .
Answers :

(3) Any angle from 4° 11 ' to 4° 20', inclusive ; *

(4) 0° 55'.2 ; (5) 2° 43'.9 ;
(6) Any angle between 5° 58 ' and 6° 04', inclusive ; *
(7) 4° 26'.4 ; (8) 4° 27'.2.

* An angle near 0° can not be found with definiteness from

its log cos.
38 LOGARITHMS .

§ 36. Explanation of the formulas by the aid of which

the small table, at the top of page 10 of the tables, may be
used.

We know from Trigonometry that, in a circle with radius

unity, when is small, sino and tan are very nearly
equal to arc , or, where & has been reduced to minutes ,
that sin arc = arc 1 ' , approximately,
and tan = arc arc 1 ' , approximately ;
... ( 1 ) log sin = log + log arc 1 ' , approximately.
(2 ) log tan = log + log arc 1 ' , approximately.
We know also that sin < arc and that tan > arc ;
therefore, log sin obtained by ( 1 ) will be a little too
small, and log tan & obtained by (2 ) will be a little too
large ; let us denote the amount by which log sin is too
small by and the amount by which log tan is too large
by e' , then we get
log sin = log + log arc 1'- €,
log tan = logo + log are 1'+ e'.

Now, denoting log arc 1'- by S and log arc 1 ' + e' by
T , we get
I. log sin = log & + S .
II. log tan = log & + T.
These are the formulas by the aid of which the small
table is to be used.

Let us compute S and T when = 0° 44'.

From I. , S = log sin - log 4,
and from II., Tlogtan log ;
log sin 0° 44' = 8.1072 log tan 0° 44'8.1072
log 44 = 1.6435 log 44 == 1.6435

S = 6.4637 T = 6.4637.
 LOGARITHMS. 39

Let us now compute log arc 1 '.

π
Arc 360° 2 πr = 2π ; ... arc 1° = ;
180
π = 3.1416
... arc 1 ' =
60 x 180 10800
log 3.1416 0.4971
log 10800 = 4.0334
log arc 1 ' = 6.4637
and this is the same as the values of S and T found above.
Hence we see that when = 0° 44 ′ (or less ) , S and T
differ from log arc 1 ' by quantities too small to affect the
fourth place of decimals . In like manner have been com-
puted the different values of S and T given in the small
table. In this table the first three figures of S and T are
printed in full-faced type at the top of the column , while
the last two figures are to be found below. Referring to
this table we see that, as a small angle & increases , S and
T vary very slowly and differ little from log arc 1 ' [ 6.4637] .

§ 37. The logarithms of the functions of angles near 0°

or 90° bythe aid of the small table at the top ofpage 10 of
the tables.
I. Angles between 0° and 6°.
log sec is readily found from the third division of the
small table, where the first three figures of the logarithm
are printed in full-faced type at the top of the column
and the last two figures are given below. Thus , to get
log sec 0° 18 ' we refer to the column headed in the third
division of the table, and find that 0° 18 ' , falling between
0° 00' and 0° 52 ' , has a log sec equal to 0.0000 . In like
manner we find
log sec 1° 02 ' = 0.0001 log sec 4° 12' = 0.0012
log sec 5° 50' = 0.0023 log sec 2° 50' = 0.0005.
40 LOGARITHMS .

log cos cannot be found directly from the table ; we

1
know, however, that cos = " therefore by § 34 we
seco
can get log cos by first finding log sec and then sub-
tracting the latter from 10 . Thus ,

log cos 0° 18 ' = 10.0000 log cos 4° 12 ' = 9.9988

log cos 1° 02 ' = 9.9999 log cos 5° 50' = 9.9977.

log sin can be found by the aid of the left-hand division

of the table and the formula

log sin = log + S.

Thus, to get log sin 0° 00'.5 , we find from the table of

the logarithms of numbers log 0.5 = 1.6990 ; we find from
the small table that for all angles between 0° 00 ' and 0° 51 '
S = 6.4637 ; 1.6990
.. log sin 0° 00'.5 :=
{ +6. 4637
= 6.1627
and, in like manner ,
2.1399
log sin 2° 18' = log sin 138' =
{ +6.4636
= 8.6035

log sin 1 ° 52'.6 = 8.5151

log sin 0° 58'.8 = 8.2331 .

log csc is not given in the small table ; it must there-

fore be obtained by first finding log sin and then sub-
tracting the latter from 10 . (See § 34. )

Examples :
log csc 0° 15' = 2.3602 log csc 2° 18′ = 1.3965 .
 LOGARITHMS. 41

log tan can be found by the aid of the second division

of the small table and the formula
log tan = log+ T.
2.1399
Thus, log tan 2° 18':=
{+6.4640
= 8.6039
log tan 1 ° 52'.6 = 8.5154
log tan 0° 58'.8 = 8.2332 .
log ctn is not given in the small table ; it must be
obtained, therefore, by first finding log tan and then sub-
tracting the latter from 10 . ( See § 34. )
Examples :
log ctn 0° 15 ' = 2.3602 log ctn 2° 08 ' = 1.4289 .

II. To find when the logarithm of any one of its

functions is given.
Examples. Find in each of the following cases :
(1) log sin = 8.9824.
Using the formula log sin = log + S, we get
log = log sin - S.
Now, from the small table we see that when log sin is
between 8.9845 and 8.9498 , S = 6.4631 ,
8.9824
.. log ø = { - 6.4631

= 2.5193
... = 330'.6 = 5° 30'.6.
(2) log sin = 7.2982 ; $ = 0° 06'.8 .
(3) log tan = 7.6947 ; in this case
- 7.6947
log = log tan —T=
:
{
= --}6.4637

1.2310 ; .. = 0° 17'.02.
42 LOGARITHMS.

(4) log tan = 8.1624 ; = 0° 49'.95.

(5) log sec = 0.0012 ;
may be any angle between 4° 10′ and 4° 20 ', inclusive . *
When log csc , log ctn 4, and log cos are given, we
must subtract them from 10 in order to get log sin o,
log tan 6, and log sec o, respectively, and then from these
latter logarithms can be found , as in the preceding
examples.
(6) log csc = 2.2352 ; = 0° 20'.
(7) log ctn = 1.2256 ; = 3° 24'.3.
(8) log cos = 9.9997 ;
may be any angle between 1° 57 ' and 2° 17' , inclusive. *

III. Angles between 84° and 90°.

When is between 84° and 90° we must subtract it from
90°, and then get by the methods just explained the com-
plementary functions of the remainder.
Thus : log sin 86° 18 ' = log cos 3° 42 ' = 9.9991
log tan 86° 18 ' = log ctn3 ° 42' = 1.1893
log sec 86° 18' = log csc 3° 42 ' = 1.1902
log ctn 86° 18' = log tan 3° 42 ' = 8.8107
log csc 86° 18′ = log sec 3° 42 ′ = 0.0009
log cos 86° 18 ′ = log sin 3° 42 ' = 8.8098 .

§ 38. The advantage to be gained by using the small

table at the top of page 10 of the tables for angles near 0°
or 90°.
When an angle is given only to the nearest minute ,
nothing can be gained by using the small table , for in such
cases the logarithms can be taken directly from pages 8
and 9. When , however, an angle which differs from 0° or
* An angle near 0° cannot be found with definiteness from its
log sec, or from its log cos.
 LOGARITHMS. 43

90° by less than 1° is given to decimals of a minute , greater

accuracy can be obtained by using the small table . Let us
take the angle 0° 04′.8 for example . From the small table
log sin 0° 04'.8 = 7.1449 , and this result is accurate to the
fourth place of decimals ; whereas from page 8, by the,
method of interpolation, log sin 0° 04'.8 = 7.1433 .
If we take an angle which differs from 0° or 90° by less
than 1 ' , 0° 00'.6 for example, we are compelled either to use
the small table or to express our angle only to the nearest
minute. By the small table we get log sin 0° 00'.6 = 6.2419 ,
whereas, using 0° 01 ' for 0° 00'.6 , we get from page 8
log sin 0° 01 ′ = 6.4637 , thereby making an error of 0.2218 .
Angles near 0° or 90° are of frequent occurrence, especially
in Astronomical work, and it is often necessary, even when
using 4-place tables , to express such angles to decimals of
a minute .
Logarithms.
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