CMC Unit 4

Handoff Strategies: Concepts of Handoff

Handoff, also known as handover, is a crucial process in wireless communication systems. It

ensures that a mobile device maintains an active connection while moving from one coverage
area (cell or base station) to another. The primary objective is to provide seamless
connectivity without interruptions in ongoing calls or data sessions.

1. Definition of Handoff

A handoff occurs when the network transfers an active connection from one base station or
access point to another. This process can happen due to the following reasons:

 The user moves out of the current cell's coverage area.

 The current cell's signal quality degrades (e.g., interference or congestion).

 Load balancing or optimization of network resources.

2. Types of Handoff

Handoffs are broadly classified based on technology, control, and resource utilization:

A. Based on Network Technology

1. Hard Handoff (Break-Before-Make):

o The connection with the current base station is terminated before establishing a
new connection.

o Used in networks like GSM and CDMA.

o Example: Switching between two different cells in a GSM network.

2. Soft Handoff (Make-Before-Break):

o The connection with the current base station is maintained until a new
connection is established.

o Common in CDMA and LTE networks.

o Example: A call continues seamlessly as the device connects to multiple base

stations during the transition.

B. Based on Control

1. Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO):

o The network decides when and where to perform the handoff based on
measurements such as signal strength and quality.

o Example: Traditional GSM networks.

 2. Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO):

o The mobile device measures signal quality from nearby base stations and reports
to the network, which makes the decision.

o Example: Modern cellular networks.

3. Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO):

o The mobile device decides and initiates the handoff without network
intervention.

o Example: Some Wi-Fi and proprietary systems.

C. Based on Resource Utilization

1. Horizontal Handoff:

o Occurs between base stations or access points of the same type (e.g., Wi-Fi to
Wi-Fi, GSM to GSM).

o Example: Moving between two cells within the same network technology.

2. Vertical Handoff:

o Occurs between different network technologies (e.g., Wi-Fi to LTE).

o Example: Switching from a Wi-Fi network to cellular data while walking outside.

3. Steps in Handoff

1. Measurement: Signal strength, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and other quality metrics
are monitored.

2. Decision: The network or device decides to perform the handoff based on pre-defined
thresholds.

3. Execution: The new connection is established, and resources are reallocated.

4. Handoff Strategies

A. Signal Strength-Based Handoff:

 Thresholds for signal strength determine when the handoff occurs.

 Simple but prone to "ping-ponging" (frequent handoffs between adjacent cells).

B. Distance-Based Handoff:

 The user's proximity to the base station triggers the handoff.

 Effective in small cells or microcells.

C. Hybrid Approach:

 Combines signal strength and distance metrics for more accurate handoff decisions.
D. Load Balancing-Based Handoff:

 Triggered to balance traffic between base stations, even if the signal quality is
sufficient.

E. QoS-Based Handoff:

 Ensures Quality of Service (QoS) parameters like latency and throughput are
maintained.

5. Challenges in Handoff

1. Latency: Delays in handoff can disrupt services.

2. Ping-Pong Effect: Frequent switching between cells.

3. Interference: Overlapping coverage areas can cause interference.

4. Resource Allocation: Efficiently managing limited resources like bandwidth.

5. Energy Efficiency: Reducing power consumption during handoff.

6. Applications of Handoff

1. Mobile Communication Systems: Seamless call connectivity while on the move.

2. Internet of Things (IoT): Handoff enables IoT devices to remain connected across
different networks.

3. Autonomous Vehicles: Ensures continuous data exchange in connected car systems.

4. Healthcare: Remote patient monitoring through seamless connectivity.

Key Formulas

1. Signal Strength Model

Signal strength S at a distance d from the base station:

S=S0−10nlog10(d/d0)

o S0: Signal strength at reference distance d0 (in dBm).

o n: Path loss exponent (typical values: 2–4 for urban/rural).
o d: Distance from the base station.
o d0: Reference distance.
 2. Handoff Margin (H):

2. Problem Examples

Problem 1: Signal Strength Calculation

Given:

 Signal strength at a reference distance (S0) = −40 dBm.

 Reference distance (d0) = 1 meter.

 Path loss exponent (n) = 3.

 User is at a distance of d=100 meters.

Find: Signal strength at 100 meters.

Solution:
Using the formula:
Problem 2: Handoff Decision Using Handoff Margin

Given:

 Signal strength of the current base station (ScurrentS_{\text{current}}Scurrent) =

−90-90−90 dBm.

 Signal strength of the neighboring base station (SneighborS_{\

text{neighbor}}Sneighbor) = −95-95−95 dBm.

 Handoff threshold (HHH) = 5 dBm.

Determine: Whether a handoff will occur.

Solution:
Compute the handoff margin:

H=Scurrent − Sneighbor

H=−90−(−95)=5 dBm

Since H=5 dBm matches the threshold, a handoff will occur.

Problem 3: Handoff Rate

Given:

 Mobile velocity (v) = 20 m/s.

 Number of base stations (N) = 8.

 Cell radius (R) = 500 m.

Find: Handoff rate (Rh).

Solution:
Using the formula:
 Types of Handoff

Handoff (or Handover) in wireless communication refers to the process of transferring an

active call or data session from one base station or access point to another, ensuring
seamless communication as a mobile user moves through different coverage areas. There are
various types of handoffs based on different criteria such as network technology, control
method, resource utilization, and so on.

Below are the primary types of handoff categorized by different factors:

1. Based on Network Technology

A. Hard Handoff (Break-Before-Make)

 Description: In this type of handoff, the mobile device disconnects from the current
base station before establishing a connection with the new base station.

 Used in: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access).

 Characteristics:

o The connection is broken first before the new one is made.

o Can cause a brief disruption in service (drop in call or data session).

o Less complex but involves a momentary loss of connectivity.

 Example: When a mobile device moves out of the coverage area of one cell and into
the coverage area of another cell, the call drops briefly during the transition.

B. Soft Handoff (Make-Before-Break)

 Description: In a soft handoff, the mobile device simultaneously maintains

connections with multiple base stations before the new base station connection takes
over from the old one. The connection is not broken until the new one is established.

 Used in: CDMA, LTE, and 5G networks.

 Characteristics:

o Provides seamless connectivity without dropping calls.

o Multiple base stations communicate with the mobile device during the handoff
process.
 o Typically used in modern cellular technologies for improved call quality.

 Example: In CDMA, a device connects to two or more base stations at the same time,
and the connection is handed off from one base station to another without the user
noticing.

C. Softer Handoff

 Description: A variation of soft handoff that occurs within the same base station's
coverage area. Multiple sectors of the same base station are involved.

 Used in: CDMA and LTE.

 Characteristics:

o The mobile device maintains simultaneous connections with multiple sectors of

the same base station.

o Reduces interference and improves service reliability in dense network areas.

 Example: The device is moving between sectors of the same base station (e.g., from
one sector's coverage to another within a large metropolitan area).

2. Based on Control Method

A. Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO)

 Description: In this handoff type, the decision to hand off and the management of the
handoff are entirely controlled by the network, which monitors the signal strength and
quality.

 Used in: GSM, LTE networks.

 Characteristics:

o The network decides when the handoff should occur based on signal quality and
other factors.

o The mobile device only communicates handoff requests to the network.

o Network-controlled handoffs are commonly used in legacy and modern cellular

systems.

 Example: The mobile device reports the received signal strength to the network, and
based on thresholds, the network initiates the handoff process to a better base station.

B. Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

 Description: The mobile device assists in the handoff process by measuring the signal
strength from neighboring base stations and providing the data to the network, which
then makes the handoff decision.

 Used in: GSM, 3G networks.

 Characteristics:
 o The mobile device plays an active role by measuring the signals of nearby base
stations.

o The mobile device sends these measurements back to the network, which
analyzes them to decide whether a handoff is needed.

 Example: The mobile device measures signal quality from two or more neighboring
base stations and sends the measurements to the network to decide the best base
station for handoff.

C. Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO)

 Description: In this case, the mobile device itself makes the decision on when and to
which base station to connect, without any involvement from the network.

 Used in: Proprietary wireless systems and some Wi-Fi networks.

 Characteristics:

o The mobile device autonomously decides when to switch to a different base

station or access point.

o The network is not involved in the decision-making process.

o Typically used in ad-hoc or self-managed networks like Wi-Fi.

 Example: In a Wi-Fi network, a mobile device may switch to a different Wi-Fi access
point based on its signal strength without the network’s intervention.

3. Based on Resource Utilization

A. Horizontal Handoff

 Description: Horizontal handoff occurs when a mobile device moves from one base
station to another that operates on the same network technology. The handoff is
typically between cells of the same type (e.g., from one LTE cell to another LTE cell).

 Used in: GSM, LTE, Wi-Fi.

 Characteristics:

o It occurs within the same network technology (e.g., LTE to LTE, GSM to GSM).

o The mobile device switches between cells or access points that are of the same
type.

 Example: Moving from one Wi-Fi access point to another in the same office building
without changing the network type.

B. Vertical Handoff

 Description: Vertical handoff happens when a mobile device switches between

different network technologies (e.g., from Wi-Fi to LTE or 3G to Wi-Fi).

 Used in: Wi-Fi to LTE, LTE to Wi-Fi, Wi-Fi to 5G.

 Characteristics:
 o The mobile device transitions from one network technology to another (e.g., from
a cellular network to a Wi-Fi network).

o Vertical handoff is important for maintaining connectivity when moving in and

out of coverage areas of different networks (e.g., 4G to Wi-Fi).

 Example: A mobile device might switch from LTE to Wi-Fi when it enters a Wi-Fi-
enabled location, and then switch back to LTE when moving out of the Wi-Fi coverage
area.

4. Based on Handoff Mechanism

A. Intra-Sector Handoff

 Description: Occurs within the same sector of the base station.

 Used in: CDMA, LTE.

 Characteristics:

o The mobile device remains within the coverage of the same base station but
moves between different antennas or sub-sectors.

o Common in densely populated areas with multiple antennas within one base
station.

 Example: Moving from one antenna's coverage to another in a large stadium where
multiple antennas cover different sections.

B. Inter-Sector Handoff

 Description: Occurs between different sectors of a base station.

 Used in: CDMA, LTE.

 Characteristics:

o The mobile device moves from one sector's coverage area to another within the
same base station.

o Helps in reducing congestion in certain sectors while balancing the load across
the base station.

 Example: Moving from one cell's sector to another, such as between different antenna
sectors in a metropolitan city.

Conclusion:

The type of handoff used depends on factors like network technology, control methods, and
resource management strategies. Each type has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice
of handoff mechanism impacts service quality, call continuity, and user experience.
 Handoff Initiation

Handoff initiation refers to the process or decision-making steps that trigger the transfer of an
ongoing call or data session from one base station (or access point) to another as the mobile
device moves. This process ensures continuous connectivity by transferring the session
seamlessly, minimizing disruptions. The handoff process is crucial in maintaining the quality of
service (QoS), particularly in mobile networks with high mobility.

Key Factors Influencing Handoff Initiation

There are several factors that influence when and how handoff is initiated. These include
signal strength, signal quality, network load, mobility, and the type of handoff.

1. Signal Strength and Quality

The most common trigger for handoff is when the signal strength from the current base
station drops below a predefined threshold, and a neighboring base station has a stronger
signal.

Signal Strength-Based Handoff:

 Trigger: The mobile device continuously measures the signal strength of the current
base station and neighboring base stations.
  Condition: When the signal strength from the current base station drops below a
threshold value (e.g., -90 dBm) and the signal strength from a neighboring base station
exceeds a minimum threshold (e.g., -80 dBm), the handoff process is initiated.

 Formula:

Scurrent (current base station) < Sthreshold and Sneighbor (neighboring base station) > Sthreshold

 Example: A mobile phone moving out of the coverage area of a base station triggers
the handoff to a neighboring base station that provides a stronger signal.

Signal Quality-Based Handoff:

 Trigger: Signal quality parameters like Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) or Signal-to-

Interference Ratio (SIR) may also be used to trigger handoff.

 Condition: When the signal quality from the current base station falls below an
acceptable level, or if interference levels rise too high, a handoff is initiated to ensure
the call/data session remains clear.

 Example: A weak signal with high interference may prompt a handoff even before
signal strength reaches the threshold, ensuring the quality of the call or data session.

2. Mobility and Velocity of the Mobile Device

The speed of the mobile device is a critical factor in handoff initiation. In high-mobility
scenarios (e.g., traveling in a car or train), handoff needs to happen quickly to ensure no
service interruption.

Velocity-Based Handoff:

 Trigger: If the mobile device moves quickly from one cell's coverage area to another, a
handoff is initiated proactively before the device loses connectivity.

 Condition: The velocity of the device can be used to predict when the handoff should
occur.

 Example: In a car moving at 120 km/h, the handoff may be triggered when the device
moves towards the boundary of a cell, well before it reaches the boundary, to prevent
service interruption.

3. Handoff Margin

The handoff margin is the difference between the signal strength of the current base station
and the signal strength of the neighboring base station. A handoff is initiated when the margin
exceeds a certain threshold, meaning the neighboring base station's signal has surpassed the
current one by a significant amount.

Handoff Margin-Based Initiation:

  Trigger: The handoff margin exceeds a threshold value, signalling that the mobile
device should connect to a new base station.

 Condition:

Hmargin = Scurrent − Sneighbor > Hthreshold

 Example: A mobile device connected to a base station with a signal strength of -85
dBm and detects a neighboring station with a signal strength of -90 dBm. If the handoff
margin threshold is set to 5 dB, the handoff will be initiated when the difference in
signal strength becomes significant enough.

4. Load-Based Handoff

Load-based handoff is triggered when the current base station experiences network
congestion or a high load, and the mobile device is directed to a neighboring base station with
a lighter load.

Load-Based Handoff Initiation:

 Trigger: If the current base station is overloaded or has reached its capacity, a handoff
is initiated to offload the mobile device to a neighboring base station with more
available capacity.

 Condition: Network load monitoring can include the number of active users, available
bandwidth, or resource utilization.

 Example: In a crowded stadium, as more users join the network, the base station
handling the area may become congested, prompting a handoff to a neighboring base
station.

5. Threshold Crossing Probability (TCP) Based Handoff

Threshold Crossing Probability (TCP) is a probabilistic method used to predict handoff

initiation. It is based on the idea that a handoff will occur when the likelihood of a signal
threshold being crossed is high enough to guarantee that the handoff will complete
successfully.

TCP-Based Handoff Initiation:

 Trigger: The TCP is calculated based on the movement and signal strength
characteristics of the mobile device.

 Condition: When the probability of crossing a signal threshold at the next step exceeds
a predefined threshold, handoff is initiated.

 Example: A mobile device in a car may use the TCP model to predict that it will soon
cross into a new cell's coverage area, prompting the handoff initiation ahead of time.
6. Time-Based Handoff

This type of handoff is based on the duration for which a mobile device has been in a
particular cell's coverage area. If the device has been in one cell for too long, and its
movement patterns suggest it will soon leave the area, a handoff may be initiated.

Time-Based Handoff Initiation:

 Trigger: The mobile device has stayed within the coverage of the current base station
for a predefined period, and it is likely to leave the area soon.

 Condition: The mobile device tracks its movement and the base station logs the time
spent within a specific cell’s coverage.

 Example: A train moving toward the edge of the coverage area may initiate a handoff
preemptively after staying too long within the same cell.

7. Hybrid Handoff (Combination of Factors)

In many modern networks, handoff initiation uses a combination of factors (signal strength,
mobility, network load, etc.) to determine the best time and method for initiating a handoff.
For example, both signal strength and velocity can be used together to ensure seamless
service.

Hybrid Handoff Initiation:

 Trigger: A combination of signal strength, velocity, and network load conditions

triggers the handoff process. If any one of the conditions exceeds a certain threshold,
the handoff process begins.

 Condition: Uses multiple factors, including those outlined above.

 Example: A moving car approaches the edge of a base station's coverage area, with
low signal strength and high network load, leading to the initiation of a hybrid handoff
to a neighboring station.

Conclusion

Handoff initiation is a complex process involving multiple factors to ensure seamless service
delivery. Key triggers include:

 Signal strength and quality

 Velocity and mobility

 Handoff margin

 Network load

 Threshold crossing probability

 Time spent in a cell

By continuously monitoring these parameters, mobile devices and networks collaborate to
initiate the best possible handoff for a seamless experience, particularly in dynamic
environments such as mobile communications.

Delaying Handoff

Delaying handoff refers to the strategy of postponing the handoff process until certain
conditions are met, even if the mobile device is approaching the edge of a base station's
coverage area or signal quality is deteriorating. This approach aims to reduce unnecessary
handoffs, improve network resource utilization, and ensure better user experience by
minimizing service interruptions.

While handoff is essential for maintaining continuous service, premature or too frequent
handoffs can lead to several problems, including increased signaling overhead, lower quality
of service (QoS), and inefficient use of network resources. Delaying handoff helps mitigate
these issues, but it also requires careful management to balance responsiveness with
performance.

Key Reasons for Delaying Handoff

1. Reducing Handoff Frequency

o Frequent handoffs, especially in highly mobile environments (e.g., moving

vehicles), can introduce excessive signaling overhead and degrade overall
network performance.

o Delaying handoff allows the mobile device to stay connected to the current base
station until the signal degradation is more substantial, thus reducing the
number of handoffs.

2. Minimizing Handoff Failures

o Handoff failure occurs when the mobile device loses connection during the
handoff process. By delaying the handoff, the network can ensure that the
mobile device has sufficient time to maintain a stable connection to the new
base station, reducing the likelihood of failure.

3. Improving Quality of Service (QoS)

o Unnecessary handoffs can cause service interruptions and call drops. By

postponing the handoff until signal degradation reaches a critical point, the
network ensures that the user experiences fewer interruptions, especially in
applications requiring high QoS like voice calls and video streaming.

4. Optimizing Network Resources

o By delaying handoffs, the network can balance the load more effectively. For
example, if a base station is already under heavy load, delaying the handoff can
help offload the device to a neighboring base station only when necessary, thus
improving resource allocation.
Factors Involved in Delaying Handoff

Several factors influence the decision to delay a handoff. These factors are typically tied to
signal quality, mobility, and network conditions:

1. Signal Strength and Quality:

o Signal strength threshold: If the signal strength of the current base station is
still above a predefined threshold (e.g., -85 dBm), the handoff may be delayed
until the signal drops further.

o Signal quality metrics (e.g., SNR, SIR): If the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or
signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) is still acceptable, the handoff can be delayed.

2. Handoff Margin:

o Handoff margin is the difference in signal strength between the current and
neighboring base stations. A larger margin indicates that the current base station
is still providing a significantly stronger signal, justifying a delay in handoff.

o Formula: Hmargin = Scurrent − Sneighboring

o Threshold for handoff delay: If the margin is greater than a certain threshold
(e.g., 3 dB), the handoff is delayed.

3. Velocity and Mobility:

o High mobility (e.g., moving at high speeds) can trigger frequent handoffs.
However, if the device is moving slowly and will remain within the current base
station's coverage area for a longer period, handoff may be delayed to avoid
unnecessary switching.

o Speed-based decision: If the device's speed is below a threshold (e.g., 30

km/h), the handoff might be delayed.

4. Network Load:

o Delaying handoff can also be based on the load of the neighboring base stations.
If the target base station is already heavily loaded, delaying the handoff allows
time for the load to decrease, potentially making the handoff more efficient.

o Load balancing: Delaying the handoff helps in load balancing across multiple
cells or sectors to ensure no base station is overwhelmed.

5. Threshold Crossing Probability (TCP):

o This approach estimates the likelihood of crossing a signal threshold and uses
that probability to decide whether to initiate or delay the handoff.

o If the probability of the mobile device crossing into the neighboring base
station’s coverage area is low, the handoff can be delayed.

6. User Behavior and Application Type:

o If the user is engaged in a real-time application (e.g., voice or video), delaying

the handoff can be more complex, as it may result in service disruption. The
 decision to delay handoff is typically influenced by the application’s sensitivity to
delay.

o In applications with more tolerance for brief interruptions (e.g., data downloads),
handoff can be delayed longer.

Strategies for Delaying Handoff

To implement delaying handoff effectively, several strategies can be adopted:

1. Adaptive Thresholds:

o Dynamically adjusting the handoff thresholds based on the network load, signal
quality, and user mobility can help reduce unnecessary handoffs. For example, if
the mobile device is moving slowly in a low-traffic area, the threshold for handoff
initiation can be increased.

2. Hysteresis:

o Hysteresis involves introducing a buffer or delay in the handoff decision,

allowing the mobile device to stay connected to the current base station even if
the signal strength from a neighboring base station is slightly better. The handoff
is only triggered when the signal strength of the neighboring base station
surpasses the current base station by a certain margin.

o Formula: Scurrent + Hhysteresis < Sneighboring

3. Time-Based Delays:

o If the mobile device has been in the same cell for a prolonged period or the
network detects that it is about to leave the coverage area, the handoff can be
delayed for a short period to ensure that the transition happens smoothly and
without excessive signaling.

4. Delay Based on User Equipment (UE) Behavior:

o User mobility patterns and device usage can be monitored. For example, if the
device is stationary or moving slowly, the system may delay the handoff until
absolutely necessary, whereas high-mobility devices (such as vehicles) may have
a much shorter delay threshold.

5. Predictive Algorithms:

o Using machine learning or predictive algorithms, the system can estimate when
a handoff will be necessary based on factors like signal strength, user mobility,
and network conditions. This allows for more intelligent and timely handoff
initiation.

Example Problem: Delayed Handoff Based on Hysteresis

Scenario: A mobile device is moving between two base stations: Base Station A and Base
Station B. The signal strength from Base Station A is -80 dBm, and the signal strength from
Base Station B is -82 dBm. The hysteresis margin is set to 2 dB.

Question: Will the handoff be delayed or initiated based on the hysteresis margin?
Solution: The hysteresis margin is applied to prevent frequent handoffs due to minor signal
strength differences. To initiate the handoff to Base Station B, the signal strength from Base
Station B must be at least 2 dB stronger than the current base station (Base Station A).

1. The signal strength difference is:

2. Since Scurrent=−80 , the signal from Base Station B must drop below this threshold (after
hysteresis) to trigger handoff.

3. Therefore, no handoff will be triggered at this point because the signal from Base
Station B is not sufficiently stronger than the threshold value (i.e., -80 dBm), and the
handoff is delayed.

Conclusion

Delaying handoff is a technique that aims to improve network efficiency and minimize
disruptions by postponing the handoff process until the mobile device’s signal strength has
significantly dropped, or other critical conditions (e.g., network congestion, mobility, etc.) are
met. By using strategies like hysteresis, adaptive thresholds, and predictive
algorithms, networks can manage handoffs intelligently, reducing signaling overhead,
improving QoS, and optimizing resource usage.

Forced Handoff

A forced handoff occurs when the network forces a mobile device to switch from one base
station or access point to another, regardless of whether the device's signal strength or
network conditions suggest a natural transition. This type of handoff is typically initiated by
the network to maintain service continuity, manage network resources, or respond to specific
events or emergencies.

Unlike soft or hard handoffs, where handoff decisions are primarily based on the mobile
device's signal strength and quality, forced handoff may occur due to network management
decisions, load balancing, congestion, or other operational requirements.

Reasons for Forced Handoff

1. Network Load Balancing

o Forced handoffs can be used to distribute traffic across different base stations to
avoid overloading any single base station.

o When a base station reaches its capacity, the network may force devices to
move to a less congested neighboring base station.

2. Base Station Failure

o If a base station goes offline due to maintenance or failure, the network may
force all connected devices to switch to a different base station to maintain
service.
 o This may happen even if the signal strength from the new base station is not as
strong.

3. Congestion and Resource Allocation

o In areas with heavy traffic (e.g., urban areas during peak hours), a network may
force devices to switch to a base station with lower user density, ensuring
resources are better distributed.

4. Emergency Management

o During emergencies, such as a natural disaster or a system overload, the

network might force handoff to prioritize emergency communications, ensuring
critical services have access to sufficient bandwidth.

5. Traffic Shaping and QoS (Quality of Service) Control

o Networks may force handoffs to ensure high-priority users (e.g., VoIP calls, video
calls) maintain service quality, moving them to a base station with sufficient
resources.

6. Optimizing Power Consumption

o A device may be forced to handoff to a closer base station to optimize its power
consumption. This might be particularly relevant in scenarios where a device is
trying to conserve battery life.

7. Interference Management

o In high-interference environments (e.g., urban areas with numerous buildings),

the network may force handoff to avoid signal degradation due to interference,
ensuring better call quality and data throughput.

8. Regulatory and Policy-Driven Actions

o Regulatory policies, such as spectrum management or roaming agreements,

might require the network to force handoffs to a particular base station,
especially in areas with spectrum sharing or coordinated roaming.

Types of Forced Handoff

1. Hard Forced Handoff

o This type of handoff involves completely terminating the connection to the

current base station before establishing a connection with the new base station.
It requires the mobile device to disconnect and reconnect, causing a potential
disruption in the service, such as a brief call drop.

o Example: A user’s connection is transferred from one base station to another

due to network congestion, with a brief service interruption during the transition.

2. Soft Forced Handoff

o In this case, the mobile device maintains its connection with the current base
station while a new connection is established with the target base station. This
allows the mobile device to transition seamlessly without losing the connection.
 o Example: A device continues to receive service from the original base station
but is also connected to a neighboring station. The device is then forced to
transition fully to the neighboring base station while maintaining service without
any call drops.

3. Intra-System Forced Handoff

o Forced handoff within the same network or system, where a device is moved
from one base station to another within the same cellular network.

o Example: A mobile device in a high-traffic area is moved from one sector of a

base station to another sector within the same station.

4. Inter-System Forced Handoff

o Forced handoff between different networks or systems, such as when a device

switches from one operator’s network to another or from a 4G to a 5G network.

o Example: A user traveling between areas with different network operators may
be forced to handoff to another operator's base station.

Forced Handoff Initiation

Forced handoffs are usually initiated by the network operator or based on pre-defined
network conditions. These conditions may include:

1. Signal Quality Decline

o Although forced handoff typically occurs regardless of signal quality, in some

cases, poor signal quality may trigger forced handoff when the mobile device is
no longer capable of maintaining a usable connection.

2. Threshold Conditions

o Certain thresholds, such as network load, capacity, or signal strength, are

monitored. When these thresholds are exceeded, a forced handoff might be
initiated to alleviate congestion, prevent overload, or prioritize traffic.

3. Device or Application Type

o In some cases, the type of device or application in use (e.g., high-priority

applications like voice calls, emergency services) may trigger forced handoff to
ensure uninterrupted service.

Formula for Forced Handoff

While forced handoff is typically a network management decision, some formulas and metrics
can indicate when a forced handoff might be necessary. These involve comparing the signal
strength of the current base station with the signal strength of neighboring stations, as
well as considering network congestion or load.

Basic Forced Handoff Conditions:

  Signal Strength:
A forced handoff can be initiated when the signal strength of the current base station
Scurrent falls below a certain threshold and the new base station S neighbor

Scurrent < Sthreshold and Sneighbor > Sthreshold

Example: If the mobile device's connection strength to Base Station A is below -90 dBm, and
Base Station B offers a signal strength greater than -85 dBm, the network may force the
device to handoff.

 Network Load (L):

A forced handoff might be triggered when the current base station reaches a certain
capacity Lcurrent, and the neighboring base station L neighbor has lower load.

Lcurrent>Lthreshold and Lneighbor < Lthreshold

Example: If Base Station A is handling more traffic than it can support, forcing a handoff to
Base Station B (which has a lower load) can improve overall network performance.

Example Problem: Forced Handoff Scenario

Scenario:
A mobile device is connected to Base Station A. Base Station A has a signal strength of -90
dBm, while Base Station B has a signal strength of -85 dBm. Additionally, Base Station A is
currently operating at full capacity (over its load threshold), while Base Station B has a
significantly lower load.

Question:
Will a forced handoff occur in this situation?

Solution:

 Signal strength condition:

Base Station A’s signal strength is -90 dBm, which is below the acceptable threshold of
-85 dBm, and Base Station B has a signal strength of -85 dBm, which is above the
threshold.

o The signal strength condition is met for handoff initiation.

 Load condition:
Base Station A is at full capacity, while Base Station B has a lower load, making it the
preferred choice for handoff.

o The network will likely initiate a forced handoff to Base Station B to balance the
load and ensure the device maintains connectivity.

Therefore, a forced handoff will be initiated to move the device from Base Station A to Base
Station B, even if the signal strength of Base Station B is not significantly better, but due to
congestion and the device's service requirements, the handoff is necessary.

Conclusion
A forced handoff is a network-initiated event aimed at maintaining service quality,
managing resources, or addressing network conditions such as congestion, load balancing, or
failure. Unlike standard handoffs, which are triggered by signal strength or quality
degradation, forced handoffs occur for network management purposes, such as offloading
traffic, maintaining coverage, or ensuring service continuity in emergency situations. The
decision to initiate a forced handoff relies on factors such as signal strength, network load,
and the mobile device’s connection requirements.

Mobile Assigned Handoff

A Mobile Assigned Handoff refers to a type of handoff in which the mobile device (or User
Equipment, UE) is responsible for initiating and controlling the handoff process, rather than
the network. In this handoff process, the mobile device decides when to switch from one base
station (BS) to another, based on specific network conditions such as signal strength,
interference, or mobility. This is contrasted with network-controlled handoff, where the base
station or network operator makes the decision to hand off the device.

In a Mobile Assigned Handoff, the mobile device typically monitors its environment,
including the signal strength from neighboring base stations, and decides when it is necessary
to handoff to a different cell to maintain optimal connection quality.

Key Concepts of Mobile Assigned Handoff

1. Mobile Device Responsibility:

o In this type of handoff, the mobile device plays a central role. It continuously
measures signal quality (e.g., Received Signal Strength Indicator, RSSI) and may
initiate the handoff based on these measurements.

o The mobile device may perform additional tasks such as checking for
interference, mobility patterns, and measuring neighboring cell conditions to
determine the need for handoff.

2. Initiation Trigger:

o The mobile device uses thresholds such as signal strength, signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR), or signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) to decide when to initiate a handoff.

o Trigger Threshold: When the mobile device detects that the signal strength
from the current serving base station has dropped below a certain threshold or
when the neighboring base stations' signal strength is better, it will initiate a
handoff.

3. Comparison with Network-Controlled Handoff:

o Network-Controlled Handoff: In a network-controlled handoff, the base station

or the mobile switching center (MSC) monitors the connection quality and sends
the handoff commands to the mobile device.

o Mobile-Assigned Handoff: Here, the mobile device is in charge of monitoring

conditions and initiating the handoff process to another base station when
necessary.

4. Use of Measurement Reports:

 o The mobile device sends measurement reports to the network, providing data
about the signal strength of neighboring cells and its current connection quality.
The network may use this information to help in the handoff decision.

o Measurement Trigger: The mobile device may send measurement reports at

predefined intervals or when certain conditions, like crossing a predefined
threshold, occur.

5. Mobile-Assigned Handoff in Different Networks:

o This concept is typically found in mobile networks like GSM, WCDMA, LTE, and
5G, where mobile devices are capable of evaluating the surrounding network
conditions and making decisions to initiate handoffs.

o Mobile-initiated handoff is commonly used in handoff between neighboring

cells, especially in cases like vertical handoff (switching between different
types of networks such as Wi-Fi and cellular) or horizontal handoff (switching
between similar networks like 4G to 4G LTE).

Conditions for Mobile Assigned Handoff

Several factors determine when a mobile device will initiate a handoff:

1. Signal Strength (RSSI):

o One of the most common conditions for mobile-initiated handoff is when the
signal strength from the current base station falls below a predefined threshold.

 Formula: Scurrent < Threshold where Scurrent is the signal strength from the current base
station.

2. Signal Quality (SNR/SIR):

 Poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) might trigger a

handoff if the mobile device is no longer able to maintain a stable connection.

 Formula

3. Neighboring Base Station Strength:

 The mobile device compares the signal strength from neighboring base stations to
determine if a better signal exists elsewhere. If the signal from a neighboring base
station is stronger, the mobile device may trigger the handoff.

 Formula
 4. Velocity/Movement:

o The mobile device’s speed and direction are important factors. If the mobile
device is moving quickly (e.g., in a vehicle), it might proactively trigger a handoff
before the signal quality deteriorates, anticipating the need for a switch.

o Speed-based Condition: Vdevice > Vthreshold where Vdevice is the device’s speed and
Vthreshold is the speed above which a handoff is triggered.

5. Power Consumption:

o In some cases, the mobile device might also consider its power consumption.
Switching to a base station with a stronger signal or closer proximity might
reduce power usage, which could trigger a handoff.

Example Problem: Mobile Assigned Handoff Decision

Scenario:
A mobile device is currently connected to Base Station A, which has a signal strength of -85
dBm. The mobile device measures neighboring Base Station B and finds a signal strength of -
80 dBm. The handoff threshold is set at -82 dBm, and the hysteresis margin is 2 dB.

Question:
Should the mobile device initiate the handoff to Base Station B?

Solution:

1. Signal Strength Comparison:

o The signal strength from Base Station A is -85 dBm, which is below the threshold
of -82 dBm.

o The signal strength from Base Station B is -80 dBm, which is better than the
current connection from Base Station A.

2. Hysteresis Margin:

o The hysteresis margin is 2 dB. So, the mobile device will initiate the handoff if
the signal strength from Base Station B is at least 2 dB greater than the signal
from Base Station A.

o Base Station B has a signal strength of -80 dBm, which is 5 dB stronger than
Base Station A’s signal of -85 dBm.

o The handoff condition is satisfied because the signal from Base Station B exceeds
the current signal from Base Station A by more than the hysteresis margin.

3. Conclusion:
 o The mobile device should initiate the handoff to Base Station B.

Advantages of Mobile Assigned Handoff

1. Reduced Network Load:

o By allowing the mobile device to decide when to initiate a handoff, the network
can reduce unnecessary signaling and resource consumption, as it avoids
handing off devices that do not need to move to a new base station.

2. Improved Handoff Efficiency:

o The mobile device can make quicker decisions based on real-time signal quality,
allowing it to proactively manage transitions and avoid dropped calls or
connection issues.

3. Better Utilization of Network Resources:

o The mobile device's ability to monitor neighboring base stations allows it to

select the optimal base station with the best available signal, improving overall
network load balancing and resource allocation.

4. User Experience:

o Because the mobile device takes control of the handoff process, the mobile user
may experience fewer dropped calls or service interruptions, especially in fast-
moving environments like vehicles.

Conclusion

Mobile Assigned Handoff is a mechanism in which the mobile device takes responsibility for
initiating the handoff process, based on signal strength, interference, mobility, or other
conditions. The device continuously monitors its environment and decides when to initiate a
handoff to ensure a seamless user experience. This approach contrasts with network-
controlled handoff, where the base station or network decides when to perform the handoff.
By giving the mobile device the control, the handoff process can be more responsive, efficient,
and adaptable to varying network conditions.

Inter-System Handoff

Intersystem handoff refers to the process of transferring a mobile device’s connection from
one system or network to another, which can involve different generations of technology or
distinct network types (e.g., from a 4G network to a 5G network, or from a Wi-Fi network to a
cellular network). This handoff is typically required when a mobile user moves across different
network boundaries, such as switching between different radio access technologies (RATs) or
across different network operators.

Unlike intrasystem handoff (where the handoff occurs within the same network or system,
such as between two cells in the same 4G LTE network), intersystem handoff crosses the
boundaries between two different systems or technologies.
Types of Intersystem Handoff

1. Handoff between Different Generations of Cellular Networks:

o This type of intersystem handoff involves a device switching from one generation
of mobile technology to another (e.g., from 3G to 4G, or from 4G to 5G).

o Example: A user with a 4G LTE-enabled device may be in an area where only 3G

service is available. As the device moves out of 4G coverage, it initiates a
handoff to a 3G network.

2. Handoff between Different Network Operators:

o In some cases, the mobile device may need to hand off between two networks
operated by different providers. This can occur in areas where operators have
roaming agreements or if a mobile user crosses geographical boundaries where
one operator’s network is available, but another takes over.

o Example: A user might be on an international roaming agreement and is handed

off from one operator's network (e.g., in the home country) to another operator's
network (e.g., in a foreign country).

3. Handoff between Cellular and Non-Cellular Networks (e.g., Wi-Fi and Cellular):

o Intersystem handoff can also occur between cellular and non-cellular

technologies. This type of handoff occurs when the device moves between a Wi-
Fi network and a cellular network.

o Example: A mobile device switches from a Wi-Fi network to a 4G LTE cellular

network when the user moves out of Wi-Fi coverage.

4. Handoff between Different Access Technologies:

o Intersystem handoff is crucial when a device moves between networks using

different access technologies (e.g., from LTE to Wi-Fi, or from 5G to Wi-Fi). This
handoff type may be triggered by network congestion, signal strength, or user
mobility.

o Example: A user on a 5G network might transition to a Wi-Fi network when

entering a building with strong Wi-Fi coverage.

Mechanisms and Process of Intersystem Handoff

1. Measurement Reporting:

o The mobile device continuously measures the signal strength of its current
connection as well as that of neighboring systems. This information is sent back
to the serving base station or core network to help decide if a handoff is needed.

o Example: The mobile device connected to a 4G LTE network might send

measurement reports about nearby 5G cells.

2. Handoff Trigger:
 o A handoff trigger occurs when the mobile device or the network detects that the
device is entering the coverage area of another system or network that may
offer better connectivity or is required for service continuation.

o Triggers for intersystem handoff may include:

 Signal strength thresholds.

 Signal quality degradation.

 Network congestion in the current system.

 User mobility into a different coverage zone.

3. Handoff Decision:

o The decision to perform an intersystem handoff can be made by the network or

the mobile device, depending on the system design.

o In the case of network-controlled intersystem handoff, the network selects

the target system and initiates the handoff process. For mobile-controlled
intersystem handoff, the mobile device decides when it needs to transition to
another network.

4. Execution of Handoff:

o Preparation: The mobile device establishes a connection with the target

network (e.g., the new 5G base station or a Wi-Fi router).

o Handoff Execution: The mobile device switches its connection from the old
network to the new one. This can be done in one of two ways:

 Seamless Handoff: The handoff happens without noticeable disruption to

the user experience (e.g., no dropped calls or interruptions in data).

 Non-Seamless Handoff: The device experiences some disruption, such

as brief call drops or data interruptions.

5. Finalization:

o Once the device connects to the new system, the previous network releases the
connection, and the device starts using resources from the new network.

Challenges in Intersystem Handoff

1. Heterogeneous Network Integration:

o Different networks (e.g., 4G, 5G, Wi-Fi) have different technologies, protocols,
and standards, making seamless intersystem handoff more complex.

o The handoff process must ensure compatibility between different networks,

which often require custom solutions or standardization.
 2. Signal Quality and Handoff Decision:

o Intersystem handoff requires continuous monitoring of signal strength and

quality from both the current and neighboring systems. The handoff decision
must be based on a careful evaluation of network conditions to avoid
unnecessary or premature handoffs.

3. Handoff Delay:

o One of the major challenges is to minimize the delay during handoff. A long
handoff time can disrupt services such as voice calls or real-time data
applications.

o Example: In intersystem handoff between 4G LTE and Wi-Fi, the mobile device
might experience delays as it switches between different access points.

4. Seamless Handoff:

o Maintaining a seamless handoff, especially between networks with very different

technologies (e.g., from cellular to Wi-Fi), is difficult because of different network
protocols, latency, and packet loss.

5. Mobility Management:

o Managing the mobility of the user between networks, especially across different
geographical areas or network boundaries, is a challenge. The device must
always be aware of the best network to connect to based on real-time conditions.

Formula and Example Problem

In intersystem handoff, the decision to switch from one system to another often depends on
signal strength and network load.

Formula for Handoff Decision:

For intersystem handoff, the mobile device compares the signal strength of the current
network (Scurrent) and the target network (Starget.

Example Problem:

Scenario:
A mobile device is connected to a 4G LTE network with a signal strength of -85 dBm. The
device detects a neighboring Wi-Fi network with a signal strength of -80 dBm. The handoff
threshold is set to 3 dB.
Question:
Should the mobile device initiate an intersystem handoff to the Wi-Fi network?

Solution:

 Scurrent=−85 dBm

 Starget=−80 dBm

 Threshold = 3 dB

Now, check the condition:

Since the condition is true, the mobile device will initiate the handoff to the Wi-Fi network.

Advantages of Intersystem Handoff

1. Improved Coverage:

o Intersystem handoff allows seamless transition between different systems (e.g.,

4G to 5G or cellular to Wi-Fi), ensuring better coverage in areas where one
network type might have limited coverage.

2. Better Resource Utilization:

o It enables devices to connect to the most optimal network based on availability,

signal strength, and user needs, ensuring more efficient use of available
resources.

3. Continuity of Service:

o Intersystem handoff ensures continuity of service even when users move

between different network areas, such as switching from a 4G cellular network to
Wi-Fi, maintaining uninterrupted voice calls or internet connections.

4. Network Offloading:

o Wi-Fi offloading in cellular networks is one of the key benefits of intersystem

handoff, allowing mobile devices to offload data traffic to Wi-Fi networks when in
range, reducing network congestion.

Conclusion

Intersystem handoff is a crucial process in modern cellular and mobile networks, enabling
users to transition seamlessly between different networks, whether they are different cellular
technologies (e.g., 4G to 5G), operators, or between cellular and non-cellular networks (e.g.,
Wi-Fi). This handoff process is essential for maintaining continuous service, reducing
congestion, and optimizing network resources, but it comes with its own set of challenges
related to network compatibility, handoff delays, and decision-making processes.

Dropped Call Rates

Dropped call rate (DCR) is a critical metric in mobile communication networks that refers to
the percentage of calls that are unexpectedly terminated or dropped before the caller hangs
up or the call is completed. This issue is significant in mobile networks because it directly
affects user experience, network quality, and customer satisfaction.

A dropped call occurs when a call is abruptly disconnected for reasons unrelated to the
caller's action, usually due to issues in the network or the mobile device. Dropped calls may
happen during an ongoing voice call or even during call setup before the connection is fully
established.

Factors Influencing Dropped Call Rates

Several factors contribute to dropped calls, which can be broadly categorized into network-
related issues, environmental conditions, and mobile device factors:

1. Network-Related Issues:

o Signal Strength: If the mobile device moves out of the coverage area of the
serving cell or experiences weak signal strength, the call may drop.

 Example: Moving from one cell tower’s coverage area to another without
a proper handoff could cause the call to drop.

o Handover Failures: During a handover (whether between cells or networks),

the call can be dropped if the transition is not smooth or the target cell is not
able to handle the connection properly.

o Congestion: When the network is congested with too many users or high traffic,
the call may be dropped due to resource unavailability (e.g., insufficient network
bandwidth).

o Interference: High levels of interference can disrupt the call quality, leading to
dropouts, especially in heavily populated or urban areas.

o Radio Frequency (RF) Issues: Poor propagation conditions or a lack of RF

coverage can result in dropped calls.

o Hardware Failures: Failures in base stations, switches, or other infrastructure

components can lead to dropped calls.

2. Environmental Factors:

o Mobility: Moving at high speeds (e.g., in a vehicle or train) can cause the mobile
device to hand off between multiple cells or networks, which, if not handled
properly, may result in dropped calls.

o Physical Obstructions: Buildings, tunnels, or geographic features like

mountains can block signals, resulting in weak connections or dropped calls.

3. Device-Related Issues:
 o Low Battery: If the mobile device has insufficient power, it may fail to maintain
a connection, causing the call to drop.

o Device Faults: Hardware or software issues with the mobile phone can lead to
unexpected terminations of calls.

4. Weather Conditions:

o Severe weather, such as heavy rain or snow, can impact signal propagation and
quality, potentially increasing the rate of dropped calls.

5. Network Configuration and Management:

o Poor network planning, outdated infrastructure, or lack of proper load balancing

across cells can result in higher dropped call rates.

Formula for Dropped Call Rate (DCR)

The dropped call rate is typically expressed as a percentage of the total number of calls
that are dropped out of the total number of attempted calls.

The formula for calculating dropped call rate is:

Where:

 Number of Dropped Calls refers to the calls that were unexpectedly terminated
before completion.

 Total Number of Calls Attempted refers to the total number of calls made during a
specific period.

Example Calculation

Scenario:
In a network, over a 24-hour period:

 1,000,000 calls were attempted.

 5,000 calls were dropped unexpectedly.

Question:
What is the dropped call rate?

Solution:

So, the dropped call rate is 0.5%.

Acceptable Dropped Call Rate

  Target Rate: Mobile network operators generally aim for a dropped call rate of less
than 1% to ensure high-quality service. A higher rate, such as 3-5%, might indicate
network congestion or performance issues.

 Industry Standard: In cellular systems, the acceptable rate may vary based on the
type of service (e.g., voice calls, data calls, VoLTE). Generally, a rate above 2-3% is
considered problematic, while a rate below 1% is ideal for maintaining optimal
network performance.

Implications of High Dropped Call Rates

1. Customer Experience:

o High dropped call rates directly impact the customer experience, leading to
dissatisfaction, poor service quality, and potential churn (customers leaving the
network provider).

2. Network Reliability:

o Frequent dropped calls can be a sign of network instability, poor handoff

processes, or coverage issues, requiring corrective actions such as improved
infrastructure, better network design, or increased capacity.

3. Revenue Loss:

o In the context of mobile services, dropped calls can lead to a loss in revenue,
especially if the calls are business-critical (e.g., customer service calls,
emergency services). Inaccurate billing (charging for a call that was not
completed) may also be a concern.

4. Network Performance Optimization:

o Dropped call rate is a key performance indicator (KPI) for network optimization.
Operators monitor DCR to identify issues such as capacity limits, coverage holes,
interference, or equipment failures, which can then be addressed to improve
overall service quality.

Reducing Dropped Call Rates

1. Improve Network Coverage:

o Expand cell tower coverage and implement small cells in areas with poor
reception to improve signal strength.

o Utilize heterogeneous networks (HetNets), combining different network

technologies (e.g., 4G, 5G, Wi-Fi) to enhance coverage and reduce dropped calls.

2. Optimize Handover Mechanisms:

o Enhance the handover process to ensure smooth transitions between cells or

networks, preventing calls from dropping during movement.

o Implement more robust inter-system handoff (e.g., between 4G and 5G) or

vertical handoff (between cellular and Wi-Fi) to ensure calls do not drop when
transitioning between different network types.
 3. Load Balancing:

o Improve the load balancing among base stations to prevent congestion in high-
traffic areas, which can reduce dropped call rates during peak usage times.

4. Network Upgrades:

o Upgrade network infrastructure to more advanced technologies (e.g., moving

from 3G to 4G or 5G) to increase capacity and reduce dropped calls due to
congestion or outdated equipment.

5. Optimizing RF Environment:

o Use advanced signal processing techniques and reduce interference in areas

with high electromagnetic interference to maintain a more stable connection.

6. Improved Backhaul Connectivity:

o Ensuring high-capacity backhaul networks (connecting base stations to the

core network) can prevent network bottlenecks that might contribute to call
drops.

7. Quality of Service (QoS) Mechanisms:

o Implement QoS protocols to prioritize voice and emergency calls over data,
ensuring that voice connections are maintained even during times of network
congestion.

8. Mobile Device Optimization:

o Encourage users to maintain updated software on their mobile devices, which

can help avoid software bugs or issues that might lead to dropped calls.

Conclusion

Dropped call rate (DCR) is an essential metric in mobile communications, reflecting the quality
and reliability of the network. By monitoring and addressing factors such as network
congestion, signal strength, handover failures, and interference, network operators can
reduce dropped calls and improve customer satisfaction. Ensuring that the dropped call rate
remains low is crucial for both network performance and customer retention, as high DCR can
lead to frustration, negative customer experiences, and revenue loss.