Political science notes

Lecture 1:

Political science is the study of governments, public policies and political processes, systems
and political behaviour

Comparative politics

Concept: term idea or category

Conception: a broader understanding of interpretation of a concept

Three core features of political:

1. Collective activity
2. Involves making decisions
3. Political decisions become policy for the group, binding and committing its members
even if some of them continue to resist.

Two approaches to politics/political:

1. Politics as an arena: behaviour becomes political because of where it takes place.

- The art of government: concerned with policy: formal or authoritative decisions that
establish a plan of action for the community
- Even narrower definition: politics as an equivalent of party politics
- Public affairs: broader conception, focused on public (Traditional: public vs private:
institutions create the public sphere, can choose to participate in, vs private
everything else. Alternative: public realm includes civil society (work art culture
politics commerce etc)cs family and domestic life.
2. Politics as a place: behaviour becomes political because of distinctive characteristics or
qualities and can take place in any social context.
- Compromise and consensus: resolving conflict by compromise conciliation and
negotiation.
- Inescapable presence of diversity of individuals and scarcity of resources/
- Politics is civilised but also irrevocably difficult and frustrating
- Politics is a social activity, it’s always a dialogue never monologue
- Power and distribution of resources: broadest and most radical definition of politics.

Power (to do something) is the capacity to bring about intended effects.

- Political
- Economic
- Traditional
- Physical
- Number/size
- Social norms/values

Power (over something): forceful mode of influence; focuses on relationships.

While power is the capacity to act and to bring about intended effects authority is the
acknowledged right to take such action.

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Government and governance

While government describes the institutions and offices through which societies are governed,
governance describes the process of collective decision-making.

Institution types: executive (president, making decisions), legislature (represent citizens,

elected), judiciary and courts (upholding and interpreting the law), bureaucracy (implementing
policy) and political parties (offering policy alternatives to the community, fielding candidates).

Government: Static world of institutions

Governance:

- Emphasis on the activity of governing

- Supplements the concept of government

Comparative politics is: the study of government and politics in different settings, or the
systematic study of government and politics in different countries, designed to better
understand them by drawing out their contrasts and similarities.

The comparative method is the proves by which different cases are compared in order to better
understand their qualities and to develop hypotheses, theories and concepts.

Values of comparative approach: it is only by looking across different societies that we can
understand what is either typical or unique about our own. Through comparison
we can draw conclusions about facts, without it, we would only have a collection
of facts and figures, and little context within which to interpret them.

- Classify governments and political systems

- Providing context to the functioning of a political system
- Making better political choices
- Testing hypotheses and drawing up rules

Challenge of comparison:

- Too few cases, too many variables to control for

- Selection bias: values bias (seeing vases through the lens of one’s own experience
and values), confirmation bias (seek out or interpret information which confirms pre-
existing ideas), survivorship bias (tendency to analyse only surviving cases), access
bias (selecting cases on the basis of for instance language pr political sensitivity).
- Understanding meaning (risk of cultural imperialism)
- Globalisation: interdependence between states.

Empirical and normative

Empirical: facts, experiences or observations about what is.

Normative: judgements and prescriptions about what should be.

Theoretical approaches:

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Theory is a way to study which influence what questions to ask and where and how we should
search for answers.

Theory is simplifying device or conceptual filter that can help us sift through a body of facts.

Six approaches:

- Institutions: largely descriptive study of formal institutions (parlements etc.)

New institutionalism: formal rules of government and on informal patterns of
behaviour within institutions, on interactions between institutions and society and
how institutions shape political decisions. Institutions are constantly evolving in
response to changing circumstances, pressures for change and are subject to
institutionalization (the way institutions change overtime) processes.
- Individuals: behavioural approach, individual as the unit of analysis rather than
institutions. Move from a formal aspect to behaviour. Innovative social science
techniques (e.g. surveys). Objective, value-free research. Generalize about political
attitudes and behaviour. Criticism: too much science and too little politics,
technique over substance.
- Interests: rational choice approach. Rational and self-interest as core
assumptions. Individuals strive for their own benefits. Maximize the chances of
achieving their goals. Criticism: the collective action problem: individual rationality
leads to a poor collective result; moreover, people do not always act rational.
- Interrelations of groups: structural approach. Emphasises the interrelationship
between social groups. Examines networks, linages and interdependences within
systems. Criticism: overemphasis on systems over individual agency.
- Influence of societal cultural values: cultural approach. Understand the dynamics
of culture and the influence of cultural norms on politics and society. The values,
beliefs, norms and habits that co-determine the action, reaction and preferences of
a society, even in the face of individual differences. Criticism: danger of
stereotyping. Challenge: how to define culture and how to find the information to
study.
- Ideas: interpretive approach. Shared ideas are seen to be more important rather
than material or natural forces. Our ideas about the world shape our interests, goals,
allies, enemies and actions. To understand actions, practices and institutions, we
need to understand the relevant meaning, beliefs and preferences of the people
involved. Criticism: with its emphasis on meaning this theory becomes more
philosophical.

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Lecture 2:

Chapter 4 (11th version):

Definition and features of the state:

- Government: a system of institutions that is responsible for the governing of the

state.
- Society: a group of people that live within the borders of the state.
- Territories: a demarcated (afgebakend) area over which the state exercises
sovereignty.
- Sovereignty: the exclusive right to rule and make laws within a certain area.
- Legitimacy: recognition of the society that the state has the right to rule.

There are several theoretical perspectives of the state:

- Interpretivism: the state is socially constructed and it is an idea built over a long
period of time by political thinkers and politicians. The state is not static but there are
gradual changes in the ideas themselves.
- Jean Bodin: a single sovereign authority should be responsible for five major
functions: law, war and peace, public appointments, judicial appeals and currency.
- John Locke: argued that citizens possess natural rights to life, liberty and property
and these rights should be protected by rulers governing through law. Should rulers
violate these rights, the people have the right to resist.

Lecture notes:

Politics: the study of who should get what, when and how?

Three dimensions of power:

- Decision-making → who decides when preferences conflict?

- Agenda setting (media)→ who controls what preferences are expressed and when?
Determining what it is that people talk about.
- Thought control (social media) → who shapes the preferences of others? Are able to
change people’s preferences.

‘political power’: shape policies for the whole community and shape behaviour, influence the
functions and even culture of society.

Legislative power: the power to make laws and policies.

Executive power: the power to put plans, policies or laws into effect and enforce them.

Judiciary power: the power to interpret laws and punish who break them.

Authority: the acknowledged right to exercise power and influence of a particular position.

Legitimacy: the collective belief of citizens that power-holders have the authority to exercise
power (note: this is different from legality- whether the exercise of power is lawful).

Jurisdiction: the territory or area of activity over which power holders can exercise their
legitimate authority.

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Where does political power come from?

Different political systems imagine political power coming from different sources:

- Monarchy: heredity → power and authority is passed on to one who is a member of

(royal) family.
- One party state: affiliation → power and authority is passed among members of a
group/ party.
- Democracy: election → power-holders are chosen by an electoral process

State: a territory with a population that is marked by borders, that has the legal and political
authority known as government that is regarded as sovereign by both its own citizens as well as
by governments of other states.

Two conceptions of the state based on:

- Natural rights (John Locke): citizens posses natural right to life, liberty and property,
given by God or nature. They must be protected by law and limit the authority of
government; state as a problem. Underpinning the American revolution and
constitution.
- General will: citizens make decisions for the good of society as a whole. Empowered
government; sate as a solution. Underpinning the French revolution and constitution.

Nation: a cultural and historical concept describing a group of people who identify with one
another on the basis of a shared history, culture, language or myths.

- Culturally group(s) of people bound together by a common language, religion, history

and traditions.
- Politically group(s) of people who regard themselves as a natural political
community.

Nation-state (sovereign-state): autonomous political community whose citizens share a

common national identity.

Nationalism: when one identifies the nation as the central form of community and elevates it to
the object of supreme loyalty. Such a position can lead one to specific goals for the nation:

- National autonomy
- National identity
- National unity

Sometimes though these can be taken to extremes, where one believes that one’s own nation is
better than all others.

What is government?: managing authority through which the will of the state is formulated,
expressed and carried out. Institutions responsible for making collective decisions for society.

General: government as all of the institutions for making decisions and designing policy for
society or in a country

Specific: government as the specific administration at a given………………………..

Regime: the particular political type of government based on a set of principles, norms, rules
and decision-making procedures.

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Lecture 3:

Aggregative democracy → majoritarian, 50% +1 tips the scale despite minorities, focus
numbers.

Integrative democracy → non-majoritarian, people try to reach the widest possible agreement.

Direct (participative) democracy → members of the community take the decisions themselves.

- Provisions for referendums: the larger the role of citizens in initiating these
referendums, the stronger the voter democracy.
- Actual experience with referendums: can be infuenced by thresholds (e.g.
signaturess requirements).
- Deliberative instrumetns: mini-publics, roundtables, consultations. May be present
at diferent levels of governemt.

Indirect (spectative) democracy → citizens designate representatives who eventually take the
decisions.

A rule of thumb: in the effective number of parties in the parliament is → >=3.5 → integrative
democracy, <3.5 → aggregative (majoritarian) democracy.

Kinds of democracy:

Pendulum democracy: political power alternates between two competing political parties or
formations. Citizens periodically cast their votes and hand over decision-making powers to their
elected representatives. Decision-making is largely majoritarian and aggregative. Many cases
only one chamber. Pros: understandable, clear and efficient. Cons: one-sided, insensitive to
minorities and dissatisfied losers.

Voter democracy: aggregative decision-making and direct, unmediated popular rule are
combined (counting hands, ayes and nays and majority rule), can be both small and large
scaled. Numerical, no interfering actors. Pros: vibrant civic culture, trust in the individual,
business-like efficiency. Cons: public recklessness, tragedy of the commons, distrust of the
collective, tending towards consumerism, survival of the strongest, voter fatigue.

Participatory democracy: combines direct self-governance with integrative decision-making. A

minority will never be simply overruled by a numerical majority. Decision-making is a process of
engaging in thorough, transformative and lengthy deliberations to seek consensus. Integrative
and participative. Finding consensus together. Pros: concord, communality, trusting the
collective, residents’ participation. Cons: overburdening residents, high investment, inequalities
in participation, participation fatigue.

Consensus democracy: indirect and integrative. Model of democracy in the Netherlands.

Representatives of groups and sections are the prime decision-makers. Trying to incorporate
different views. Pros: controlled integration, collaboration, channelled multiformity, proportional
representation. Cons: viscosity, vague accountability technocracy, expertocracy, compromise
politics.

Electoral democracy: free, fair and frequent elections.

Liberal democracy: indirect democracy that combines representation with constitutional

protection of individual rights and liberties.

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Civil liberties: rights of citizens relative to government which mat noy be restricted by
governments (right of a fair trial etc).

Civil rights: ‘ horizontal’ rights of citizens relative to both government and other individuals.

Level of democracy: presence and substantially ………

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Measuring level of democracy

Three categories: free, partly free and not free

Full democracies:

- States with strong democratic features

Flawed democracies:

- Democracies with handicaps such as weaker institutions and problems in

governance.

Hybrid regimes:

- Appear democratic but institutions processes laws and policies are manipulated to
keep leaders in power.

Authoritarian regimes:

- Centralised political control, intolerance of opposition.

Lecture notes:

Democracy and autocracy

Ideal democracy criteria :

- Effective participation
- Equality in voting
- Enlightened understanding
- Control of the agenda
- Inclusion of adults

Polyarchy: the government of many, alternating and correcting one another.

Realistic minimum requirements of democracy:

- Elected officials
- Free, fair and frequent elections
- Alternative sources of information: free media etc
- Freedom of expression: also in a critical sense
- Freedom of assembly and association: are allowed to come together collectively
- Inclusive citizenship: with minimal exceptions, no citizens are excluded.

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Why democracy?

- To prevent tyranny
- Protection of rights
- Moral autonomy
- Restriction of equality
- Peace-keeping
- Creation of prosperity

Democratisation: process by which states build the institutions and processes needed to
become stable democracies.

Transition: arrangement for the new system.

Consolidation: widespread acceptance of the new system (peaceful change of power).

Deepening: evolving from the superficial to the substantial.

Liberalisation > transition > consolidation > deepening

Anocracy: characteristics of both democracy and autocracy.

Democratic backsliding →causal factors:

- Polarization: contributes to governments dysfunction and lack of trust to

institutions.
- Capture of legislative and executive institutions: collapse of the separation of
powers or “ checks and balances”.
1. Eliminating oversight on (mis)use of bureaucracy
2. Expansion of formal executive powers
3. Weakening horizontal accountability mechanisms.
- Incremental: subversion of democratic institutions by incumbents: difficult to
detect and counter until it is too late.

Backsliding →common tactics:

- Loosening horizontal constraints – collapse of the separation of powers; curtailing

judicial independence.
- Limiting political and civil liberties – societal groups as scapegoats.
- Undermining the electoral system – manipulation of electoral authorities; limiting
voting rights.

Authoritarian rule

Forms of authoritarianism

- Absolute monarchy: ruling sovereign from royal family

- Theocracy: religious leaders
- Ruling party: rule by a single party
- Personal rule (presidential monarchy): a president dominates government and
media
- Military rule: /////////////////////////////

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Tools of authoritarian rule:

- Coercion. use of threats sanctions or force to make people act a certain way or
refrain from action
- Patronage. Support from elites to individuals or organisations, often including
political appointments or privileges. Creates patron-clients pyramids and webs of
allegiances which override the public-private divide
- Military. High spending on military, even in the absence of a security threat.
- Media. Controlled to establish favourable coverage of regime and criticism of
opponents.

Page 37 democracy vs. autocracy

Corruption: → corruption perceptions index (CPI). Perceptions of fraud rather than objective
measure.

- Abuse of office for private gain

Autocratisation: the process by which societies move away from democracy and towards
political regimes that re more repressive and in which political participation and expression are
restricted and controlled. (see democratisation).

Two dimension of democracy according to Dahl:

Contestation (how to decide, competition), participation (who decides, inclusiveness).

Right to compete, rate of contestation (vs. cooperation).

- Significant dissensus → who decides, how to decide.

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Lecture 4
Literature:

Societal culture: Shared motives, values, beliefs and interpretations that guide the way social
actors select actions, evaluate people and events, and explain their actions and evaluations.

Political culture: the sum of individual values and norms regarding politics and the political
system, or the culture of a group which gives shared meaning to political action.

Elite political culture: the values and norms regarding politics and the political system held by
those closest to the centres of political power, including elected officials, bureaucrats and
business leaders.

Identity politics: political positions and activities based on association with a particular
identity, such as gender, age, ethnicity, religion, disability or sexual orientation.

Civic culture: a moderate political culture in which most people accept the obligation to
participate in politics while acknowledging the authority of the state and its right to take
decisions.

Post-materialism: a set of values emphasizing the quality of life over materialist values such as
economic growth and physical security.

Political trust: the belief that rulers are generally well-intentioned and effective in serving the
interests of the governed.

Cosmopolitan democracy: a form of democracy that operates at supranational levels of

governance and is based on the idea of transnational or global citizenship

Totalitarian democracy: an absolute dictatorship that masquerades as a democracy, typically

based on the leader’s claim to a monopoly of ideological wisdom.

Radical democracy: a form of democracy that favours decentralization and participation, the
widest possible dispersal of political power.

Economic democracy: a broad term that covers attempts to apply democratic principles to the
workplace, ranging from profit-sharing and the use of workers’ councils to full workers’ self-
management.

Plebiscitary democracy: a form of democratic rule that operates through an unmediated link
between the rulers and the ruled, established by plebiscites (or referendums). These allow the
public to express their views on political issues directly.

Athenian democracy: characterized by the high level of citizen involvement in the affairs of the
city-state. Major decisions were made by the Assembly to which all citizens belonged.

Freedom ultimately means obedience to general will: the genuine interest of a collective body,
equivalent to the common good; the will of all, provided each person acts selflessly.

Accountability: answerability; a duty to explain one’s conduct and be open to criticism by

others.

Deliberative democracy: a form of democracy that emphasizes the need for discourse and
debate to help to define the public interest.

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Leninist democracy: a form of democracy in which the communist party organized on the basis
of ‘ democratic centralism’ articulates the interest of the proletariat.

Pluralism: a belief in, or a commitment to, diversity or multiplicity.

Pluralist democracy: a form of democracy that operates through the capacity of organized
groups and interests to articulate popular demands and ensure responsive government.
Conditions:

- A wide dispersal of political power amongst competing groups, specifically the

absence of elite groups
- A high degree of interval responsiveness, group leaders being accountable to
members
- A neutral governmental machine that is sufficiently fragmented to offer groups a
number of points of access.

Lecture notes:

Features of culture: are different from situational attitudes. Cultural features of society are
more durable and change gradually while situational attitudes are transitory and can change
quickly.

Cultural differences

Environmental responses:

- Groups differ due to differences in climate and the way these groups take care of
themselves differ.
- Sustenance (hunter/gatherer, farm , nomadic).
- History (path dependent).

Group-wise social structure:

- Moral feelings (good/bad behaviour, reputation).

- Learning (transferring values and practices).

Societal culture: shared motives, values ,beliefs and interpretations that guide the way social
actors select action evaluate people and events, and explain their actions and evaluations.

Culture and politics: does culture matter?

Approach 1: culture does not matter:

- Rational choice theory: rational interests matter more for understanding individual
choice-making than their cultural orientation.
- Marxism: culture is merely a social ‘superstructure’ that is used by ruling classes to
legitimate their oppression and justify inequality.
- Cultural relativism: each culture is unique and valid. All knowledge and belief is
bound up in culture – therefore, cultural values and social practices cannot be
compared and classified. Therefore, cultural explanations for variations in politics
cannot or should not be made, e.g. anthropologists.

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Approach 2: culture does matter:

- Culturalists or cultural universalism: culture matters in human development and

political democracy; good vs bad. Social and political change requires good cultural
change.
- Constrained relativism: different cultural orientations predispose societies towards
different preferences. These preferences can constrain choices but do not
necessarily determine political outcomes.

Measuring societal culture:

- Identifying and measuring dimensions of culture (using public surveys,

questionnaires and data analysis).

Interpersonal ties: self-perception as individual or as part of a group.

Cultural dimensions:

Individualism Collectivism
Individual interests prevail over collective Collective interests prevail over individual
interests interests
Companies are owned by individual investors Companies are owned by families or
collectives
Task prevails over relationship Relationship prevails over task
Content-oriented Context-oriented

Low power distance High power distance

Strong centre and weak right and left wing A weak centre and strong right and left wings
More critical to power-holders More deference to power-holder
Participative theories of management Power-based practice of management
Changing the rules Changing the people at the top

Preference for mastery/competition vs harmony/compromise

Dealing with unknown and unfamiliar → low uncertainty avoidance vs high uncertainty
avoidance

Social capital: human social networks and contacts that facilitate interpersonal trust and
cooperation within and between individuals and groups.

Survival vs self-expression (post material) values: priority of economic security vs self-

expression values.

Skeptics: democracy can take root only in specific culture/civilization.

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Lecture 5:

Elections: an institution for converting citizens’ preferences into decision-making authority for
members of the legislative, executive and sometimes judicial branches of government at
national of local levels.

- Competition for office – reflection of voter preferences

- Providing transparency and legitimation of political goals
- Holding politicians accountable
- Opportunity for dialogue

Structural challenges:

- Risk of conflict (political, economic and ethnic)

- Challenge of promoting electoral integrity
- Fair reflections of votes in election results

Criteria for credible elections:

- Suffrage: right of voting

- Frequent: elections must be held regularly and periodically
- Integrity: truthful vote counting, pre-established rules, independent observation,
independent organization to solve disputes
- Free: freedom of expression, information, assembly, candidacy, voting
- Fair: fair competition, fair access of all candidates/parties to the public facilities and
voters
- Effective: elected officials are the main/real decision makers

Democratic elections vs competitive (but not free) elections

Under electoral authoritarianism: a regime gives the appearance of being democratic and
offering voters choice while concealing its authoritarian qualities.

There are choices, but very few. Effectively there is no competition for the governmental
positions.

Some functions of elections in autocracies:

- Dividing the opposition

- Claiming legitimacy (making them look democratic through elections)
- Averting societal revolution (making citizens feel like they have a choice)

Communist countries tend to have pyramid voting system – each level elect the next

Elections in hybrid regimes tend to be more about the carrot (encouraging voters to vote for the
dominant figure) than the stick (oppression of opposition supporters).

Big man politics: a dominant leading figure

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Electoral fraud and manipulation

- Manipulative redistricting
- Vote buying
- Divide and rule
- Hacking elections
- Ballot stuffing
- Judicial invalidation
- Illusion of electoral choice

Electoral cycle

Electoral law

- Voter eligibility and registration

- Candidate eligibility and nomination
- Electoral system and voting methods
- Etc.

Scope: number of elected posts

- National
- Regional/local
- Judiciary

Election administration

- Electoral management body

- Impartial of party-based
- Decentralised responsibilities

Voter registration

- Manual registration
- Automatic registration

Franchise: who can vote

Party and candidate registration

- EMB (electoral commission) responsibilities: party name, candidate list, ballot

position etc.
- Endorsements and deposits for (new) parties

Voting procedures: in person voting

- Ensure secret vote

- One person, one vote principle
- Polling station accessibility

Voting procedures: other

- Advance voting/ early voting

- Out-of-country voting
- Postal voting
- Electronic voting

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 - Proxy voting (A proxy vote is a ballot cast by one person or firm on behalf of another)

Counting procedures

- Counting
- Tabulation

Electoral observation and assistance

Families of electoral systems

Plurality and majority systems

- The winner is the one receiving the greatest number of votes in a constituency.
- SMP and SNTV as main variations of plurality

Proportional representation system

- Proportionally between share of votes and seats for parties in each constituency

Mixed systems

Plurality system:

- Single member districts

- Equal sized electoral district (in number of voters)
- Can create manufactured majority for parties: majority first in seats but minority
second in votes.
- Tactical voting: heart or head voting. If the favoured party has no chance of victory
- Wasted votes and high disproportionality

District magnitude: the number of seats per district. The larger the district magnitude, the more
proportional. Districting and redistricting: (regular updates of) delimitation of constituency
boundaries to ensure equal suffrage (one person, one vote).

Gerrymandering: the strategic redrawing of district boundaries to favour one party over another.
Representatives choose voters rather than vice versa.

Majority system: two round system

- Majority or quota required to win in the first round, otherwise second round: run off.
- Popular legitimacy of the winner
- Less need for tactical voting
- Mostly used for presidential elections

Majority system: alternative voting (AV)

- preferential voting: priority ranked voting (1, 2, 3)

- instant run-off: two rounds in one election

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Proportional system: list system

- multimember national or regional districts

- proportionality between shares of votes and seats
- Closed list & open list
1. Closed list → vote for only one party and not candidates
2. Open list → vote for party, selecting preferred candidate
- Electoral threshold: the minimum % of votes needed bu a party to secure
representation

Proportional system: single transferable vote (STV)

- Multi-seat constituencies
- Priority ranked
- Winning candidate excess votes also being redistributed

Mixed systems

Combine plurality and majority

Mixed Member Majoritarian (MMM):

- Allocation of seats from two cotes are independent

- Effectively two separate elections

Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP):

- Allocation of seats from two vote are dependent, aiming to increase proportionality
- Party share determines seat distribution
- Additional seat are being added for underrepresented parties until
overrepresentation based on validate cotes is compensated for

Power sharing arrangements

Consociationalism: these arrangements facilitate minority representation and encourage

cooperation and trust between community leaders and elite level politicians.

Electoral reform

Electoral reform is a broad term that cover, among other things, improving the responsiveness of
electoral processes to public desires and expectations.

Referendums:

1. Is the referendum initiated top-down, bottom-up or mandatory

2. Is the purpose of the referendum proactive or reactive
3. Is the result of the referendum binding on policymakers

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Lecture 6:
Constitutional moment: the extent of democratisation at the time of the constitution's
inauguration. This means that the "constitutional moment" captures the state of political
openness in a country during the period when its legislature's powers are being defined and
established.

Horizontal accountability: refers to the checks and balances between different branches of
government. A strong legislature can effectively scrutinise and restrain the actions of the
executive branch, preventing the concentration of power and potential abuses. In contrast, a
weak legislature leaves the president largely unchecked, creating a breeding ground for
authoritarian tendencies.

Vertical accountability: refers to the ability of citizens to hold their elected representatives
accountable. Stronger legislatures, Fish contends, stimulate the development of political
parties. Vibrant party systems enhance vertical accountability by providing voters with
meaningful choices, facilitating the articulation and aggregation of interests, and creating
mechanisms for holding elected officials responsible for their actions.

Constitutions & legislations

Principal-agent relations: the agent acts on behalf of the principal

Institution: rules that govern social interactions, constraining the behaviour of and the options
open to actors

Formal institution: rules and procedures that are created, communicated, and enforced
through channels widely accepted as official e.g. courts, legislatures, bureaucracies,
constitutions, laws etc.

Informal institution: socially shared rules usually unwritten that are created communicated
and enforced outside of officially sanctioned channels e.g. cultural orientation, corruption,
legislative and judicial norms.

Political institutions: established guidelines for political deliberation, aggregation of

preferences into collective decisions and the implementation of those decisions.

Constitution: a document or a set of documents that outlines the power, institutions and
structure of government as well as expressing the rights of citizens and the limits on government

- Codified constitution: one that is set out in a single document.

o Preamble, organisation (power and structure of government institutions),
rights, amendment procedure (revising constitution)
- Uncodified constitution: one that is spread among a range of documents and is
influenced by tradition and practice (e.g. Britain).

Negative freedom: freedom of the government (free from harassment etc.) protectionist.
Protections against an overbearing government.

Positive freedom: freedom by the government (government gives people freedom) give wings to
civil society.

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Rigid constitutions: one that is entrenched requiring more demanding amendment procedures.

Flexible constitutions: one that can be amended more easily often in the same way that
ordinary legislation is passed.

Judicial (constitutional) review: the power of courts to nullify any laws of actions by government
officials that contravene the constitution.

- Supreme court: highest court within a jurisdiction, whose decisions are not subject
to review by any other court (judicial body)
- Constitutional court: a separate body dealing only with constitutional issues
(additional legislative chamber)

Concrete review (American review): judgement made on the constitutional validity of law in the
context of a specific case (usually by supreme court)

Abstract view (European model): advice (not usually binding) given by a court on the
constitutionality of a law or public policy (usually by constitutional court).

Trias politica

Judiciary: the institution to interpret laws and punish who break them

Legislative power: wetgevende macht

Legislature as an agent (of/ for the people)

1. Representation: members represent and promote the interest of those who elect them
2. Legislation (law-making): proposing (bills), reviewing amending and approving new laws
3. Deliberation (debating): debate for matters of public importance
• Public debate/ committee-based legislatures
4. Authorizing expenditure: approve or reject the annual budget proposed by the
government; particularly the lower house.

Legislature as a principle

5. Making/ breaking governments: (in parlement system) government emerges from the
assembly and must retain its confidence
6. Scrutiny and control: overseeing or scrutinizing the executive keeping it accountable
• Questions, interpellations
• Emergency debate
• Vote of confidence (parlement system)/ impeachment (president systems)

Structures of legislatures vary: sizes, terms of office, methods of (s)election.

Number of chambers

- Unicameral: only one chamber

- Bicameral – ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ house

Lower house: house of the people, house of representation, representing of society, national
assembly

Higher house: representation of the provinces, states

19
Why two chambers?

- Allow one chamber to represent the population and the second to represent the
interests of the subunits
- Body of experts scrutiny and review, further check on the power of the lower
chamber

Why not?

- Single chamber is cheaper, simpler, more efficient: avoid duplication (extra round of
debate, vote. If the second chamber already voted, why would the senate do it
another time) and deadlock
- Checks and balances can be provided by other institutions

Where?

- Presidential and federal states

Representation

Formalistic representation: which area/ populations are represented in which offices? What
powers, which accountabilities?

Substantive representation: how responding to voters demands / societal needs

Descriptive (mimetic) representation: demographic mirroring balance of men/ women, rich/

poor, black/ white

Collective (aesthetic) representation: political artisanship, interpreting the public good in

political terms.

20
Lecture 7:

Chapter 8

Executive: the political institution responsible for overseeing the execution of laws and policies
and most often associated with the idea of national leadership.

Head of state: the figurehead leader of a state who may be elected of appointed or- in the case
of monarchs- may inherit the position (representative).

Head of government: the elected leader of a government who comes to office because of the
support of voters who identify with their party and platforms.

Constitutional monarchy: a state headed by a monarch but where the monarch’s political
powers are severely limited by constitutional rules. Stands in contrast with an absolute
monarch: a form of government in which a monarch wields absolute power over a state an din
which all other institutions of government are marginal.

Presidential executive: an arrangement in which the executive and the legislature are
separately and directly elected and have separate powers and responsibilities.

Limited presidential executive: a presidential executive whose powers are limited by the
constitution and by political realities.

Separation of powers: an arrangement in which executive, legislature and judiciary are given
distinct but complementary sets of powers such that neither can govern alone and that all
should ideally, govern together.

Parliamentary executive: an arrangement in which the executive emerges from the legislature
(most often in the form of a coalition) and remains accountable to it and must maintain a
working legislative majority in order to remain in the office.

Cabinet: a body consisting of the heads of the major government departments. Sometimes
known as a council of ministers. More important in parliamentary than in presidential systems.

Type Features Examples

Prime ministerial Prime minister is dominant Germany
figure, dealing directly with
individual ministers.
Ministers are followers.
Cabinet Discussion in cabinet Finland
determines overall policy.
Ministers re team players.
Ministerial Individual ministers operate Italy, Japan, Netherlands
with little direction from the
prime minister or cabinet.
Ministers are leaders.

Coalition government: an arrangement in which the government is formed through an

agreement involving two or more parties which divide government posts between them.

Semi-presidential executive: an arrangement in which an elected president coexists with an

appointed prime minister and separately elected legislature.

21
 Characteristic Presidential Parliamentary Semi-presidential
Method of election? Direct, whole country Indirect via President: direct,
legislature whole country. Prime
minister: indirect
Separate head of No Yes No
state?
Does executive serve No Yes No
in legislature?
Separation of Yes Yes Prime minister only,
powers? not president
Fixed terms in office? Yes, except with No President only
unlimited
presidencies
Means for dismissal End of term, loss of Loss of legislative President: end of
from office? presidential election, election, loss of cote term, loss of
impeachment, of confidence, loss of presidential election,
resignation party leadership, impeachment,
resignation resignation
Role of cabinet? More marginal and More central and More marginal and
individualistic collective individualistic
Can executive work Yes, but weakened, Only in case of Yes, but weakened
with legislature except with unlimited minority government
controlled by another presidencies
party?

Cohabitation: an arrangement found in semi-presidential systems when the presidency is held

by a member of one party and the legislature is controlled by another party.

Chapter 12

Political culture: the sum of individual values and norms regarding politics and the political
system, or the culture of a group which gives shared meaning to political action.

Elite political culture: the values and norms regarding politics and the political system held by
those closest to the centred of political power, including elected officials, bureaucrats and
business leaders.

Lecture notes

The executive: institution executing laws and policies, top slice of the administration.

- Presidents and ministers in a (semi) presidential system

- Prime-ministers and cabinets in a parliamentary system

Who’s heading the system?

Republic: a political system in which all members of the government are either elected or
appointed by elected officials. No monarch

Constitutional monarchy: state headed by a monarch but the monarch’s political powers are
severely limited by constitutional

22
Lecture 8:

Federalism and decentralization, multi-level governance

Decentralization: the transfer of power and responsibilities from the national level of
government to subnational levels. Various dimensions:

- Administrative decentralization: bureaucratic decision-making authority and

management of public services is shifted from central government departments to
provincial or local offices.
- Fiscal decentralization: grants subnational units control over local taxes and
spending, allowing them to allocate resources closer to the community level.
- Political decentralization: most significant power shift → transferring authority and
responsibility to elected bodies at the subnational level, such as village assemblies,
city mayors, state governors and municipal councils. This empowers citizens and
their representatives to have greater control over local policies and services.

Subnational units: geographically defined regions, like states or provinces.

Forms of decentralization

- Federal constitutions: these establish a system where power is constitutionally

divided between national and subnational governments, each with distinct areas of
autonomy.
- Devolution of powers: transferring decision-making authority to elected bodies.
- Privatization: this approach aims to shrink the state by transferring public assets
and services to private ownership and management. (industries, utilities and
healthcare).
- Delegation: involves shifting responsibilities from central government departments
to local managers in field offices. Can enhance local responsiveness and efficiency
in implementing national policies(service remains under public ownership and
control, but operational management is decentralised).
- Devolution: from administrative to political of some decision-making authorities to
subnational entities.
- Consultation with local bodies: engaging traditional village councils or urban
communities in planning processes, enabling local voices to be heard and
incorporated into decision-making.

Feature Privatisation Delegation

Ownership Transferred to the private sector Remains within the public sector

By subnational government units or

Management By private companies
local offices

Control Largely with private owners Retained by the central government

Primarily through market Through administrative hierarchies and

Accountability
mechanisms and contracts oversight

Selling state-owned utilities, Transferring responsibility for school

Examples
contracting out waste management administration to local authorities

23
Centralisation: the concentration of power and decision-making authority in the national
government, with limited autonomy or influence granted to subnational units like regions.

Federal constitutions represent one of the most prominent forms of decentralization → US,
Canada, Germany.

Decentralization aims to bring decision-making closer to the communities affected, enhance

citizen participation and government accountability, and foster more tailored and responsive
policies.

Federalism: a system of government that divides power between a national government and
subnational units such as states or provinces. Each level of government has its own specified
areas of autonomy, meaning they have certain powers and responsibilities that are independent
of the other level. This division of power is typically enshrined in a written constitution.

Key features and concepts related to federalism:

- Consociation theory: suggests that federalism, as a form of power-sharing, can

promote stability and democratic consolidation in multinational states. Based on
the idea that autonomy and representation to different groups, federalism can
reduce conflict and facilitate accommodation.

Unitary constitutions (/states): vest sovereignty in the national government, which has ultimate
authority over all subnational units. However, even within unitary systems, there can be varying
degrees of decentralization.

Hybrid unions: these represent an intermediate category between federal and unitary systems,
where the central government remains sovereign but certain subnational units have
constitutionally recognized independent powers.

Sovereign government: a government that possesses full authority and control. Sovereignty is
the principle that a state or governing body has the ultimate power to make laws, enforce them,
and govern its internal affairs without being overruled by other authorities or foreign entities.

- Territorial integrity: the government has control over a specific geographic areas
- Political independence: government makes its own decisions and governs
independently from other states or external forces.
- Recognition: in the international system, sovereignty is often recognized by other
sates and international organizations.
- Monopoly on the use of force: a sovereign government has the legal right to
maintain law and order within its territory, often through its military or police forces.

Multi-level governance →

- Can lead to more responsive democratic government.

- Reduce corruption by making decision-making more transparent and by enhancing
the accountability of elected officials to their community.
- Can improve public policy-making by encouraging creative solutions to problems
and by fostering learning an innovation.
- Can strengthen public policy-making by encouraging flexible experimentation and
social innovations to deal with complex challenges.
- Especially beneficial in diverse or plural societies due to enhanced representation
and accommodation of geographically concentrated minorities.

24
Types of distribution of sovereignty:

1. Unitary states (usually one chamber, reflecting central supremacy).

2. Federations (federalism)
a. Dual federalism: national/ subnational governments operate separately (USA)
b. Cooperative federalism: collaboration between levels (Germany)

Federalism:

1. Independently elected subnational and national institutions

2. A constitution that guarantees sovereignty to the subnational governments and provide
some distribution of responsibilities
3. Institutions to represent subnational preferences within national political institutions
(bicameralism)

Unitary systems do not meet characteristic 2 (distinction federal and unitary system)

Strengths/ weaknesses federalism:

Strengths Weaknesses
Practical for large countries Less practical in relation to security threats
Checks and balances Complicated/ slow decision-making
Recognition of diversity Can stifle divisions
Alleviate centre overload Difficult launching national initiatives
Policy variation/ experimentation Accountability issues
Competition between locations and citizens Equality issues: variable treatment of citizens
can ‘vote with their feet’ (weglopen als je het
er niet mee eens bent)

3. Quasi- federation (hybrid union): these represent an intermediate category between federal
and unitary systems, where the central government remains sovereign but certain subnational
units have constitutionally recognized independent powers.

4. Confederation → more loosely coupled states/ provinces, retain their sovereignty

25
Lecture 9

Political ideologies

Ideology: an action oriented belief system: a set of ideas that guide political action.

Liberalism

- Classic liberalism: strongly individualistic, individuals are self-sufficient and owe

nothing to society. Classic liberalism advocates for a minimal state that is only
involved in protecting citizens from each other and enforcing contracts. Free market
is seen as the best way to ensure prosperity and individual liberty.
- Modern liberalism: more supportive of state intervention especially to help the
weak and vulnerable. Promotes a broader view of freedom, connecting it to personal
development and fulfilment.

Conservatism

- Paternalistic conservatism: social stability and avoidance of social unrest through

reform. The privileged have a duty to care for the less fortunate to maintain social
cohesion. Paternalistic conservatives believe in a hierarchical society that develops
naturally.
- The new right: seeks to reduce state intervention and reestablish traditional values.
This movement combines two distinct traditions: neoliberalism, focusing on
individual freedom and a minimal state, and neoconservatism, which emphasizes a
return to traditional values and authority.

Socialism

- Socialism: advocates for the abolition of the capitalist system and its replacement
with a socialist society based on common ownership.
- Reformist socialism: promotes a peaceful and legal transition to socialism through
democratic means. Seeks to improve working conditions and achieve social change
through established political systems.
- Marxism: key concept is historical materialism highlighting the importance of
economic conditions in shaping society and history. Capitalism will eventually
collapse due to class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
- Orthodox communism: vanguard party to guide the proletariat towards revolution.
Economic Stalinism included the elimination of private enterprise and the
collectivization of agriculture, placing all resources under state control.
- Social democracy: aims to balance the market and the state, seeking to distribute
wealth according to moral, rather than purely market-driven. It emphasizes a
concern for the disadvantaged and promotes welfare, redistribution and social
justice. Social democracy is generally characterized by a belief in humanizing
capitalism through state intervention.
- Fascism: rejects the values of the Enlightenment, such as rationalism, progress,
freedom, and equality, advocating instead for struggle, leadership, power heroism
and war. Fascism emphasizes a unified national community with the individual
subservient to the state (Mussolini’s Italy and Hitler’s Nazi Germany).
- Anarchism: rejects all forms of political authority, particularly the state. Anarchists
believe that individuals can manage their affairs peacefully and cooperatively

26
 without government. This ideology combines elements of liberalism and socialism.
Different branches of anarchism include individualist anarchism, which
emphasizes individual liberty and the market, and collectivist anarchism, which
prioritizes community, cooperation and common ownership.
- Feminism: this ideology seeks to address and overturn gender inequality in society.
Different strands include:
o Liberal feminism: which focuses on achieving equal rights and opportunities
for women in the public sphere.
o Socialist feminism: links female subordination to capitalist systems.
o Radical feminism: views gender divisions as the most fundamental cleavage
in society and calls for a sexual revolution to dismantle patriarchy.
- Green politics: expresses concern about the impact of human activities on the
environment. Green politics goes beyond traditional ideologies by adopting an
ecocentric worldview that sees humans as a part of nature rather than its master.
o Shallow ecologists: believe in appealing to self-interest and common sense
to promote sustainable practices.
o Deep ecologists: call for a fundamental shift in political priorities to
prioritize the ecosystem’s needs over those of any single species.
- Cosmopolitanism: this ideology promotes the idea of a single moral community
encompassing all of humanity. It suggests that individuals have obligations to all
other individuals regardless of their background.
o Moral cosmopolitanism: emphasizes human rights and global social justice
o Cultural cosmopolitanism: highlights the growing interconnectedness of
cultures and the emergence of a ‘global citizen’ identity.
- Non-western ideological trends: western political ideologies often fail to fully
address the unique experiences and perspectives of the non-western world.
Postcolonialism emerged as a movement to establish a distinct political voice for
the non-western world, separate from the universalist claims of liberalism and
socialism. This has manifested in various forms, including:
o Asian values: which emphasize social harmony, respect for authority and a
focus on the family.
o Religious fundamentalism: particularly Islamic fundamentalism, which
seeks to establish Islamic states based on shari’a law
o Non-dualistic thinking: inspired by Eastern philosophies like Buddhism,
which emphasizes interconnectedness and challenges Western dualistic
thought.

Political parties

Political party: a group identified by name and ideology that nominates candidates at elections
in order to win public office and control government.

Functions: representation/ aggregation, mobilization, competition (guidance), recruitment,

government.

Cadre party: 19th century, elite-centred.

Mass party: mass suffrage, emergence socialist parties.

27
Catch-all party: to govern rather than to represent, works to attract voters with a wide variety of
political views and ideologies.

Niche party: a party that appeals to a narrow section for the electorate, usually highlighting
noneconomic issues such as the environment or nationalism.

Cartel party: a leading party that exploits its dominance of the political market to establish rules
of the game, such as public funding, which reinforces its own strong position.

Cleavage: social division creating a collective identity among those on each side of the divide
(e.g. industry (urban) vs. agriculture (rural)).

What is left and right?

Right more conservative, left more progressive

Overton window

Horseshoe theory: the far-left and far-right, instead of being on extreme and opposing sides of a
linear political spectrum, are more alike each other, similar to how the ends of a horseshoe are
near one another (image on the internet).

Extreme: is generally understood as against the system (opposes democracy).

Radical: is generally understood as challenging the foundations of the system.

Issue ownership: political party is perceived by voters as the most competent party to solve a
particular problem (issue owner, immigration, climate change etc.).

Party system: overall configuration of political parties based ont heir number, variety, relative
importance, interactions among them, an the laws that regulate them:

- No-party system: no parties allowed to compete with authority of ruler

- Single-party system: only one legal party allowed.
- Dominant party system: one party is almost always in government despite multi-
party contest.
- Two-party system: two major parties compete to run majority government (USA)
- multi-party system: multiple parties serious contenders for government coalition
membership (most of Europe)

What shapes party systems in democracies?

- Societal fragmentation (fractionalization)

- Electoral system
- Societal culture

Effective number of parliamentary parties

Duverger’s law: the simple-majority singe-ballot system favours the two-party system.

Duverger’s proposition: the simple-majority system with second ballot and proportional
representation favours multi-partyism.

28
Party congress (convention/committee): the leader is selected by the members of a selected
party agency.

Members of parliamentary party: selection of the party leader by rhe aprty’s elected
representatives in the legislature e.g. the Netherlands

Party members: ‘one member one vote’ system

Combination of parliamentary and ordinary members: selection of both members of

parliamentary and ordinary members, the former selects two (or more), the latter……

Public funding political parties → p. 42

29
Lecture 10

Political participation

Political participation: actions by individuals intended to influence government and the

actions/policies it takes.

Sharing information: from vague (election) to specific (referendum)

Putting pressure: from subtle (100 demonstrators) to coercive, compelling (100.000

demonstrators; strike by all).

1. Conventual ways of participating (institutional):

a. voting (general elections, referendums)
b. civic activism: joining, supporting
2. unconventional/ less conventional (non-institutional):
a. lawful demonstration
3. Illegal participation
a. civil disobedience, sabotage, political violence

Gladiators at the top (fight the political battle), spectators (watch political developments but
only participate indirectly), apathetics (avoid formal politics altogether).

Why participate in politics?

1. Idealism: wish to bring about change

2. Responsibility: civic responsibility to respect for all efforts made over time for this right
3. Being heard: wanting to be counted and to play role as a part of potential solutions to
the problems facing society
4. Mobilization: have been encouraged by parties and political leaders to oppose/ support
incumbents
5. Enjoyment: engagement with the community or the excitement of the competition

6. Because they can: resources, time, knowledge, status, communication skills,

education
7. Because they want: more engaged with and interested in formal politics
8. Because they are being asked

30
Promoting participation:

- Political participation is both obligation and exercise of personal development

- Non-participation is free riding
- Higher participation is good governance

Limited participation:

- People are not naturally political animal

- Limited participation shows the health of political system
- Monitoring as a form of participation
- Channels should be open not in constant use

Compulsory voting

For:

- Full turnout, more representative

- Encourage disengaged group to be active
- More legitimacy for elected authorities
- Less resources of parties to encourage people to vote
- Blank ballots for those against voting or candidates

Against

- Violate the concept of freedom

- Influence of less informed and less engaged voters (random vote)
- Abstention may be a sign of contentment and not a problem
- Turnout remains well below 100% even when using compulsory rule
- Better policy should attract voters

Issue/ policy voting: voters have a position on a crucial issue and vote accordingly

Performance (economy)-based voting: vote for economic performance (retrospective and

prospective)

Leader/ candidate personality effect

Participatory democracy

31
Lecture 11

Legitimacy: citizens’ belief that the power-holders are legitimate; that they have the right to
exercise power and authority

Oefenvragen

1. C
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. D
6. C
7. C
8. D
9. D
10. B
11. B
12. A
13. B
14. C
15. C
16. C
17. D
18. B
19. B
20. B
21. D
22. B
23. A
24. C
25. B
26. C
27. D

32