ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI

CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 7

ALTERNATING CURRENT – PART 2

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source as shown in the figure.

The ac voltage is given by

v = Vm sinωt ---------------------- (1)

If ‘q’ is the charge on the capacitor and ‘i’ is the current at time t, then according to

Kirchhoff’s loop rule,

di q
L + iR + =v
dt C

Since the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in series, the ac current in each element is the

same at any time, having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be

i = im sin(ωt + φ) ---------------------- (2)

where φ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the

circuit.
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Voltage phasor diagram

Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit. Let VL, VR, VC and V represent the

voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively.

We know that VR is in phase with I, VC lags behind I by π/2 and VL leads I by π/2.

I
VCm – VLm
VR
VRm
VL φ Vm
(ωt+ φ)
ωt

VCm – VLm
VC

The length (or) amplitude of the phasors VR, VC and VL are

VRm = im R ; VCm = im XC ; VLm = im XL

Since VC and VL are along the same line and in opposite directions, they can be combined into

a single phasor which has a magnitude VCm – VLm.

By pythagorean theorem,

2
Vm 2
= VRm + ( VCm − VLm )2

2
Vm = ( i m R ) 2 + ( i m XC − i m X L ) 2

2
Vm 2
= im ( R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2 )

2
2 Vm
im =
R 2 + ( XC − XL )2

Vm Vm
im = =
R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2 Z

where Z = impedance of the circuit = R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2

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Phase angle

VCm − VLm
tanφ =
VRm

Impedance diagram

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ut
XC − X L tit
tanφ =
R

If XC > XL, φ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive. Consequently, the current
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in the circuit leads the source voltage.
I

i = im sin(ωt + φ)
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If XC < XL, φ is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive. Consequently, the current
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in the circuit lags behind the source voltage.

i = im sin(ωt – φ)

Phasor diagram for the case XC > XL

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RESONANCE

Condition for resonance in LCR series circuit

XL = XC

1
ωoL =
ωoC

1
ωo2 =
LC

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ut
1
ωo =
LC

where ωo is called resonant angular frequency

tit
1
ns
2πfo =
LC

1
I

fo =
2 π LC
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where fo is called resonant frequency

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At resonance, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and the current becomes maximum.

Z= R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2

When XL = XC,

Z= R 2 + 02 = R2 = R (Minimum Impedance)

Vm Vm Vm Vm
im = = = = (Maximum Current)
Z R 2 + ( XC − X L ) 2 R2 R
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Figure shows the variation of im with ω in a RLC series circuit with L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF

for two values of R: (i) R = 100 Ω and (ii) R = 200 Ω.

1 1 1 1
ωo = = = = = 1 x 106 rad/s = 1 Mrad/s
LC −3 −9 −12 −6
1 x 10 x 1 x 10 1 x 10 1 x 10

For the voltage source applied Vm = 100 V,

Vm 100
(i) im = = =1A
R 100

Vm 100
(ii) im = = = 0.5 A
R 200
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An important use of series LCR resonant circuits is in the tuning circuits of radio & TV systems.

The antenna of the radio accepts signals from many broadcasting stations. To receive the

signal of a particular station, tuning is done.

During tuning, the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit is varied such that the

resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the desired radio

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station. When this happens, the amplitude of the current in the circuit is maximum. Thus the

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signal of that station alone is received.
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It is important to note that resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and
ns
C are present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other (both

being out of phase) and the current amplitude is vm/R, the total source voltage appearing
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across R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or RC circuit.

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POWER IN AC CIRCUIT : THE POWER FACTOR

The instantaneous power p supplied by the source is

p = vi = (vm sinωt) [ im sin(ωt + φ) ]

p = vmim (sinωt) [sin(ωt + φ)]

1  1 
p = vmim
2
[cos(ωt + φ – ωt) – cos(ωt + φ + ωt)] Qsin A sin B = 2 (cos( A − B ) − cos( A + B ) )
 

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vmim

ut
p= [cosφ – cos(2 ωt + φ)] -------------------- (1)
2

The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in R.H.S. of Eqn (1).
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It is only the second term which is time-dependent. Its average is zero (the positive half of the
ns
cosine cancels the negative half). Therefore,

vmim v i
Pav = cosφ = m m cosφ
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2 2 2
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Pav = Vrms Irms cos φ

The quantity cosφ is called the power factor.

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Special cases

Case (i) Resistive circuit:

If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive.

In resistive circuit, the phase difference between voltage & current is zero i.e. φ = 0, cosφ = 1.

There is maximum power dissipation.

Pav = Vrms Irms cos0o = Vrms Irms

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Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:

If the circuit contains only an inductor or capacitor, the phase difference between voltage and

current is π/2. Therefore cosφ = 0 and no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing

in the circuit. This current is referred to as wattless current.

π
Pav = Vrms Irms cos =0
2

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ut
Case (iii) LCR series circuit:

In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is given by

Pav = Vrms Irms cos φ

tit
ns
XC − X L  X − XL 
tanφ = ; φ = tan −1  C 
R  R 
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So, φ may be non-zero in a RL (or) RC (or) LCR circuit. Even in such cases, power is
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dissipated only in the resistor.

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Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit:

At resonance, XL = XC

XC − X L 0
tanφ = = =0 ; φ = 0
R R

Therefore, cosφ = 1

2
Pav = Vrms Irms cos0o = Vrms Irms = (Irms R) Irms = I rms R

That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.

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TRANSFORMERS

Transformer is a device used to transform an alternating voltage from one value to another of

greater or smaller value.

Principle: Mutual induction

Construction: A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are

wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other (or) on separate limbs of the core as

shown in the Figure. One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil is

called the secondary coil it has Ns turns. The primary coil is the input coil and the secondary

coil is the output coil of the transformer.

Working: When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current

produces an alternating magnetic flux which links with the secondary and induces an emf in

it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary.

Here, we consider an ideal transformer which has negligible resistance and all the flux in the

core links both primary and secondary windings.

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The induced emf εs in the secondary coil is

dφ
εs = – Ns
dt

The alternating flux also induces an emf called back emf in the primary.

dφ
εp = – Np
dt

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For an ideal transformer, εp = Vp ; εs = Vs

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where Vp is the voltage applied across the primary coil and Vs is the output voltage taken

across the secondary coil. tit

dφ dφ
Vs = – Ns ; Vp = – N p
ns
dt dt

Dividing the above equations,

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Vs N
= s ---------------------- (1)
Vp Np
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If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is equal
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to the power output,

I p Vp = I s Vs

Ip Vs
= ---------------------- (2)
Is Vp

From eqns (1) & (2)

Ip Vs N
= = s
Is Vp Np
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N   Np 
Vs =  s  Vp ; Is =   Ip
 Np  N
   s 

If the secondary coil has greater number of turns than the primary coil (Ns > Np), the voltage

is stepped up (Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up transformer. However, in

this arrangement, the current in the secondary coil is lesser than that of primary coil (Is < Ip).

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For example, if the primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns and the secondary has 200

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turns, then a 220 V input at 10 A will step-up to 440 V output at 5 A.

N   200  tit
Vs =  s  Vp =   x 220 = 440 V
 Np   100 
 
ns
 Np  100 
Is =   Ip =   x 10 = 5 A
 Ns   200 
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If the secondary coil has lesser number of turns than the primary coil (Ns < Np), the voltage is
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stepped down (Vs < Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-down transformer. However, in
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this arrangement, the current in the secondary coil is greater than that of primary coil (Is > Ip).
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ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

In actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:

(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage ; that is, not all of the flux due to

primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core. It can be reduced

by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.

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(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so,

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energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I2R). It can be minimised by using thick

wires.
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(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and
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causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a laminated core.
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(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
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magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears as heat. It can be

minimised by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.

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The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done

with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up (so that

current is reduced and consequently, the I2R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long

distances to an area sub-station near the consumers. There the voltage is stepped down. It is

further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a power supply of

240 V reaches our homes.