Midterm Review Data

****************************** Coulomb’s Law

******************************
BASIC THINGS :
-Charges can be divided in two type : negative(electron) and
positive(proton), each type of charges can have different properties against
the Electric Field or in each other…
-Symbol : q or Q
-Measurement Unit : C (Coulomb)
- The most basic properties : like-charges repel and unlike-charges attract
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGES
-The net amount of charge is unchanged over time and quantitized. This can
be seen in chemical reactions
- Conservation of charge is the principle that the total electric charge in an
isolated system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the
amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in the
universe, is always conserved.
COULOMB LAW
-The interaction between two charges are called electric force and can be
calculated based on the equation :
¿ F∨¿ k|q1|.∨q2∨ ¿2 ¿ (N)
⃗
r
Where :
F is the electric force (N)
1
K= is the Coulomb’s constant : 8.99. 108 Nm2/C
4 π εo
2
−12 C 2
ε o=8 , 85 . 10 .m
N
q 1∧q 2are the magnitude charge of the first and second charge (C)
r is the distance between two charges (meter)
NOTICE :
Based on the equation, we can inferred that ⃗ F 1/ r⃗ , which means, the closer
the distance between two charges the smaller the electric force
-The Coulomb’s law is strictly valid for point charge object only
-When there are multiple of charges deploy force on each other, we use the
principle of superposition to determine the net force acts on the specific
particle
****************************** Shell’s Theorem
******************************
SHELL THEOREM
-Theorem no.1 :
-IF the excess charges are placed on a spherical shell that is made from
conductive material, then the excess charge will uniformly distributed along
the outer surface
 Thus, the inside net charge will become zero. If we put the test charge of
the opposite sign of the shell, the attraction is occurred as normal
-Theorem no.2:
A shell of uniform charges attract or repel charges that is outside the shell as
if all the shell’s charge are contributed outside, otherwise, if all the charges
are inside the shell, the attraction or repulsion cannot happened

****************************** Electric Field ******************************

-Definition : The electric field is a vector field. This field originates from the
charge itself. If the charge is positive, the electric field will direct outward
radially, and if the charge is negative, the electric field will direct toward
radially.
The electric field can be measured by this equation :
⃗
|⃗E|= ¿ F∨¿ ¿ (N/C)
q0
We can inferred that :
-The magnitude of the electric field ⃗ E at point P is E = F/q
-The direction of the electric field ⃗ E is that the force ⃗F that acts on the test
charge, if :
+the test charge q < 0 : ⃗ E ↑↓ ⃗F
⃗
+the test charge q>0 : E ↑ ↑ F ⃗

-The electric field line : The relation between the field lines and the electric
field vectors is :
- At any point, the direction of the straight field line or the direction of the
tangent to a curved field lines gives the direction of ⃗ E at that point
-The field lines are drawn so that the number of lines per unit area, so that
we can determine the magnitude of the electric field
-The magnitude of the electric field decreases with distance from the sphere
-The direction of the electric field need to draw depend on the length to show
their magnitude. Draw a short line arrow if the distance is far and draw a
long line arrow if the distance is near.

***Problem :
-The electric field due to a point of charge:
To find the electric field due to a point of charge q (or charged particle) at
any point at distance r from the point charge. We consider Coulomb’s law
with the test charge q 0
1 q q0
⃗
F= . 2 r^
4 π ε0 r
Then, applied the equation to calculate electric field, we have :
⃗
F 1 q
⃗
E= = . 2 r^ (electric field dure to a point charge)
q0 4 π ε 0 r
- In case, there are more than one charges that need to be calculated,
we using the Superposition rule. Follow the step to calculate the Enet .
the direction of Enet can be determined by the direction of the dominant
charge
⃗
Enet =⃗E1 + ⃗
E2 +….+⃗
En

-We also use the Superposition rule to measure the Enet :

Enet =⃗
⃗ E¿ ¿ ¿
1 q 1 q
= . + . (1)
4 π ε0 r ¿ ¿ ¿ 4 π ε0 r ¿ ¿ ¿
-The electric field due to the line of charge:
We consider the charge distribution that consist of a great many closely
spaced point charges that are spread along the line, over the surface , or
within the volume. Such distribution are said to be continuous rather than
discrete. When we deal with continuous charge distribution, it is most
convenient to express the charge on an object as a chare density rather than
the total of the charge. For a line of charge case, we would report the linear
charge density λ whose SI unit is coulomb per meter (C/m)
Let ds be the arc length of any differential element of the ring. Since λ is the
charge per unit (arc) length , the element dq=λ . ds , turning the equation into :
1 dq 1 λ . ds
dE= . 2= . 2 2
4 π ε0 r 4 π ε0 R + z
We can notice that the perpendicular component of dE is cancel out each
other, thus we just need to consider the parallel component: they have the
same direction. So , the net electric field at the point P is the sum of the
parallel component dEcosθ , thus
1 z . λ . ds
dEcosθ= .
4 π ε0 2 2
3
(R + z ) 2

qz
 E=∫ d Ecosθ= 2 2 3 /2 (charged ring)
4 π ε 0 (z + R )

-The electric field due to a charged disk:

-Our plan is to divided the disk into concentric flat rings and then calculated
the electric field at the point P by adding up(integrating) the contributions of
all the rings. The above figure shows the radius r and the radial width dr.
Since σ is the charge per unit area, the charge on the ring is:
dq=σ dA=σ (2 πrdr)
With dA is the differential area of the ring
We also notice that only the parallel component created the electric field net
at the point P, thus :
z σ (2 πr) dr
dE= 2 3 /2
4 π ε 0 (z ¿ ¿ 2+r ) ¿
σ z
E=∫ dE= (1− 2 2 ) (charged disk)
2ε0 √ z +R

****************************** Diploe In Electric Field

******************************
The electric field due to electric dipole:
In case there are two charges in opposite site of the same magnitude q and
separated by the distance d. We call this electric dipole. How to find the
electric field due to the electric dipole

-We also use the Superposition rule to measure the Enet :

Enet =⃗
⃗ E¿ ¿ ¿
1 q 1 q
= . + . (1)
4 π ε0 r ¿ ¿ ¿ 4 π ε0 r ¿ ¿ ¿
With :
d
r(+) = z - (2)
2
d
r(-) = z + (3)
2
Combining (1),(2),(3), we have :
1 p
E= . 3 (N/C)
2 π ε0 z
With :
Z : distance from the dipole center to the test point
P = q.d : intrinsic property of the dipole, vector quantity and a electric dipole
moment
⃗
P is directed from the negative to positive.
We can also find electric dipole in water molecule
** Net Torque And Potential Energy On Diploe
Assume that the center of mass of one dipole is lies on the line connecting
the charge ends, at some distance x from one end and thus the distance d-x
is from another end. We con compute the torque that acting on the dipole :
τ =rFsinθ=Fxsinθ + F ( d −x ) sinθ=Fdsinθ
We can also write the magnitude of τ⃗ in terms of the magnitude of the
electric field E(by substitute F = qE) and the dipole moment p = q.d :
τ = pEsinθ
From this equation, we can generalize to vector form :
τ⃗ =⃗p × ⃗
E

The torque acting on dipole tends to rotate ⃗p (hence the dipole) into the

E which is in the clockwise direction, thus the torque that gives the
direction of field

clockwise direction must be represent with the minus sign,

⃗

τ =− pEsinθ
Potential energy of an electric dipole :
The potential energy an be associated with the orientation of an electric
dipole in an electric field. The dipole has its least potential energy when its in
the equilibrium state(no torque, which is when the dipole moment ⃗pis lined
up with electric field ⃗
E  (τ⃗ =⃗p × ⃗
E = 0 )). It has greater potential energy in all
other orientations. The dipole acts like a pendulum which is it has least
potential energy at the equilibrium state. The expression of the potential
energy will be 0 if the angle between dipole moment and electric field is 0
(which is the equilibrium state). Then, we can find the potential energy
depends on ∆ U =−W by calculating the work W done by the field is rotated θ
from 90 degree.
 θ θ
U =−W =−∫ τdθ=∫ pEsinθdθ
90 90
Evaluating the integral :
U =−pEcosθ
 U =−⃗p . ⃗
E

****************************** Electric Flux ******************************

Electric Flux :
Definition : Electric flux is the amount of electric field lines pierce through an
area(not skimming along the patch)
Lets take an example of the flat surface in a uniform electric field :

As we seen above, the electric field in Oy direction is just skim through the
surface, thus the electric flux is the amount of the electric field lines follow in
the Ox direction. We define the area vector ∆ ⃗ A that is perpendicular to the
surface and has the magnitude equal to the area ∆ A
on the patch
Thus, we can perform this equation in the vector form:

To calculate the sum of the flux in the surface, we are summing them up:

To handle this, we divided the patch into hundreds small squares, thus:

(*)
To use Gauss’s Law to relate flux and charge, we need a closed surface. To
keep track of the piercing , we again use an area vector ∆ ⃗
A that is
perpendicular to a patch, we always draw it toward outward from the surface
(away from the interior)
If the vector pierces outward, it and the electric field vector are in the same
direction, then the flux is positive(3).Otherwise, if the field vector are
piercing inward, thus the flux will be negative and if they are perpendicular,
the flux will be 0
Overall. If you want to measure net flux, we need to find the flux in every
patch and then sum all the results

****************************** Gauss’s Law ******************************

Gauss’s Law relate to electric flux though a closed surface(Gaussian surface)

to the net charge q enc

Thus, substitute the equation(*), we have :

Applying Gauss’s Law in Symmetric

Cylindrical Symmetric:
Planar symmetric
Nonconducting surface
Assume there is a portion of thin, infinite, nonconducting sheet with a
uniform (positive) surface charge density σ . We can find the electric field ⃗
Ea
distance r in front of the sheet
Two conducting sheet:

Spherical Symmetric:
We are going to use Gauss’s Law to prove two shell theorem:
Second theorem :
************* Electric Potential And Electric Potential Energy ******
Def : electric potential V is a scalar quantity. Now, we are going to define
electric potential in terms of electric potential energy U (which is also a
scalar quantity).To measure potential energy, we have : U =−W , follow this
configuration from the potential energy.
Assume that we need to find U for a positive test charge q located at point P
in the electric filed of charged rod. First, we need to determine the reference
configuration U = 0 at infinity, which means that at infinity distance, the rod
can not effect any force toward the test charge. Next, we will bring the
charge from infinity to the point P (near the rod) , along the way, we
calculate the work done by the electric force on the test charge. Let use W ∞
to symbolize the work of the electric force from infinity. The electric potential
V at P in terms of work done by electric force and resulting potential energy :

Thus, we can define that the electric potential is the amount of potential
energy per unit charge when a chare is brought from infinity. V can be
negative or positive because potential energy and charge have their own
sign
Units:
the SI unit for the electric potential is Volt and 1 Volt = 1 joule per coulomb.
With this, we can change the unit for electric field :

Change in electric potential:

If we move from initial point I to the second point f in the electric field of a
charge object, the electric potential changes by :

And the same thing happens for potential energy U if we move the charge
from I to f:

This change can be positive or negative, depending on the sign of q and V.
Also, it can be zero if there is no change of potential from I to f (those points
have the same value of electric potential)
Work by the field:
We can relate the potential energy change U to the work done W by the
electric force as the particles moves from I to f
And because ∆ U = qV, thus :

We can also say that W is the work done on the particle by electric
field(because electric field produce electric force). This work can be positive,
negative or zero thus, it’s a scalar quantity
Conservation of energy:
Lets assume that we can assign the electric potential energy to the particle
alone, then we can write the conservation of energy of a particle that moves
from i to f :

And thus :

Work by an appliance force :

If some force in addition to the electric force acts on the particle, we says
that additional force is an appliance force or external force, which often
attributed to an eternal agent. These forces can do work on particle , but
they are not conservative and thus we can not associated potential energy to
them. We call W app for these appliance forces’ work:

Electron-volts:

Calculating the potential from the field:

We can calculate the difference of the potential of any two points I and f in
an electric field, if we know the electric field vector ⃗
E all along any path
connecting those points. We know that, at nay points the electric force q ⃗ E
acts on the particles as it moves through the displacement d ⃗s . We know that
the differential work W done on a particle by a force ⃗ F during the
displacement d ⃗s is :
Uniform field:
For a uniform field, we start at point I on an equipotential line with potential
Vi and move to point f on an equipotential line with lower potential Vf. The
separation is x , the angle between vector ⃗ E and the displacement d ⃗s is 0,
then :

We conclude that :

Potential due to a charge particle :

Potential due to a charge particle
 Consider a point P at distance R from a fixed
particle of positive charge q. To calculate the
potential at the point P, we imagine that we
move the positive charge q1 from the point P to
infinity. Because the path we take does not
matter, we choose to move it radially extend
from the fixed particle

Because ⃗ E and d ⃗s are in the same direction,

thus cos = 1, thus :

If we set Vf = 0 and Vi = V(at R), then the

magnitude of the electric field at the site of the
test charge is :

Thus :

Potential due to a group of charge particles :

The sum in this equation is algebraic sum, not the vector sum like the sum
that would be calculated for the electric field
Potential due to electric dipole:
We can apply the above equation to calculate the potential of the electric
dipole
We usually consider the case where the point is relatively far from the dipole,
such that r>>d, where d is the distance between the charges and r is the
distance from the dipole’s midpoint to P, we can approximately the two lines
to P as being parallel (b), also their difference is so small that the product of
the lengths is approximately r 2

In which p(=qd) is the magnitude of the

electric dipole moment ⃗p. The vector ⃗p is
directed along the dipole axis, from the
negative to the positive charge

Potential due to a continuous charge distribution

When a charge distribution q is continuous(as on the uniformly charged thin
rod or disk), we must choose the differential element of charge dq ,
determine the potential at point P

Here r is the distance between P and dq. To find the total potential we sum
this equation by integral

For example : the line of charge

Let take a thin nonconducting rod of length L has a positive charge of the
uniform linear density . To determine the potential V at point P which is
perpendicular to the left end rod at distance d. Thus , we have :

After transforming , we yield :

Calculating the field from the potential

Suppose that a positive test chare q , moves through a displacement d ⃗s from
one equipotential surface to the adjacent surface. We see that the work that
E)⃗
electric field does on the test charge during the move is -qdV or (q ⃗ ds .
Thus :

We have added to E and switched to the partial derivative symbols to

emphasize that the above equation involves only the variation of V along a
specified axis(here called s axis ) and the only component of ⃗
E along that
axis
Thus, we con conclude that :

Electric potential energy of a system of charged particles

The electric potential energy of a system of charged particles is equal to the
work needed to assemble the system with the particles initially at rest and
infinitely distant from each other. For two particles separate at distance r :

We conclude that :

******************************* Cappicitance
***********************************

Def : capacitance is the ability to trap particles in electric field in order to

store electrical energy . The basic capacitor consists of two isolated
conductors (plates) with charges +q and -q . Its capacitance C is defined
from: q=CV where V is the differential electric potential between the plates .
The first picture illustrates a parallel plae conductor , consisting of two
parallel conducting plates of area separated by distance d

The symbol of capacitor is : ⊣⊢

SI unit : 1 Farad = 1 coulomb/volt = 1 C/V
Charging the capacitor:
In order to charge the capacitor , we need to put it in the circuit with a
battery , a battery Is a device that maintain a certain potential difference
between its terminal . At the beginning , when the plates are uncharged , the
potential between them is zero . As the pates become oppositely charge , the
potential difference increases until it equal to the potential difference V
between the terminals of the battery. After the charging is complete , the
difference potential between them will become zero  there will be no
electric field between the plates

Calculating the capacitance:

We use Gauss’s Law to determine the electric field in the plates :

Here q is the charge enclosed by Gauss’s Law . We also notice that ⃗

E /¿ d ⃗
A
thus :

(*)

Once we have electric field value , we can compute V by :

The integral will be evaluated along any path that starts from one plate and
ends on the other , we shall choose the path that follows the electric field
lines , from negative charged plates to positive plate . In this direction , ⃗E
and d ⃗s has the opposite direction , thus ⃗
E . d ⃗s = -E .ds . Leading to the
change of the previous equation :
Cappicitance

Substitute this with (*) and C = q.V , we have :

Capacitors in parallel and in series :

Capacitors in parallel :

As we can see from the circuit , all the potential

difference are in the same value . In fact , we
can replace this circuit with a equivalent
capacitor C eq
We have :

We have our final conclusion :

Capacitors in series:
In this situation , the charge in each capacitor is equal to each other , this
can be explained as :
Chain reaction, in which the charging of each capacitor causes the charging
of the next capacitor. Let’s start from the capacitor no.3 and work upward to
capacitor no.1 . When the battery is connected to the circuit , its produces -q
on the bottom of the capacitor no.3 , that will repel the negative charge from
the top plate of capacitor 3 and causing it to be positively charged, the repel
electrons move to the bottom of capacitor 2 and the same thing happen to
capacitor no.1

Energy stored in an electric field

The electric potential energy U of a charged capacitor :
Is equal to the work required to charge the capacitor. This energy can be
associated with the capacitor’s electric field E
Suppose that , at a given instant , a charge q’ has been transferred from one
plate of the capacitor to another . The potential difference V’ between the
plates at that instant will be q’/C
Thus :

Capacitor with a dielectric:

Capacitance with dielectric : C ' =k C air

******************************* Electric Current

***********************************
Def:
Although an electric current is a stream of moving charges , not all moving
charges constitute an electric current , only free electron flow will produce
electric current, the current is then defined as the change in charge respect
to time

Thus , it is reasonable to conclude that the current is the same in any cross
section
The SI unit for current is 1 Ampere = 1A = 1 coulomb/sec
Junction rule:
Current is a scaler quantity because both b=charge
and time in the equation are scalars , we often
represent a current with an arrow to indicate the
moving of the charge . The side figure shows a
conductor with current i 0 splitting at junction into
two branches , because the charge Is conserved
then :

The direction of current:

Current density:
Lets take a localized view and study the flow of charge through a cross
section of the conductor at particular point , the describe the flow , we can
use current density ⃗J , which has the same direction with current :
If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to d ⃗
A , then ⃗J is also
uniform and parallel to d ⃗A

Where A is the total area surface . The SI unit for current density is A /m2
Drift speed
When a conductor does not have a current through it , its conduction
electron move randomly . with no net motion in any direction . When the
conductor does have a current through it , these electrons actually still move
randomly but now they tend to drift with a drift speed v d in the direction
opposite that of the applied electric field that cause current

Resistance and Resistivity

Def : resistivity is the ability to resist the amount of charge coming through it
in a current , symbolized by 

The SI unit is .m

We also have conductivity , which is the rate of allow the electron to move
freely

The resistance symbolized as R :

The SI unit is ohm  , 1 ohm = 1 V/A

Calculating Resistance from resistivity:
Variation with temperature
The relation between the temperature and resistivity is for metal in general,
is fairly a linear over a rather broad temperature

Power in electric circuit

 The battery maintains a potential of
the battery , and because the
potential differences set up by the
battery are maintained, a steady
current I is produced in the circuit ,
directed from terminal a to terminal b,
we notice that the charge dq moves
through a potential of magnitude V ,
and by the conservation of energy tell
us that the decrease in electric
potential energy from a to b is
accompanied by the transfer of
energy to some other from . The
power P is associated with that
transfer is the rate dU/dt

For a resistor , the lost energy is transform into thermal energy from the
resistor itself , thus we have :

******************************** Emf Device

*************************************
Pumping charges
to produce a steady flow of charge , you need a charge pump , a device that
by doing wprk on charhes carriers , maintains a potential difference between
a pair of terminals. WE call this device an emf device , and the device is said
to provide an emf . The common device is battery, electric generator,…
there must be a source of energy within the device , enabling it to do work
on the charges by forcing them to move as they do. In any time interval dt ,
a charge dq passes through any cross section of the circuit , such as aa’ .
This same amount of charge must enter the emf device at its low potential
end ad leave at its high potential end.

Calculating the current in a single loop circuit

Energy method
Consider the power of emf can help us to calculate the current of the circuit.

Potential Method
 Start at point a , whose potential is Va. , and
mentally walk clockwise around the circuit
we are back at a
As we walk along the top wire to the top end
at the resistor , there is no potential change
because the wire has negligible resistance.
When we pass through the resistor ,
however , the potential changes according to
V = iR . But because the potential must
decrease when we go from high potential to
low potential , then the change in potential
must be -iR. Thus :

Other single loop circuit

Internal resistance
The internal resistance of the battery is the electrical resistance of the
conducting material and thus it is unremovable feature of the batter

Resistance in series
Power, potential and emf
Because the real battery or emf device has the internal resistor , thus its
dissipate internal thermal energy
Multiloop circuits

If we traverse the left hand loop in a

counter clock wise direction from point b
we have :

Then for the right had loop counter clock

wise from point b , the loop gives us:

Finally , if we applied the loop rule to the

big loop , we would have obtained
(moving counter clock wise from b) the
equation is :
Resistors in parallel
The term parallel means that the resistances are directly wired together on
one side and directly wired together on the other side, and that potential
difference V is appled across the pair of connected side. Thus, all three
resistances have the same potential difference V across them.
The Ammeter and Voltmeter
The instrument use to calculate current is called Ammeter, and the other one
which Is used to measure voltage is called Voltmeter

RC Circuit
Charge a capacitor.
The capacitor in the circuit is initially uncharged. To charge it ,we close
switch S on pint a . This complete an RC circuit consisting of the capacitor an
ideal battery of emf and a resistance R
When the current begin to flow inside the circuit , this current increases the
charge q on the plates and the difference potential Vc (= q/C) acrss the
capacitor , when the potential equal to the ppotential of the battery , the
current is zero whin it comes through the capacitor. In order to examine this
process ,we take a close look at it

Solve the differential equation, we gain :

The potential difference Vc(t) across the capacitor during the charge process
is :
 The product RC is called the capacitive time
constant of the circuit id represent with the
symbol

Thus, we can conclude that charging the capacitor

to its maximum only reach 63% of the final value
C

Discharging the capacitor

Assume that the capacitor is fully charged to a potential Vo , equal to the
emf  of the battery , closing the circuit in order to preventing current
running through the capacitor by closing the switch S from a to b. We have :