PV model

Effect of shading on PV characteristics

• The output of a PV module can be reduced dramatically when even a small portion of it is
shaded
• A solution by manufacturers  external diodes intentionally added in parallel with modules

• An n-cell module showing

one cell separated from the
others

• The equivalent circuit of the

top cell has been drawn using the
mentioned equivalent circuit

1
Prepared by: Eth Oudaya
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
• With the shading, the current source ISC has been reduced to zero. The voltage drop across RP
as current flows through it causes the diode to be reverse biased  the diode current is also
zero
• That means the entire current flowing through the module must travel through both RP and RS
 instead of adding to the output voltage, actually reduces it

Consider the case when the bottom n − 1 cells in full sun and still some how carry their original
current I so they will still produce their original voltage Vn−1  the output voltage of the
entire module VSH with one cell shaded will drop to (also see the figure)

2
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

Derivation on VSH

3
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

Effect of shading one cell in an n-cell module.

At any given current, module voltage drops from V to V −
ΔV 4
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

Example: Impacts of Shading on a PV Module

The 36-cell PV module had a parallel resistance per cell of RP = 6.6. In full sun and at current I
= 2.14 A the output voltage was found there to be V = 19.41 V. If one cell is shaded and this
current somehow stays the same, then:

a. What would be the new module output voltage and power?

b. What would be the voltage drop across the shaded cell?
c. How much power would be dissipated in the shaded cell?

5
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
Solution

a. From the equation of voltage difference, the drop in module

voltage will be
ΔV = V/n + IRP = 19.41/36 + 2.14 × 6.6 = 14.66 V

The new output voltage will be 19.41 − 14.66 = 4.75 V.

Power delivered by the module with one cell shaded would be

Pmodule = V I = 4.75 V × 2.14 A = 10.1 W

For comparison, in full sun the module was producing 41.5 W.

(see the table next page) 6

PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

7
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
b. All of that 2.14 A of current goes through the parallel plus series resistance (0.005 ) of the
shaded cell, so the drop across the shaded cell will be

Vc = I (RP + RS) = 2.14(6.6 + 0.005) = 14.14 V

(normally a cell in the sun will add about 0.5 V to the module; this shaded cell subtracts over 14
V from the module).

c. The power dissipated in the shaded cell is voltage drop times current, which is

P = VcI = 14.14 V × 2.14 A = 30.2 W

(All of that power dissipated in the shaded cell is converted to heat)

8
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
• Various conditions of shading

Effects of shading on the I –V curves for a PV module.

The dashed line shows a typical voltage when charging a 12-V battery 9
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

In full sun a cell may contribute around 0.5 V to the module output;
10
But when a cell is shaded, it can have a large voltage drop across it.
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics

When a solar cell is in the sun  there is a When the solar cell is shaded  the drop that would
voltage rise across the cell so the bypass diode occur if the cell conducted any current would turn on
is cut off and no current flows through it the bypass diode (voltage drop of around 0.6 V )

Mitigating the shade problem with a bypass diode 11

PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation

• In practice, at least one bypass diode around a module to help protect arrays or several such
diodes around groups of cells within a module
• These diodes do not have much impact on shading problems of a single module, but they
can be very important when a number of modules are connected in series.

(review) Photovoltaic cells, modules, and arrays

12
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation

Impact of bypass diodes - five modules in series charging 65 V to a battery bank.

13
With the module bypass diodes there is very little drop.
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation
With bypass diodes,
current is diverted
around the
shaded module

Note: the voltage is

fixed at 65 V as it is
the voltage of battery
14
bank.
PV model
Effect of shading on PV characteristics
SPECIFICATION

15
The Solar resource
The earth’s orbit
- The point at which the earth is nearest the sun, the perihelion, occurs on january 2 ( a little over
147 million kilometers away)
- The variation in distance is calculated by the following relationship:
  360( n  93)  
d  1.5  10 1  0.017sin 
8
  km
  365 
where n is the day number( january is 1 as day 1 and december 31 is day number 365)

16
 The Solar resource
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
- The angle formed between the plane of the equator and a line drawn from the center of the sun to
the center of the earth is called the solar declination, δ

An alternative view with a fixed earth and a sun that moves up and down.
The angle between the sun and the equator is called the solar declination δ.
17
 The Solar resource
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
- Exact values of declination, which vary slightly from year to year, can be found in the annual
publication The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac
 360 
  23.45sin  ( n  81) 
 365 
where n is the day number( january is 1 as day 1 and december 31 is day number 365)

18
 The Solar resource
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
- The altitude angle  N is the angle between the sun and the local horizon directly beneath the sun

where L is the latitude of the site

The altitude angle of the sun at solar noon. 19

 The Solar resource
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon
Example: Tilt Angle of a PV Module. Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing
photovoltaic module in Tucson (latitude 32.1◦) at solar noon on March 1.

20
The Solar resource
Altitude angle of the sun at solar noon

21
Types of PV systems
Three most commonly used configurations:

• Systems that feed power directly into the utility grid (Type I)

• Stand-alone systems with battery system and optional back-up generation (Type II)

• Stand-alone systems directly connected loads as is the case for water-pumping systems
(Type III)

22
Types of PV systems
PV system: type I (grid-connected)

Simplified grid-connected PV system

23
Types of PV systems
PV system: type I (grid-connected)
• The types of PV array  pole-mounted, attached externally, an integral part, Building-
Integrated PhotoVoltaics (BIPV)

• Power Conditioning Unit (PCU)  converts dc to ac and sends power to the building,
keeps the PVs operating at the most efficient point on their I –V curves as conditions change

• 2 cases of power flow  drawing and sending

• Failure-prone batteries are not needed for back-up power

24
Types of PV systems
PV system: type I (grid-connected)
• Advantages:
- relatively simple  reliable
- maximum-power-tracking unit  high PV efficiency
- capability to be integrated into buildings  no additional costs for land and, in
some cases, saving the cost of displaced materials
- ability to deliver power during the middle of the day, when utility rates are highest
 economic value

• Disadvantage:
- must compete with the relatively low price of utility power

25
Types of PV systems
PV system: type I (grid-connected)

Grid support
26
Types of PV systems
PV system: type I (grid-connected)
Other sample interconnection

27
Types of PV systems
PV system: type II (Stand-alone)

Example of a stand-alone PV system with optional generator for back-up 28

Types of PV systems
PV system: type II (Stand-alone)

• An inverter converts battery dc voltages into ac (except dc loads)

• The charging function of the inverter allows the generator to top up the batteries

• Advantages:
- convenience
- cost effective in remote locations

29
Types of PV systems
PV system: type II (Stand-alone)
• Disadvantages:
- several inefficiencies  battery losses
- low efficiency  since mounting the array at an overly steep tilt angle to supply
relatively uniform amounts of energy through the seasons, rather than picking an angle that
results in the maximum possible annual energy delivery
- Requirement of much more attention and care than grid-connected systems
- if generator usage is to be minimized (or eliminated)  no grid support

30
Types of PV systems
PV system: type II (Stand-alone)
Other sample interconnection

31
Types of PV systems
PV system: type III (directly-load-connected)

32
Types of PV systems
PV system: type III (directly-load-connected)

• Without any batteries or major power conditioning equipment

• The most common example is PV water pumping
• No electric energy storage  however, potential energy may be stored in a tank of water up
the hill for use whenever it is needed

• Advantages:
- most simple and reliable and least costly
• Disadvantage:
- need to be carefully designed to be efficient

33
Types of PV systems

Load Types of PVs  determines the power produced by PVs

- Grid loads  refer to grid-connected system PVs

- Battery loads  refer to stand-alone system PVs

- DC loads  refer to directly-load-connected system PVs

The intersection point between PV and load I-V curves is the spot, at which both the PVs and
load are satisfied  the operating point

34
Types of PV systems
Current-voltage curves for load

The operating point is the intersection of

the current–voltage curves for the load and the PVs.
35
Types of PV systems
Simple resistance load I-V curve
To illustrate the importance and need for load curves, consider a simple resistive load as
shown below.

(By using a variable resistance, called a potentiometer, or pot, as the load, and then varying its resistance,
pairs of current and voltage can be obtained, which can be plotted to give the module I –V curve)
36
Types of PV systems
Simple resistance load I-V curve
Nonetheless, with a fixed resistance, the operating point slips off the MPP as conditions change
and the module becomes less and less efficient

Solution  a device called a Maximum

Power Point Tracker (MPPT) will be
introduced, the purpose of which is to
keep the PVs operating at their highest
efficiency point at all times

the best value of resistance, for maximum power

transfer, should be VR/IR under the tested condition
37
Types of PV systems
DC Motor I-V curve

• Not all loads have the characteristic of an actual resistor

Notes: As the motor spins, it develops a back electromotive force e, which is a voltage
proportional to the speed of the motor (ω) that opposes the voltage supplied by the PVs.
A dc motor runs at nearly constant speed for any given applied voltage. 38
Types of PV systems
DC Motor I-V curve
• Notice that at start-up, ω = 0, the current rises rapidly with increasing voltage until current is
sufficient to create enough starting torque to break the motor loose from static friction
• Once the motor starts to spin, back emf drops the current and thereafter I rises more slowly with
increasing voltage

Note: If a dc motor is stalled while the

voltage is above the starting voltage,
the current may be so high that the
armature windings will burn out.

39
Types of PV systems
DC Motor I-V curve
• A dc motor I –V curve is
superimposed on a set of photovoltaic I
–V curves

• In this example, it needs 400 W/m^2

insolation to overcome the friction

• Once the DC motor starts spinning,

it only needs about 200 W/m^2 to keep
running

 This means some amount of

insolation is unusable and leads to the
inefficiency of this simple PV–motor
setup 40
Types of PV systems
DC Motor I-V curve
• Linear Current Booster (LCB) can shift this relationship around  converting low-current,
high-voltage power into high-current, low-voltage power, they can get the motor started earlier
in the morning

Note: The lower voltage, however, means that the motor will spin at a slower rate, but at least
it is working

41
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
• PVs only provide power during the daylight hours  energy storage systems are needed

• Examples:
- Gird-connected systems - the utility lines themselves can be thought of as the storage
mechanism
- Directly-load-connect systems – such loads like water-pumping systems can be applied
as potential-energy storage systems
- Isolated systems (off-grid applications) – normally energy is stored in batteries for use
whenever it is needed

42
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
An ideal battery has a constant voltage no matter how much current is drawn  its I –V curve
is simply a straight up-and-down line as shown below

43
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
A real battery has some internal resistance and is often modeled with an equivalent circuit
consisting of an ideal battery of voltage VB in series with some internal resistance Ri .

Note: During charging, the

applied voltage needs to be
greater than VB.

44
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
• The simple equivalent circuit representation of the shown figure is complicated by a number
of factors:
- the open-circuit voltage (VB) depends on the state of charge and on the battery
temperature
- how long it has been resting without any current flowing

As an example, a conventional 12-V leadacid battery at 25.5◦C, which has been allowed to rest
for a few hours, VB ranges from 12.7 V (for a fully charged battery) to about 11.7 V (for one
that has only a few percent of its charge remaining)

• Internal resistance is also a function of temperature and state of charge, as well the age and
condition of the battery

(more details of battery  see later on) 45

Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
Example: Charging a 12-volt Battery

Suppose that a nearly depleted 12-V lead-acid battery has an open-circuit voltage of 11.7 V and
an internal resistance of 0.03.
a. What voltage would a PV module operate at if it is delivering 6 A to the battery?

b. If 20 A is drawn from a fully charged battery with open-circuit voltage 12.7 V, what
voltage would the PV module operate at?

46
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
Solution

a. Using the battery equation, the PV voltage would be

47
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
One remark : the I –V curve for a battery moves toward the right as the battery gains charge 
there is a chance that the PV operating point will begin to slide off the edge of the knee—
especially late in the day when the knee itself is moving toward the left

However, it is acceptable, since current has to be slowed or stopped anyway when a battery
reaches full charge

48
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
There are 2 methods to prevent battery overcharging

1. For very small battery charging systems, such as fewer cells in series, self-regulating
method is used
For example, modules of 33, or even 30, cells instead of the usual 36  purposely cause
the current to drop off as the battery approaches full charge

49
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve

2. For the bigger system, the charge controller is used

• Terms  charge controller, charge regulator, battery regulator  used for limiting
both the rate of charge and discharge
• Also for preventing overvoltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan,
and may pose a safety risk
• Also for preventing completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform
controlled discharges
• 2 kinds of application  1) stand-alone and 2) circuitry integrated control

Note: the former one will paid attention to in this course.

50
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
1) Stand-alone charge controllers

• Charge controllers  separate devices

• Used for both PV and wind power generation and off-grid home battery storage systems

• Two sub-types of the stand-alone charge controllers

- A series charge controller or series regulator disables further current flow into batteries
when they are full.
- A shunt charge controller or shunt regulator diverts excess electricity to an auxiliary or
"shunt" load, such as an electric water heater, when batteries are full

51
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve

1) Stand-alone charge controllers (cont.)

• When battery voltage exceeds a set high level  stopping charging, and when battery
voltage drops back below that level  re-enable charging

• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Maximum Power point Tracker (MPPT)  to allow
charging closer to its maximum capacity

• Other functions: monitoring battery temperature  prevent overheating, data transmitting to

remote displays, and data logging to track electric flow over time

52
Types of PV systems
Battery I-V curve
2) Integrated charge controller circuitry

• Circuitry that functions as a charge regulator controller may consist of several electrical
components, or may be encapsulated in a single microchip, an integrated circuit (IC)  usually
called a charge controller IC or charge control IC
• Other applications: rechargeable electronic devices such as cell phones, laptop computers,
portable audio players, and uninterruptible power supplies, as well as for larger battery systems
found in electric vehicles, and orbiting space satellites

53
 Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
• Boost converter is a commonly used circuit to step up the voltage from a dc source
• Buck converter is often used to step down voltage

 The transistor switch flips on and off at a

rapid rate (on the order of 20 kHz)
 (not shown) a capacitor across the PVs that
helps smooth the voltage supplied by the PVs
54
A buck-boost converter used as a the main of a maximum power tracker
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
When the switch is closed
• The input voltage Vi is applied across the inductor  driving current IL through the inductor
• All of the source current goes through the inductor due to the blockage of the diode 
energy is being added to the magnetic field in the inductor as current builds up

Note: If the switch stayed closed, the inductor would eventually act like a short-circuit  PVs
deliver short-circuit current at zero volts

55
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
When the switch is opened
• Current in the inductor continues to flow as the magnetic field begins to collapse  inductor
current now flows through the capacitor, the load, and the diode
• Inductor current charging the capacitor provides a voltage (with a polarity reversal to PVs)
across the load  help keep the load powered after the switch closes again

Note: current through an inductor cannot be changed instantaneously—to do so would require

infinite power

56
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
If the switch is cycled quickly enough

(inductor)
• Current through the inductor does not drop much
• With a fast enough switch and a large enough inductor
• Nearly constant inductor current

(capacitor)
• Voltage across the capacitor does not drop much
• With a fast enough switch and a large enough capacitor
• Nearly constant capacitor and load voltage

 Output voltage Vo is essentially constant and opposite in sign to Vi

57
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
The relationship between the input and output voltage of buck-boost converter can be obtained
by the duty cycle D (0 < D < 1)
Duty cycle  the fraction of the time that the switch is closed

Note: The variation in the fraction of time the switch is in one state or the other is referred to as
pulse-width modulation (PWM)

Assumption: All components are

ideal  no power consumption 
average input power equals
average output (real MPPT is in
mid-90% range)

58
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers

Consider the inductor

• While the switch is closed, the voltage across the inductor is a constant Vi
 The average power put into the magnetic field of the inductor during one complete cycle is
given by

Under the assumption that inductor current is constant, the average power into the inductor is

59
 Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
• When the switch opens, the voltage across the inductor VL is the same as the voltage across the
load V0
 The average power delivered by the inductor is therefore

With good design, both V0 (or capacitor voltage) and IL are essentially constant, so average
power from the inductor is

60
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
Over a complete cycle, average power into the inductor equals average power out of the
inductor

• Output dc voltage can be raised up or reduced

• Output voltage increases as D increases

Notes:
• D = 1/2  same voltage, D = 2/3  raise 2 times, D = 1/3  reduce 2 times
• to know the proper duty cycle at a given instant  a microprocessor that periodically varies
the duty cycle up and down a bit while monitoring the output power to see whether any
61
improvement can be achieved
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers

With all ideal components 

power must be the same

62
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
Example: Duty Cycle for a MPPT
Under certain ambient conditions, a PV module has its maximum power point at Vm = 17 volts
and Im =6 A.
What duty cycle should an MPPT have if the module is delivering power to a 10 ohm
resistance?
Solution
The maximum power delivered by the PVs is P = 17 V ×6 A = 102 W. To deliver all of that 102
W to the 10 resistor means that the resistor needs a voltage of

63
Types of PV systems
Maximum Power point trackers
The MPPT must bump the 17-V PV voltage to the desired 31.9-V resistor voltage.
Using the equation of the converter and ignore the sign change,

64