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 Contents vii

Chapter 6 The Human Dimension of Organization 157

Reconceptualizing the Nature of Organizations to Focus on
People 157
A New Paradigm of Organizational Theory 159
A Focus on People: The Rise of Qualitative Research
Methods 160
Educational Organizations as Loosely Coupled Systems 161
Educational Organizations as Dual Systems 162
Building Human Capital 165
Human Resources as Assets 167
The Dark Side of Leadership 167
Human Resources Development 170
Developing Human Capital Through Positive Organizational
Culture 171
Five Basic Assumptions of Effective Schools 172
Voices From the Field: Curriculum and Professional
Development 175
Professional Development 176
Final Thoughts 177
Reflective Activities 179
Critical Incident: Turning Madison High Around 180
Suggested Reading 181
References 182

Chapter 7 Organizational Culture and Organizational Climate 184

Defining and Describing Organizational Culture and
Climate 184
The Importance of Organizational Culture 188
Organizational Culture and Organizational Climate Compared and
Contrasted 189
Organizational Culture 190
Levels of Culture 192
How Organizational Culture Is Created 193
How Organizational Climate Is Created 195
Describing and Assessing Organizational Culture in
Schools 199
Relationship Between Organizational Culture and Organizational
Effectiveness 200
Voices From the Field: Changing the Culture, Making the Grade:
Going From an F to Almost a B 203
viii Contents

Four Management Systems 205

Final Thoughts 207
Reflective Activities 208
Critical Incident: Two Schools—Two Different Cultures 209
Suggested Reading 210
References 211

Chapter 8 Organizational Change 213

Historical Context for Change 213
Historical Impact on Today’s Change Efforts 215
School Reform and Change 217
Power Relationships and School Restructuring 217
Aims of Educational Reform 219
The Tradition of Change in American Education 219
Natural Diffusion Processes 219
Planned, Managed Diffusion 221
Three Strategies of Planned Change 221
Empirical-Rational Strategies of Change 221
Power-Coercive Strategies of Change 225
Normative-Reeducative or Organizational Self-Renewal
Strategies 227
Voices From the Field: Changing the Mission and Culture to
Become a School of Choice 231
The Effectiveness of Organizational Development 240
Two Emerging Questions 241
Can the Schools Do It Alone? 242
Is School Reform Enough? 243
Final Thoughts 244
Reflective Activities 245
Critical Incident: The Man for the Job! 245
Suggested Reading 246
References 247

Chapter 9 Leadership 250

Adaptive Leadership 250
Leadership and Management 251
Power and Leadership 253
Leadership Different From Command 253
Power Defined 254
Two-Factor Leadership Theory Abandoned 256
 Contents ix

Leadership as a Relationship with Followers 257

Your Understanding of Human Nature Is Critical 259
Transformational Leadership 260
Transformational Leadership Compared and Contrasted with
Transactional Leadership 260
Moral Leadership 260
A Progression 261
A Process of Growth and Development Through Instructional
Leadership 261
Implementing Transformational and Moral Leadership 262
Distributed Leadership 262
Professional Learning Communities 263
Parent Involvement 264
Voices From the Field: Utilizing Effective School Research Through
Professional Learning Communities 266
Sustainable Leadership 268
Research on Sustainable Leader Behavior 271
Final Thoughts 273
Reflective Activities 275
Critical Incident: Leadership at North River Middle School 276
Suggested Reading 276
References 278

Chapter 10 Decision Making 280

Individual Versus Organizational Decision Making 282
Rationality in Decision Making 283
Rational Decision-Making Models 284
Limits on Rationality in Decision Making 286
The Gap Between Theory and Practice 286
Vroom and Yetton’s Five Leadership Styles 287
Seven Situation Issues 287
Decision-Process Flowchart 288
The Nature of Managerial and Administrative Work 290
How Administrators Think 291
The Influence of Organizational Culture on Decision Making 294
Closing the Gap Between Theory and Practice 295
Theory of Practice 295
Human Resources Development—A Theory of Decision
Making 296
x Contents

Participative Decision Making 297

Participative Decision Making and Empowerment 298
Participative or Democratic? 298
An Explicit Decision-Making Process 300
Who Identifies the Problem? 301
Emergent and Discrete Problems 301
Who Should Participate? 303
Desire of Individuals to Participate 303
Participation Requires High Level of Skills 304
Voices From the Field: Collaborative Decision Making 305
Paradigms for Collaborative Decision Making 306
School-Based Decision Making and the Total Teamwork System 308
Data-Based Decision Making and Total Quality Management 311
Final Thoughts 314
Reflective Activities 315
Critical Incident: Deciding How to Decide 316
Suggested Reading 316
References 317

Chapter 11 Conflict and Communications in Organizations 319

The Nature of Conflict in Organizations 319
Conflict Different From Attacks 320
Contemporary Views of Conflict 321
Effects of Organizational Conflict 321
The Criterion: Organizational Performance 322
The Dynamics of Organizational Conflict 324
Hostility 324
A Contingency View 325
A Process View of Conflict 325
A Structural View of Conflict 326
An Open-Systems View of Conflict 327
Approaches to Organizational Conflict 328
The Win-Lose Orientation to Conflict 329
A Contingency Approach to Conflict 330
Diagnosing Conflict 330
Dealing with Conflict 331
Dealing with Difficult Individuals 333
Dealing with Stress From Conflict 334
Final Thoughts 335
 Contents xi

Reflective Activities 336

Critical Incident: Conflict in the First-Grade Team 338
Suggested Reading 339
References 340

Chapter 12 School Reform 341

Market-Based School Reform 343
Origin of Market-Based Reforms 344
Economic Theory and School Reform 347
School Reform as Investment Opportunity 349
Current Status of Charter Schools 352
Vouchers 359
Successes of Market-Based Reforms 360
Privatization and Virtual Education in Higher Education 363
Standards-Based School Reform 364
Common Core State Standards 367
Assessing the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 371
The Condition of Education 372
The Achievement Gap 373
PISA and TIMSS 375
Summary Findings of EPI Study 375
Whole-School Reform 376
Increasing School Autonomy 376
Support for School Leaders 378
Research Support for CSR Models 378
Response to Intervention (RTI) 382
Voices From the Field: RTI Interventions in a Small Rural High
School 383
Teacher Education and School Reform 384
Accreditation of Teacher Education Programs 385
Federal Focus on Colleges of Education 386
A Broader, Bolder Approach to Education 386
Final Thoughts 387
Reflective Activities 388
Critical Incident: District Test Scores Decline Once Again 389
Suggested Reading 389
References 390
Glossary 396
Name Index 399
Subject Index 403
 PREFACE

NEW TO THIS EDITION

Four major goals of this new edition are the following:
1. We provide the reader with additional practical applications by adding “Voices From the
Field” in appropriate chapters.
2. We update the treatment of the subject of organizational behavior in schools so that it
includes new research and current trends.
3. We incorporate a better connection between organizational behavior, critical theory, and
critical race theory.
4. We integrate theory and practice throughout the text by discussion and expansion on ini-
tial concepts in succeeding chapters to provide additional depth of analysis and synthesis.
The following are the specific major changes to this 11th edition of Organizational Behavior
in Education:
• We have added “Voices From the Field” in appropriate chapters. We solicited examples
from practicing administrators to show how concepts are being applied in the schools
today. These “Voices” provide the reader with a connection between theory and practice as
well as help the reader critically apply “book knowledge” to organizational behavior.
• Although we briefly defined critical theory in the 10th edition in the chapter on leadership,
we have expanded the concept. We believe critical theory and critical race theory in educa-
tion have been elevated to major theories since their initial introduction in the mid-1990s.
We also believe it is important to focus on eliminating racism in schools and schooling
through a focus on CRT at all levels in the organization.
• The Critical Incidents introduced in the previous edition are being updated and moved
to the end of each chapter. Our reviewers felt that readers were not prepared to critically
analyze the Critical Incident until after they read the chapter, and we agree with our re-
viewers. After reading each chapter, a Critical Incident presents the reader with practical
issues based on the chapter content. The Critical Incident requires the reader to respond
to decision-making questions based on the facts presented and the reader’s own theory of
practice. This approach is important to the reader because (a) it develops understanding
of the practical application of the knowledge of organizational behavior to the practice of
leadership, and (b) it helps the reader to develop and internalize a personal commitment to
a practical and effective theory of practice.
• New charts and figures to support new and previously presented material have been added
in several chapters. This material helps the visual learner by presenting research findings in
easy-to-view displays. Several charts and figures were also removed as we and our review-
ers did not believe these were helpful.
• The book has been updated to make it more current in today’s fast-paced era of No Child
Left Behind (NCLB), Race to the Top (RTTT), accountability, and high-stakes testing.
New updated research and recent developments in the field have been added in most of
the book’s 12 chapters to replace older material. For example, we introduce the Common
Core State Standards along with a discussion of the two new assessment consortia: Smarter
Balanced Assessment Consortium and Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College
xii
 Preface xiii

and Careers (PARCC). In addition, we maintained the classical research and theories that
have been the foundation of progress in educational leadership.
• Our reviewers provided us with many excellent ideas for additions and changes to this
edition. Here are a few of the major changes in addition to some of those listed above:
• We moved the chapter on motivation from the end of the book to its new location as
Chapter 5. We made this change because the theory and practice of motivation underlies
the implementation of good leadership.
• We added back to this edition in Chapter 3 a discussion of Mary Parker Follett’s contri-
bution to management theory.
• We have added to Chapter 8 some of the many contributions Michael Fullan has provided
on organizational change.
• The Marzano, Waters, and McNulty research on leadership has been included in the
discussion on leadership in Chapter 9.
• We added a discussion on data-based decision making to Chapter 10.
• Also, new to Chapter 10 is the presentation of Total Quality Management concepts to
assist in organizational decision making.
• The name and content of the chapter related to conflict in organizations (Chapter 11)
has been changed to reflect a better focus on the topic of communications: Conflict
and Communications in Organizations. In addition, we added a discussion on how
principals should deal with difficult teachers, using ideas from Todd Whitaker’s
work.
• Many of the Reflective Activities at the end of each chapter have been revised and updated.
These activities further challenge each student to develop and internalize personal com-
mitment to a defensible theory of practice in educational leadership. By studying this book
and completing the activities, the learner will develop a thoughtful and well-grounded
approach to the practice of leadership in any school setting.
The 11th edition also offers updated support to instructors via two supplements, a Test
Bank and PowerPoint® presentations. Both of these supplements can be downloaded at www
.pearsonhighered.com/educators. The supplements can be located within the Instructor’s
Resource Center, which you can access after a one-time registration.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to those individuals who assisted us with information and reviews of the
11th edition: Heather Duncan, University of Wyoming; Maria Hinojosa, Texas A&M University–
Commerce; Ricardo D. Rosa, University of Massachusetts–Dartmouth; and Rosemarye Taylor,
University of Central Florida. This group of reviewers was particularly thorough and provided
excellent guidance for revising this edition and future editions.
In addition, we want to acknowledge the following practicing administrators who add great
meaning to many of the chapters through their “Voices From the Field,” connecting the research,
theory, and concepts in this book to the “real world” of schooling:

• Peggy Aune, Principal, Manatee Middle School, Naples, Florida

• Scot Croner, K-12 Instructional Coordinator, Marion Community Schools, Marion,
Indiana
• James Gasparino, Principal, Pelican Marsh Elementary School, Naples, Florida
xiv Preface

• Kevin Gordon, former Principal, Gibbs High School, St. Petersburg, Florida; currently
Provost St. Petersburg College, St. Petersburg, Florida
• Kendall Hendricks, Director of Finance, Brownsburg Community Schools Corporation,
Brownsburg, Indiana
• Rocky Killion, Superintendent, West Lafayette Community School Corporation, West
Lafayette, Indiana
• Brain Mangan, former Principal, Mariner High School, Cape Coral, Florida; currently
Principal East Lee County High School
• Jorge Nelson, former Head of School in Vienna, Austria; currently administrator for
Myanmar International School, Burma
• LaSonya Moore, Assistant Principal, Pinellas County Schools, Florida
• Steve Ritter, Principal, Lakeland High School, Deepwater, Missouri

Finally, and most importantly, we wish to thank Christopher Parfitt, a doctoral graduate student
and graduate assistant at Florida Gulf Coast University, for his research assistance, his help in
assuring our references were accurate, his help in editing and proofreading, and for his assistance
in revising the PowerPoint® slides.
R.G.O.
T.C.V.
 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP POLICY
STANDARDS FOR 2008
(Formerly Known as the ISLLC Standards)

The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) Standards have been at the center
of Educational Leadership program reform for over a decade. In 2008, with support from the
Wallace Foundation, the standards were revised and are now called the Educational Leadership
Policy Standards. Originally, each of the six ISLLC standards included a list of knowledge,
skills, and dispositions (KSDs), totaling nearly 200 KSD indicators. About these indicators,
Joseph Murphy (2003), who was one of the primary authors of the ISLLC standards, wrote the
following:

[T]hese indicators are examples of important knowledge, practices, and beliefs, not a
full map. No effort was made to include everything or to deal with performances in
the myriad of leadership contexts. Leadership is a complex and context-dependent
activity. To attempt to envelope the concept with a definitive list of indicators is a
fool’s errand.

The authors of the ISLLC standards assumed that an entire university preparation pro-
gram, not any single course, should engender all knowledge, dispositions, and performances of
the ISLLC standards, but even then, programs were not to be evaluated based on these indicators
alone. In practice, however, the KSD indicators were used as standards themselves, which was
not the intent of the original ISLLC developers. In the revised standards document, the authors
state that “the very nature of listing examples of leadership indicators was unintentionally limit-
ing and negated other areas that could have been included in an exhaustive listing” (Council of
Chief State School Officers, 2008, p. 5). Therefore, the KSD indicators were abandoned in the
revised standards, and “functions” were added to define each standard and to assist administra-
tors in understanding the behaviors expected for each. The revised standards are purposely called
“policy standards” to help guide policy-level discussions related to educational leadership, rather
than direct practical applications.
The ISLLC standards provide the basis for evaluating university programs by the National
Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the National Policy Board for
Educational Administration (NPBEA). A brief history of the development of the ISLLC stand-
ards might help the reader understand the importance of these standards.
The NPBEA was formed in 1988 with membership from the following 10 national
associations:
• American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE)
• American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
• Association of School Business Officials (ASBO)
• Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)
• Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO)
• National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP)
• National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP)
• National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA)
xv
xvi Educational Leadership Policy Standards for 2008

• National School Boards Association (NSBA)

• University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA)
Later, ASBO dropped its membership in NPBEA and the National Council for Accreditation
of Teacher Education (NCATE) joined.
In 1994, the NPBEA formed the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)
to develop standards for our profession. ISLLC was funded by a grant from the Pew Charitable
Trusts, and the process of developing the standards was managed by the Council of Chief State
School Officers (CCSSO) under the direction of Joseph Murphy and Neil Shipman. The NPBEA
adopted the ISLLC standards in 1996. The NPBEA then formed a working group from among
its membership to form the Educational Leadership Constituent Council (ELCC), which worked
to develop a set of standards for evaluating programs in educational leadership to be used by
NPBEA and NCATE.
There was considerable controversy surrounding the original ISLLC standards, which in-
cluded the following issues: (1) the standards did not provide a supporting research base; (2) no
weighting was given to the standards in terms of which standards (and the knowledge, disposi-
tions, and performances) were more likely to lead to higher student achievement; and (3) the
standards did not include or emphasize the importance of some critical areas, such as technol-
ogy. The NPBEA acknowledged some of these criticisms and in the summer of 2005 formed
a working group to begin a revision of the ISLLC standards. A 10-member steering commit-
tee was formed from nine of the member organizations (all except the National School Boards
Association). The NPBEA agreed that the standards would be revised under important assump-
tions, including the following:

• Revamping the ISLLC and the ELCC standards would be done at the same time.
• The ISLLC Standards for School Leaders need to be updated, not rewritten from scratch.
• The context in which both sets of standards are being revised has changed dramatically in
the past decade.
• NPBEA will own the copyright to the revised two sets of standards.
The plan was to present the final revision of the standards to the NPBEA for approval
in the spring of 2008, a goal that was achieved early because the new Educational Leadership
Policy Standards were approved in December 2007 by the NPBEA. The first of the criticisms
listed above was resolved in this revision. A research base was developed and each of the new
functions is directly connected to supporting research publications (National Policy Board for
Educational Administration, 2009). The resulting document was titled Educational Leadership
Policy Standards: ISLLC 2008.
Although we recognize that the ISLLC standards are not comprehensive of all aspects
of school leadership and that there has been significant critical discourse in the profession
about the standards, we also recognize that, as of 2008, 43 states adopted or adapted the ISLLC
standards as the basis for state certification in educational leadership and as the basis for
evaluating and approving university preparation programs (Council of Chief State School
Officers, 2008). Those states not adopting or modifying the ISLLC standards as their own have
standards with marked similarities to the ISLLC standards (Sanders & Simpson, 2005). In
view of their importance, therefore, we want to identify for you the ISLLC standards and their
accompanying functions that are significant aspects of this book. The tables on pages xx–xxii
are matrices of each ISLLC standard and indicate the functions that are contained in each
chapter. By looking at each standard table, you can see which chapters in our book contain
 Educational Leadership Policy Standards for 2008 xvii

related content. It is clear that some standards are covered more thoroughly than others. For
example, you can see from the table that Standard 4 has less related content than Standards 3
and 5. By scanning across the rows for the functions, you can determine which chapter con-
tains related material. We hope that this information is of value to students and professors
alike, and we welcome any feedback that might guide us in making this information more
useful in future editions.
 ISLLC Functions by Chapter
STANDARD 1: An education leader promotes the success of every student by facilitating the
development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a vision of learning that is shared
and supported by all stakeholders.
Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Collaboratively develop and implement a shared • • •
vision and mission
B. Collect and use data to identify goals, assess • • • • • •
organizational effectiveness, and promote
organizational learning
C. Create and implement plans to achieve goals • • • • • •
D. Promote continuous and sustainable improvement • • • • • • •
E. Monitor and evaluate progress and revise plans • • • •

STANDARD 2: An education leader promotes the success of every student by advocating, nurturing,
and sustaining a school culture and instructional program conducive to student learning and staff
professional growth.
Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Nurture and sustain a culture of collaboration, trust, • • • • • • • • •
learning, and high expectations
B. Create a comprehensive, rigorous, and coherent • • • • • •
curricular program
C. Create a personalized and motivating learning • • • • • • • •
environment for students
D. Supervise instruction • • •
E. Develop assessment and accountability systems to • • • • • • • •
monitor student progress
F. Develop the instructional and leadership capacity • • • • • •
of staff
G. Maximize time spent on quality instruction • • • • •
H. Promote the use of the most effective and • • • • • • • • •
appropriate technologies to support teaching
and learning
I. Monitor and evaluate the impact of the instructional • • • • •
program

xviii
 ISLLC Functions by Chapter xix

STANDARD 3: An education leader promotes the success of every student by ensuring management
of the organization, operation, and resources for a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment.

Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Monitor and evaluate the management and • • • •
operational systems
B. Obtain, allocate, align, and efficiently utilize human, • • • •• •
fiscal, and technological resources
C. Promote and protect the welfare and safety of • •
students and staff
D. Develop the capacity for distributed leadership • • • • • • • • •
E. Ensure teacher and organizational time is focused to • • •
support quality instruction and student learning

STANDARD 4: An education leader promotes the success of every student by collaborating with
faculty and community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs, and
mobilizing community resources.
Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Collect and analyze data and information pertinent • • • • • •
to the educational environment
B. Promote understanding, appreciation, and use of the • • • • • •
community’s diverse cultural, social, and intellectual
resources
C. Build and sustain positive relationships with families • • • • • • • •
and caregivers
D. Build and sustain productive relationships with • • • • •
community partners
xx ISLLC Functions by Chapter

STANDARD 5: An education leader promotes the success of every student by acting with
integrity and fairness, and in an ethical manner.

Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Ensure a system of accountability for every student’s • • •
academic and social success
B. Model principles of self-awareness, reflective practice, • • • • • •
transparency, and ethical behavior
C. Safeguard the values of democracy, equity, and • •
diversity
D. Consider and evaluate the potential moral and legal • • • • •
consequences of decision making
E. Promote social justice and ensure that individual • • • • • •
student needs inform all aspects of schooling

STANDARD 6: An education leader promotes the success of every student by understanding,

responding to, and influencing the political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.

Chapters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Functions
A. Advocate for children, families, and caregivers • •
B. Act to influence local, district, state, and national • • • • • • •
decisions affecting student learning
C. Assess, analyze, and anticipate emerging trends and • • • • • •
initiatives in order to adapt leadership strategies
 NPBEA DISTRICT-LEVEL STANDARDS

New to national standards in 2011 were district level standards developed by the National
Policy Board for Educational Administration (NPBEA). The document is entitled Educational
Leadership Program Recognition Standards: District Level (National Policy Board for Educational
Administration, 2011). These standards, based on the ISLLC standards, were designed prima-
rily for university preparation programs to receive national accreditation by the Educational
Leadership Constituent Council (ELCC). The major difference with the ISLLC standards is the
addition of Standard 7 related to internship programs. Due to their importance to preparation
programs, we list these standards below. Matrices (or crosswalks) mapping these district-level
standards to the ISLLC standards and comprehensive research support for each standard are
provided in the NPBEA document listed above. In addition, Canole and Young (2013) provided
an in-depth analysis of the ISLLC and ELCC standards in their report published by the Council
of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). In their report, Canole and Young provided the history
of the standards; the research base for the standards; and crosswalks of the ELCC standards to
not only the ISLLC standards but also to other national standards, such as InTASC teacher stand-
ards, NASSP, and NAESP standards. They also report their analysis of the Wallace Foundation
Principal Pipeline Initiative in which six districts adapted the ELCC standards to develop strong
principal preparation and succession programs (Charlotte-Mecklenburg in North Carolina;
Denver, Colorado; Gwinnett County in Georgia; Hillsborough County in Florida (Tampa area);
New York City; and Prince George’s County in Maryland).
To receive national recognition by the Educational Leadership Constituent Council (ELCC),
university preparation programs are evaluated on the Educational Leadership Program Recognition
Standards: District Level (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2011).

ELCC STANDARD 1.0:

A district level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student by
facilitating the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a shared district
vision of learning through the collection and use of data to identify district goals, assess organi-
zational effectiveness, and implement district plans to achieve district goals; promotion of con-
tinual and sustainable district improvement; and evaluation of district progress and revision of
district plans supported by district stakeholders.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 1.1: Candidates understand and can collaboratively develop, articulate, implement,
and steward a shared district vision of learning for a school district.
ELCC 1.2: Candidates understand and can collect and use data to identify district goals,
assess organizational effectiveness, and implement district plans to achieve district goals.
ELCC 1.3: Candidates understand and can promote continual and sustainable district im-
provement.
ELCC 1.4: Candidates understand and can evaluate district progress and revise district
plans supported by district stakeholders.

xxi
xxii NPBEA District-Level Standards

ELCC STANDARD 2.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every
student by sustaining a district culture conducive to collaboration, trust, and a personal-
ized learning environment with high expectations for students; creating and evaluating
a comprehensive, rigorous, and coherent curricular and instructional district program;
developing and supervising the instructional and leadership capacity across the district;
and promoting the most effective and appropriate technologies to support teaching and
learning within the district.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 2.1: Candidates understand and can advocate, nurture, and sustain a district culture
and instructional program conducive to student learning through collaboration, trust, and
a personalized learning environment with high expectations for students.
ELCC 2.2: Candidates understand and can create and evaluate a comprehensive, rigorous,
and coherent curricular and instructional district program.
ELCC 2.3: Candidates understand and can develop and supervise the instructional and
leadership capacity across the district.
ELCC 2.4: Candidates understand and can promote the most effective and appropriate
district technologies to support teaching and learning within the district.

ELCC STANDARD 3.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student by
ensuring the management of the district’s organization, operation, and resources through moni-
toring and evaluating district management and operational systems; efficiently using human,
fiscal, and technological resources within the district; promoting district-level policies and proce-
dures that protect the welfare and safety of students and staff across the district; developing dis-
trict capacity for distributed leadership; and ensuring that district time focuses on high-quality
instruction and student learning.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 3.1: Candidates understand and can monitor and evaluate district management and
operational systems.
ELCC 3.2: Candidates understand and can efficiently use human, fiscal, and technological
resources within the district.
ELCC 3.3: Candidates understand and can promote district-level policies and procedures
that protect the welfare and safety of students and staff across the district.
ELCC 3.4: Candidates understand and can develop district capacity for distributed
leadership.
ELCC 3.5: Candidates understand and can ensure that district time focuses on supporting
high-quality school instruction and student learning.

ELCC STANDARD 4.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student by
collaborating with faculty and community members, responding to diverse community interests
 NPBEA District-Level Standards xxiii

and needs, and mobilizing community resources for the district by collecting and analyzing
information pertinent to improvement of the district’s educational environment; promoting
an understanding, appreciation, and use of the community’s diverse cultural, social, and intel-
lectual resources throughout the district; building and sustaining positive district relationships
with families and caregivers; and cultivating productive district relationships with community
partners.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 4.1: Candidates understand and can collaborate with faculty and community mem-
bers by collecting and analyzing information pertinent to the improvement of the district’s
educational environment.
ELCC 4.2: Candidates understand and can mobilize community resources by promoting
understanding, appreciation, and use of the community’s diverse cultural, social, and in-
tellectual resources throughout the district.
ELCC 4.3: Candidates understand and can respond to community interests and needs by
building and sustaining positive district relationships with families and caregivers.
ELCC 4.4: Candidates understand and can respond to community interests and needs by
building and sustaining productive district relationships with community partners.

ELCC STANDARD 5.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student
by acting with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner to ensure a district system of ac-
countability for every student’s academic and social success by modeling district principles of
self-awareness, reflective practice, transparency, and ethical behavior as related to their roles
within the district; safeguarding the values of democracy, equity, and diversity within the dis-
trict; evaluating the potential moral and legal consequences of decision-making in the district;
and promoting social justice within the district to ensure individual student needs inform all
aspects of schooling.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 5.1: Candidates understand and can act with integrity and fairness to ensure a dis-
trict system of accountability for every student’s academic and social success.
ELCC 5.2: Candidates understand and can model principles of self-awareness, reflective
practice, transparency, and ethical behavior as related to their roles within the district.
ELCC 5.3: Candidates understand and can safeguard the values of democracy, equity, and
diversity within the district.
ELCC 5.4: Candidates understand and can evaluate the potential moral and legal conse-
quences of decision making in the district.
ELCC 5.5: Candidates understand and can promote social justice within the district to en-
sure individual student needs inform all aspects of schooling.

ELCC STANDARD 6.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student by un-
derstanding, responding to, and influencing the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural
context within the district through advocating for district students, families, and caregivers; acting to
xxiv NPBEA District-Level Standards

influence local, district, state, and national decisions affecting student learning; and anticipating and
assessing emerging trends and initiatives in order to adapt district-level leadership strategies.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 6.1: Candidates understand and can advocate for district students, families, and
caregivers.
ELCC 6.2: Candidates understand and can act to influence local, district, state, and national
decisions affecting student learning in a district environment.
ELCC 6.3: Candidates understand and can anticipate and assess emerging trends and
initiatives in order to adapt district-level leadership strategies.

ELCC STANDARD 7.0:

A district-level education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student in
a substantial and sustained educational leadership internship experience that has district-based
field experiences and clinical practice within a district setting and is monitored by a qualified,
on-site mentor.
ELCC Standard Elements:
ELCC 7.1: Substantial Experience: The program provides significant field experiences
and clinical internship practice for candidates within a district environment to synthesize
and apply the content knowledge and develop professional skills identified in the other
Educational Leadership District-Level Program Standards through authentic, district-
based leadership experiences.
ELCC 7.2: Sustained Experience: Candidates are provided a six-month concentrated (9–12
hours per week) internship that includes field experiences within a district environment.
ELCC 7.3: Qualified On-site Mentor: An on-site district mentor who has demonstrated
successful experience as an educational leader at the district level and is selected collabora-
tively by the intern and program faculty with training by the supervising institution.

REFERENCES
Canole, M., & Young, M. (2013). Standards for educational leaders: An analysis. Washington, DC: CCSSO.
Council of Chief State School Officers. (2008, June). Educational leadership policy standards: ISLLC 2008. As
Adopted by the National Policy Board for Educational Administration, Washington, DC: Council of Chief
State School Officers. Retrieved from http://www.ccsso.org/Documents/2008/Educational_Leadership_
Policy_Standards_2008.pdf
Murphy, J. (2003, September). Reculturing educational leadership: The ISLLC standards ten years out. Paper
prepared for the National Policy Board for Educational Administration. Retrieved from www.npbea.
org/Resources/catalog.html
National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2011). Educational leadership program recognition
standards: District level. Alexandria, VA: NPBEA.
National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2009, June). Major projects. Retrieved from http://
www.npbea.org/projects.php
Sanders, N. M., & Simpson, J. (2005). State policy framework to develop highly qualified administrators.
Washington, DC: CCSSO.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The girl beseeches him to leave her.

"'I love you'" (she goes on):

"'Why should I hide the truth from you?
But I am given to another,
And true to him I shall remain.'"

Pushkin's own opinion of the work is shown in the dedication:

"Accept these motley chapters' run,

Pages half mirth, half sadness blending,
Idealistic, unpretending:
The casual fruit of leisure, fun,
Insomnia, light inspirations
In youthful and unripened years
My mind's dispassioned observations,
My heart's grave notes on human cares."

In form the novel is like Childe Harold. But the descriptions, the
irony, and humour are truly Russian.
As an example of all three in one these may suffice:
"For forty years he nagged with his housekeeper, looked out of the
window and squashed flies."
"Once upon a time the head of a secret team of gamblers, now he
was a kind and simple father of a bachelor's numerous brood, living
the life of a true philosopher: planting cabbages, breeding ducks and
geese and teaching his youngsters the A B C."
All the characters use genuine everyday speech, and yet the realistic
subjects are magically turned into poetry. "One can be a serious man
and yet think of the beauty of one's nails."
An example of his descriptive power may be found in this stanza on
Moscow:

"O'er the snow-humps the sleigh is dashing,

Alongside in the streets are flashing
Shops, convents, palaces, mean shacks,
Peasantry, country-wives, cozàcks,
Gardens of kitchen-stuff and flowers,
Street-boys, lamps, chemists, fashion-stores,
Churches, stone lions at house doors,
Sentries, sleighs, balconies, old towers,
Merchants, Tartars that sell old clo'
And on the crosses many a crow."
As you can see even from these few extracts, the realism in Onyégin
is the realism of Jane Austen—meticulous, correct, amazingly
sketched in.
He imitated the Koran, blending sensuality with religious enthusiasm
and even the element of nonsense in a way that is inimitably
reminiscent of the Eastern Law.
Equally brilliant are his Imitations of Dante ... the Divine Comedy
lives again for us in Pushkin's rendering: again, in The Journeying of
Cæsar, we seem to be reading the Latin classics themselves. But his
prose-work as a whole is perhaps below his poetry, though Baring
does not think so. Unfortunately in England it is on these very prose
works that we have for the most part to rely, because so few of his
poems are translated.
He was not born with a passion to reform the world: he was neither
Liberal nor Conservative: he was a democrat in his love for the
Russian people, a patriot in his love of his country.
There seem to have been in him, however, two distinct spirits, as in
so many other Russians—the inspired priest of Apollo and the most
frivolous of all the frivolous children of the world. The former
characteristic predominated, but the people, his readers, preferred
his latter mood; they like the dazzling colours, the sensuousness of
his early poems—they could not appreciate the nobler, simpler and
more majestic harmonies of Borìs Godunòv and Onyégin.
It is this two-sidedness that makes for his all-embracing humanity—
Dostoievsky called him πανανδρωπος—this capacity for
understanding everybody which makes him so profoundly Russian.
He set free the Russian language from the bondage of the
conventional and, like Peter the Great, spent his whole life in
apprenticeship and all his energies in craftsmanship. He is
completely the artist and never the fighter, which explains the
coldness of much of his work.
He was no innovator of forms in his verse: he was content to follow
the accepted types; nor did he ever fly too high ... he does not try to
unlock the gates of the Unknown: the old iambic introduced by
Lomonòsov was good enough for him. Only in Borìs Godunòv does
he break out into an imitation of Shakespearean form: the play is
rather like Henry VIII. in its plan: it is a succession of isolated
scenes, not a coherent drama; there is no definite beginning or end.
On the other hand his scenes, taken by themselves, tragic or comic,
are as vivid as any in Shakespeare; the characters all live and are
convincing.
As a chronicle it is completely successful. There are scenes so
inspired as to be really in spirit Shakespearean, an absence of all
conscious effort and visible artifice which only the greatest artists
can attain to.
As there are no innovations, so are there no mannerisms: metaphors
and similes are few and apt. Of Peter the Great we read:

" ... His eyes

Are shining: features awe-inspiring:
His movements swift: handsome, untiring,
He is like Heaven's thunderstorm."

Wholesome, breezy, clear-cut, genuine, free and honest—those are

the adjectives to apply to his art. Unfortunately it is impossible to
convey in English the ring and beauty of his original work.
While he was at home the Decembrists' revolt took place, 14th
December 1824. He was absent from all his old friends and was
naturally concerned about them. He petitioned the Government,
signing a pledge never to join any secret society, to give him his
liberty. One morning a field-yeger appeared, gave him time to put on
his greatcoat and take his money, enter the sledge and dash to
Petrograd. After travelling two hundred miles he was brought before
the young Emperor and the following conversation took place:—
"Pushkin, I hope thou art pleased with thy return. Wouldst thou take
part in the 14th December if thou wert here?"
"By all means, Sovereign. All my friends were in it. My absence alone
has saved me."
"Well, thou hast played the fool sufficiently long. I hope thou wilt be
sensible in the future, and we shall not quarrel. Send me all thy
manuscripts. I shall be thy censor myself."
He was received everywhere with open arms. He joined the main
current of social and literary life and speedily electrified society. He
was for a little entirely happy, but he had overestimated the extent
of his freedom. Gradually he realised that he was not allowed even
to read aloud his writings without submitting them to his censor.
Borìs Godunòv was refused on the plea that it would have been
better if the author had rewritten it in prose, turning it into a
historical novel like those of Sir Walter Scott. Consequently the
drama did not appear till 1831, much polished and toned down.
In these last years Pushkin founded and edited a literary monthly
called The Contemporary, which played a great part in the
development of the literature of Russia later on.
The net of officialdom was meanwhile being drawn tighter and
tighter round him: he had to attend compulsory meaningless
ceremonies at the Court. The Government gave him 20,000 roubles
for the publication of his works, and elected him member of the
Academy. But they would not allow him to retire from the service. In
1829 he dashed away to the Caucasus without leave.
He joined the ranks and fought, but returned safely. He then married
a society beauty whom he loved sincerely but who increased his
expenses enormously. He continued to train his talents and wrote a
series of brilliant epigrams which increased the number of his friends
and foes. He had enemies in every camp.... Meanwhile a young
officer, of French and Dutch extraction, by name Baron Dantes,
began to press his attentions on Pushkin's wife. Pushkin received a
series of anonymous letters ... he, however, trusted his wife
completely. She urged him to retire with her to the country to get
away from the impending doom, but he challenged the Baron, who
had by that time married the sister of Pushkin's wife. Pushkin was
fatally wounded in the duel and died mourned by a whole nation....
And what is his legacy? He must have been no mean poet who could
induce Turgenev to say that he would burn all his works if he could
but have written four lines of the conversation between the
Bookseller and the Poet.
His legacy is that he stripped Reality from her daintily-coloured veil—
not to show her possible hideousness, but to enjoy the beauty of her
form. And beneath his hands nakedness rose like a piece of magic
sculpture, warm and breathing of life. His variety and the width of
his range are astonishing.
I have attempted to convey something of this. He can write an elegy
as tender as Tennyson, a picture of a snowstorm in intoxicating
rhythms which would have made Poe green with jealousy; his
patriotic poems are lofty and inspired, his prayers humble, sincere
and devout. His love poems are as playful as Heine's, as tender as
Musset's; he can translate with equal spirit and exactness Byron and
Horace, the Koran and Dante. Mr Baring selects two poems as
examples of the greatness of his style and the force of his magic.

"As bitter as stale aftermath of wine

Is the remembrance of delirious days:
But as wine waxes with the years, so weighs
The past more sorely, as my days decline.
My path is dark. The future lies in wait,
A gathering ocean of anxiety.
But oh! my friends! to suffer, to create,
That is my prayer: to live and not to die!
I know that ecstasy shall still lie there
In sorrow and adversity and care.
Once more I shall be drunk on strains divine,
Be moved to tears by musings that are mine:
And haply when the last sad hour draws nigh
Love with a farewell smile shall light the sky."
The other and greater is The Prophet, which is Miltonic in conception
and Dantesque in expression: it is, Mr Baring says, the Pillars of
Hercules of the Russian language.
"My spirit was weary, and I was athirst, and I was astray in the dark
wilderness. And the Seraphim with six wings appeared to me at the
crossing of the ways: and he touched my eyelids, and his fingers
were as soft as sleep; and like the eyes of an eagle that is frightened
my prophetic eyes were awakened. He touched my ears and he filled
them with noise and with sound: and I heard the Heavens
shuddering and the flight of the angels in the height, and the
moving of the beasts that are under the waters, and the noise of the
growth of the branches in the valley. He bent down over me and he
looked upon my lips; and he tore out my sinful tongue, and he took
away that which is idle and that which is evil with his right hand, and
his right hand was dabbled with blood; and he set there in its stead,
between my perishing lips, the tongue of a wise serpent. And he
clove my breast asunder with a sword, and he plucked out my
trembling heart, and in my cloven breast he set a burning coal of
fire. Like a corpse in the desert I lay, and the voice of God called and
said unto me, 'Prophet, arise, and take heed, and hear; be filled with
my will, and go forth over the sea and over the land and set light
with my word to the hearts of the people.'"
 IV
LÈRMONTOV (1814-1841)
Lèrmontov was descended from a Scotsman, George Learmonth,
who was present at the siege of a small Polish town in 1613.
He had always been connected with the army: his father was an
officer, his mother a young girl, at the time of her marriage, of noble
birth: she died at the age of twenty. He was brought up by his
maternal grandmother, who only permitted him to visit his father on
very rare occasions. He was in all respects very lonely, entirely
without society or friendship, excellently educated by the very best
tutors in noble tastes and refined manners, with such success that
he knew French, German and English thoroughly before he was
twelve. If ever he saw a serf being punished he would immediately
give vent to his anger by attacking the torturer with a knife or
stones.
He was, in spite of his fondness for other languages, tenacious of his
own, and a great lover of Russia. "In the Russian folklore," he wrote
when he was fifteen, "told from mouth to mouth there is probably
more than in the whole of French literature."
But it was the Caucasus that first led him to creative art. He was ten
when he first accompanied his grandmother to that land, whither
she went in search of health. It is, I think, worth while to dwell on
the beauties of this country in order to see quite what sort of
scenery it was that so fascinated the child's mind.
In his fifteenth and sixteenth year Lèrmontov was educated at the
University Pension at Moscow, and filled all his exercise-books with
poetry, all of which betrayed a deeply impressionable, passionate,
highly strung nature, permeated with views quite extraordinary in
one so young.
The two years following saw him a member of the University proper,
consciously isolating himself from his contemporaries in spite of
adequate means; on the other hand, he launched into the sea of
fashionable society life.
The influence of an unending round of balls, masquerades and
supper-parties prompted him to write drinking songs and epigrams
which could not be tolerated by the Press, while at the same time he
showed an extraordinary power of detaching himself from vulgarity
and giving himself up to his work. Always he would invest his
productions with mockery and sarcasm.
During his second year he left Moscow on account of a row which he
got into over an unpopular professor, and went to Petrograd, where
he joined the fashionable Yunker's School, and learnt some of the
joys of military life.
Half his time was occupied in revelling, the other half in seeking
some remote class-room where he could work and satisfy his craving
to write.
At the age of nineteen he was commissioned and gazetted in the
Life Guard Hussars, already the author of The Demon, though that
poem was still in manuscript. A satirical comedy was censored, and
other poems began to appear in the reviews, so that not only the
literary circles but Society looked with keen expectation for
something good at his hands.
One of his poems in particular at this time attracted attention: it is
the author's prayer in dedicating a girl to the Virgin. It was so
sincere and simple in its religious tone that some of his critics
declared that it was merely a pose of his. They failed to realise that
his sanctuary was his supreme elation of love for a girl who
answered his feelings by friendship. Lèrmontov loathed the idea of
the marriage bond—real love was to him something far higher: his
Vàrenka, who married another, was his kindred spirit. She it was
whom he dedicated to the Virgin, and this relationship finds
expression in several of his poems.
For five years he remained in his regiment, and during this time
translated Byron, Heine and Goethe ... then in 1837 came the blow
of Pushkin's death, which stung Lèrmontov to such a pitch of fury
that he wrote his immortal ode, On the Death of Pushkin, which
became at once known and repeated throughout the length and
breadth of Russia by people who repeated it to, and copied it from,
one another:

"And you, the proud and shameless progeny

Of fathers famous for their infamy,
You, who with servile heel have trampled down
The fragments of great names laid low by chance,
You, hungry crowd that swarms about the throne,
Butchers of freedom, and genius, and glory,
You hide behind the shelter of the law,
Before you, right and justice must be dumb!
But, parasites of vice, there's God's assize;
There is an awful court of law that waits.
You cannot reach it with the sound of gold;
It knows your thoughts beforehand and your deeds;
And vainly you shall call the lying witness;
That shall not help you any more;
And not with all the filth of all your gore
Shall you wash out the poet's righteous blood."

For this daring outburst he was arrested, tried and banished to the
Caucasus, which again acted, as in his childhood, as a direct
inspiration. New poems came flying to Petrograd full of human
passions, and descriptions of a Nature prodigal and passionate as
her devoted lover. No geography book could ever give such a vivid
picture of the Caucasus as Lèrmontov's verse and prose. As the
Arabs say: "They turn our hearing into seeing." Fame at last
descended upon him. Then appeared the "Song of the Tsar Ivàn
Vasìlyevich, the young Opriknik, and the Brave Merchant
Kalàshinkov," in which the Opriknik insults the merchant's wife, and
the merchant challenges him to fight with his fists, kills him and is
executed for it. The poem is written as a folk-song, in the style of
the Byliny: as an epic there is nothing in modern Russian literature
to compare with it for simplicity, appropriateness of tone, vividness,
truth to nature and terseness.
Every line begins with an anapæst, followed by some odd dactyls,
and ends in a dactyl unrhymed. It has been translated by Madame
Voynich admirably, and is published by Elkin Mathews.
While in the Caucasus, his age being now twenty-three, Lèrmontov
finished The Demon, on which he had been at work for so long.
The personality of this Demon, the Spirit of Exile, is quite different
from the Satanic Mephistopheles or Lucifer. With all his contempt for
Earth, Lèrmontov's Demon is fascinating in every way. He is always
musing over his former days in Heaven, and vainly seeking some
relief in the desert of time and space into which he is cast out alone;
he is the embodiment of the idea of loneliness in a proud soul. His
sudden love for the Grùzian girl Tamàra inflames him with the desire
of abandoning his pride, of opening his heart to Good, of making
peace with Heaven ... we are never allowed to forget that the Angel
and the Demon had been brothers. Moved by his love, the Demon is
on the verge of humility and of opening his heart to Goodness when
his pride and hatred return upon him, due entirely to the tone of
enmity which the Angel adopts on meeting him. The Angel is a good
hater and thorough in his scornfulness. Being Tamàra's celestial
guardian, he becomes quite human and understandable when he
meets the Demon (whom he might have conquered by greeting him
with Heavenly grace) with icy contempt and threats. Here we have a
perfect delineation of the kinship between the spirits of good and
evil.
The Demon's wooing of Tamàra is irresistibly bewitching, one of the
most passionate love declarations ever written, in couplets of
sonorous iambics that glow like jewels and tremble like the strings of
a harp. Tamàra yields to him (what human girl could have done
otherwise?) and forfeits her life, but her soul is borne off to Heaven
by the Angel: by death she has expiated her offence, and the
Demon is left as before desolate in a loveless universe.
Owing to his grandmother's persistence Lèrmontov was recalled
before one of his five years' exile had elapsed, and we see him again
in Petrograd with his old regiment, a tremendous source of interest
to all society, half of whom hated, while half loved him.
In 1838 Duma appeared, in which Lèrmontov gave to the world his
view of his contemporaries: it was the severest indictment
imaginable, far saner and truer than Byron's, not of the great
Russian nation of course, but of the shallow side of that human
nature to which he had allied himself. How clear he was of the
shortcomings of that lot of people to which he himself, at least
outwardly, belonged, and how deeply it hurt him is proved by the
exquisite precision with which he exercised his lancet of lampoon.
It is in form a perfect example of his rhymed and scanned prose as it
were—that is, not a single word would have to be altered or shifted
if you wanted to write it out in prose. It is the work not of a
superficial satirist, but of a deep and profound thinker, of a Shelley
rather than a Byron.
In 1840 he was challenged to a duel by a son of the French
ambassador, in which Lèrmontov fired his shot in the air and
received himself a slight scratch. For this he was again arrested and
banished as before to the Caucasus. This, the last year of his life, he
spent at Patigorsk, a town forming the centre of a fashionable
healing-springs district, at the foot of a mountain range. Here he
wrote his only novel in prose, The Hero of Our Times, as great a
piece of artistry as anything that he did in poetry. It is the first
psychological novel in Russia. The hero, Pechorin by name, was
undoubtedly Lèrmontov himself, although he said, and quite
probably thought, that he was merely creating a type.
This Pechorin is an officer in the Caucasus, who analyses his own
character, and lays bare his weaknesses, follies and faults with
extreme candour and frankness. "I am incapable of friendship," he
says. "Of two friends, one is always the slave of the other, although
often neither of them will admit it: I cannot be a slave, and to be a
master is a tiring business."
Or again: "I have an innate passion for contradiction ... the presence
of enthusiasm turns me to ice, and intercourse with a phlegmatic
temperament would turn me into a passionate dreamer."
On the eve of fighting a duel he writes:
"If I die it will not be a great loss to the world, and as for me, I am
sufficiently tired of life. I am like a man yawning at a ball, who does
not go home to bed because the carriage is not there, but as soon
as the carriage is there, Good-bye! I review my past and I ask
myself, Why have I lived? Why was I born? And I think there was a
reason, and I think I was called to high things, for I feel in my soul
the presence of vast powers: but I did not divine my high calling: I
gave myself up to the allurement of shallow and ignoble passions: I
emerged from their furnace as hard and as cold as iron, but I had
lost for ever the ardour of noble aspirations, the flower of life. And
since then how often have I played the part of the axe in the hands
of fate. Like the weapon of the Executioner I have fallen on the
necks of the victims, often without malice, always without pity. My
love has never brought happiness, because I have never in the
slightest degree sacrificed myself for those whom I loved. I loved for
my own sake, for my own pleasure.... And if I die I shall not leave
behind me one soul who understood me. Some think I am better,
others that I am worse than I am. Some will say he was a good
fellow: others he was a blackguard."
From this it may be easily seen that Lèrmontov must have been a
most trying companion. He had an impossible temperament, proud,
exasperated, filled with a savage amour-propre: he took a childish
delight in annoying: he was envious of that which was least enviable
in his contemporaries. When he could not make himself successful—
that is, felt—by pleasant, he would choose unpleasant means, and
yet in spite of all this he was warmhearted, thirsting for love and
kindness and capable of giving himself up to love—if he chose.
During the course of this second banishment he took an active part
in the fighting with the Circassian tribes, showing striking courage
combined with perfect modesty.
This experience was the direct inspiration of Valèrik, one of the most
beautiful of his long poems on the Caucasus.
After this came his second duel. On this occasion he somehow
contrived to offend a somewhat posing officer called Major Martỳnov,
who could not bear Lèrmontov's jokes in the presence of ladies. As
before, Lèrmontov fired his pistol into the air, but Martỳnov aimed so
long that the seconds began to remonstrate. He then fired and killed
Lèrmontov immediately.
As a result Martỳnov only escaped the anger of the mob by being
arrested.
In 1909 Merejkòvski produced a little book on Lèrmontov as a
counterblast to one by Solovyòv in which Martỳnov was hailed as
"Heaven's weapon sent to punish blood-thirstiness and devilish lust."
It is a blessing indeed that Solovyòv should have been led to attack
Lèrmontov, for Merejkòvski was thus brought to criticise Lèrmontov
with an amazingly accurate insight. He loved the poet and so his
appreciation is the more perfect. "Something like Solovyòv's attitude
towards Lèrmontov," he says, "must have been in the minds of the
poet's contemporaries and successors. Even Dostoievski mentions
him as the 'spirit of wrath.' Nicholas I. expressed grim pleasure at
his death. He has been up till now the scapegoat of Russian
literature. All Russian writers preach humility, even those who began
by heading revolts—Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoievski, Tolstoi ... here is
the one single man who never gave in and never submitted to his
last breath ... he is the Cain of Russian literature and has been killed
by Abel, the spirit of humility. Solovyòv's cry of 'Devilish superman' is
only another proof of the fact that the struggle between
superhumanism and deo-humanism is the eternal problem of life."
Merejkòvski's idea is that Lèrmontov could remember the past of his
eternity ... from the ordinary human mind this previous existence is
excluded, we dwell on the eternity to come ... but Lèrmontov never
did: his mind was concentrated on what he saw left behind him.
From the very first his poetry attracts you uneasily: you may—
Russian youths often are—be taught to hate him as a "spring of
poison" ... he knew the harrowing threat of fruitless ages. Even as a
boy he frequently said: "If only I could forget the unforgettable." His
Demon is never permitted to forget the past. He lives by what is
death to others.
Pechorin, in The Hero of our Days, speaks as Lèrmontov when he
says: "I never forget anything—anything."
In one of his poems he laments that his despair is that no love lasts
through eternity: he means his eternity. He knows of a kind of
existence which is neither this life, nor death as promised by
Christianity. That existence is not deprived of love: his idea is that
the less earthly, the deeper and greater the passion becomes. The
difference between Wordsworth's Ode on the Intimations and
Lèrmontov's is that Wordsworth speaks of these intimations coming
to him from outside this world and Lèrmontov speaks from the
outside world himself, as one belonging to it, while realising his
temporary existence in this world to which he does not belong. This
attitude was a continual torment to him; it made him feel very much
of a stranger.
"Usually," says Merejkòvski, "artists find their creation beautiful
because nothing like it has existed before." Lèrmontov feels the
beauty just where it had been always. That is why there is
something so individual and inimitable in him when he speaks of
Nature: 'For several moments spent among the wilderness of rocks
where I played as a child I would give Paradise and Eternity.'
"He is in love with Nature. He longs to blend in an embrace with the
storm and Shelley-like catches of lightnings with his hands. It is the
only non-earthly love for earth to be found in poetry. Christianity is a
movement from here—thither: Lèrmontov's poetry is from there—
hither. He was not-quite-a-man encased in a man's shell. He tried to
conceal this, because people do not forgive anyone for being unlike
them. Hence his reticence, which people mistook for pride. They
thought he was untruthful, posing ... while in reality it was his
tragedy that he felt out of place here and tried to be like everyone
else. This explains his escape into the sphere of dissipations, his
cruel attitude towards the girl he deserted ... when he could feel that
at last he was like his contemporaries.
"The fourth dimension seemed to be squeezed into the three for a
while, and the icy horror of eternity and the inane temporarily
forgotten in the warmth of human vulgarity."
This, Merejkòvski thinks, accounts for that amazing child-likeness in
Lèrmontov which dwelt side by side with his pessimism, sadness,
bitterness, flippancy and sarcasm. He could always play children's
games to the state of self-forgetfulness and had no fear of death,
because he knew that there was no death.
"His Demon never laughs and never lies; he has something of the
child-like in him. He is always genuine, as far removed as possible
from Gogol's spirit of mischief or Dostoievsky's wicked, sneering
Devil. Lèrmontov's Devil is beautiful, because he is not thought out,
but suffered out by the poet himself; he is hardly a devil at all."
There is a legend that once there was a fight between God and
Satan and some of the angels were undecided which side to take. In
order to help them to make up their mind they were sent to be born
on earth, where they should dwell for a little in a limited world: the
soul of Lèrmontov had been in his past one of these. That is why his
duality was always such a burden to him. This explains many queer
things about Lèrmontov: his amazingly deep passion for a girl of
nine when he was ten ("I did not know whence she came") and his
having drawn a detailed picture of his death many times before his
final duel: most strange of all is Merejkòvski's idea that Lèrmontov
remembered the future of eternity. Pushkin is the day-luminary of
Russian poetry and Lèrmontov is the night-luminary: "It is high time
to rise after our final stage of humility and start on our last revolt,
and remember that besides Pushkin we have Lèrmontov and his
message to the world.... Because in the end Satan will make peace
with God."
He owed nothing to his contemporaries, little to his predecessors
and still less to foreign models.
As a schoolboy he imitated Byron, merely echoes these, however, of
his reading. Shelley urged him as Byron urged Pushkin to emulation,
not imitation. His pride and obstinacy if nothing else would have
made him carve out his own path: he chose the narrow path of
romance, the Turner method rather than the Constable in his
depictions of landscape, as may be seen in Mtsysi, the story of a
Circassian orphan educated in a convent, who has ungovernable
longings for freedom: he escapes, loses his way in the forest and is
brought back after three days, dying from exhaustion and starvation.
The greater portion of the poem is given up to his confession: he
then tells how insatiable were his desires to seek out his own home
and people: he describes his wanderings, hearing the song of a girl
... seeing at nightfall the light of a dwelling-place twinkling like a
fallen star, but afraid to seek it. He then kills a panther and in the
morning finds a way out of the woods and lies exhausted in the
grass under the blinding sun of noon. He then fancies in his delirium
that he is lying at the bottom of a deep stream; the fish sing to him
in a voice so unearthly that he is enticed and allured as if the fish
were the Erl-King's daughter.
In The Testament he rises to an unadorned realism that is little short
of magic in its poignancy:

"'I want to be alone with you,

A moment quite alone.
The minutes left to me are few,
They say I'll soon be gone.
And you'll be going home on leave,
Then say ... but why? I do believe
There's not a soul who'll greatly care
To hear about me over there.

And yet if someone asks you there,

Let us suppose they do—
Tell them a bullet hit me here,
The chest—and it went through.
And say I died, and for the Tsar,
And say what fools the doctors are:—
And that I shook you by the hand,
And thought about my native land.

My father and my mother, too!

They may be dead by now:
To tell the truth, it wouldn't do
To grieve them anyhow.
If one of them is living, say
I'm bad at writing home and they
Have sent me to the front, you see—
And that they needn't wait for me.

We had a neighbour, as you know,

And you remember, I
And she ... How very long ago
It is we said good-bye.
She won't ask after me, nor care,
But tell her everything, don't spare
Her empty heart; and let her cry:—
To her it doesn't signify.'"
It is such a poem that led Baring to apply to Lèrmontov what Arnold
said about Byron and Wordsworth: "there are moments when Nature
takes the pen from his hand and writes for him." When one passes
in review the vast output of his short life, we are struck by the lyrical
inspiration, the strength and intensity, the concentration of his
power, the wealth of his imagination, his gorgeous colouring and
maintained high level.
It is as though he combined the temperament of a Thackeray with
the wings of a Shelley, so exquisitely blended is his romantic sense
and stern realism. So simple and straightforward is he that his style
escapes notice in its absolute appropriateness, as in The Testament.
There is none of the misty vagueness of Keats or Coleridge; he
never follows Shelley into the intense inane.
I propose to conclude this chapter with extracts from his
masterpiece, The Demon, to illustrate, if I can, the amazing
achievement of this Lucifer-spirit. He opens with a description of his
hero-devil ruminating over his past:

"When, thirsting for eternal knowledge,

He keenly followed through the mist
The caravans of wandering planets
Thrown into vastness; when he list—
The happy first-born of creation—
To voice of Faith and Love, and knew
No doubt or hatred; and there was
No threat of ages fruitless, dreary,
Awaiting him in even rows ..."

Now an outcast:

"He planted sin without enjoyance;

His art has never met contest,
Has quickly lost its charm and zest,
And has become a mere annoyance."

We follow him in his exile over the world through the Caucasus to
Gruzia:

"A blissful, brilliant nook of Earth!

'Mid stately ancient pillared ruins,
Relucent, gurgling rivulets run
And ripple over motley pebbles;
Between them, rose-trees where the birds
Sing love-songs, while the ivy girds
The stems, and crowns the foliage-temples
Of green chinàra; and the herds
Of timid red-deer seek the boon
Of mountain eaves in sultry noon;
And sparkling life, and rustling leaves,
And hum of voices hundred-toned,
The sweetly breathing thousand plants,
Voluptuous heat of skies sun-laden,
Caressive dew of gorgeous night,
And stars—as clear as eyes of maiden,
As glance of Grùzian maiden bright!
But all this brilliancy of Nature
Awoke not in the Demon's soul
A moment's joy, nor tender feeling."
We are now introduced to the heroine, Tamàra, whose wedding feast
is being prepared:

"Amid her friends, the whole day long

Tamàra spent in play and song.
The sun, behind a far-off mountain,
Is half set in a sea of gold.
The maidens in a round are sitting
And, to a lilting tune they're singing
They clap in time. Tamàra takes
Her tambourine, and nimbly shakes
It o'er her head; with fleeting motion
Now trips it lighter than a bird,
Now holds a-sudden in her dance,
And casts a shining, roguish glance
From underneath the jealous lashes;
Her eyebrow curves in coy expression,
Her lithesome shape does swift incline,
And o'er the carpet slides and flashes
Her little foot of form divine....
The Demon did behold her.... Rapture
And awe possessed him: and at once
The silent desert of his spirit
Rang suddenly with joyful tones;
And once again the sacred grandeur
Of Love and Good and Beauty shone
Within his soul....
He felt a sadness strangely new—
As if the overwhelming shower
Of feelings rang with words he knew.
Was this a sign of renovation?
Gone were the words of dread temptation,
His mind no more in guile adept.
Will he forget his past?... But God
Would never grant him this relief,
Nor he forgetfulness accept."
Tamàra's bridegroom-elect is foully done to death on his way to the
wedding. The bride, fallen on her bed, sobs with a lorn and piteous
feeling until she suddenly hears a voice of magic sweetness urging
her to cease.

"'Forsooth, the destiny of mortals,

Believe me, angel upon earth'" (sings the voice),
"'Is not—not for a single moment
Of thy dear child-like sorrow worth!'"

He beseeches her to listen to his pleas:

"'As soon as night throws silky veiling

O'er Caucasus, and all the world
Grows still and fairy-like, bewitched
By Nature's magic wand and word;
As soon as zephyrs flutter shyly
Across the faded grass, and gaily
Flies out of it the lurking bird;
As soon as under vine and maize
The flowers of night find dew, and raise
Unfolding petals with relief:
As soon as from behind the mountains
The golden crescent glides, and steals
A glance upon thee furtively—
I shall fly down each night to thee,
Shall guard till dawn thy virgin slumber,
And on thy lashes dreams of amber
I'll waft, to woo them prettily....'"
We are not surprised that fire began to flow along the maiden's
veins as she listened to so exquisite a speech. She decides to enter a
nunnery to avoid both marriage and the hellish spirit that assails her
in dreams. The Devil follows:

"But, filled with fear of sanctity,

He dared not boldly force an entrance
And violate the sanctuary.
Then for a moment was he fain
To give up his hell-dark device."

He catches a glimpse of the glimmering lamplight in Tamàra's

window and hears a song in the far distance, a song for earth in
heaven born and nourished.

"Had, then, an angel flown in secret

To meet him as his friend of yore,
To sing the byegone joys they cherished,
And soothe the sufferings he bore?
Then first the Demon knew he loved;
Knew how he yearned and longed for love.
In sudden fear, he thought to fly ...
But in that first, heart-rending anguish
His wing was stayed—he had no power!
And, marvel! from his veilèd eye
There dropped a tear.... This very hour
There lieth by Tamàra's tower
A stone burnt through by flame-like tear—
Inhuman tear: a sign for aye!..."
As he entered he was met by the guardian angel of the fair sinner,
who reproaches the Demon, and bids him begone.

"The Demon's face

Lit up with smile of proud derision,
His look flashed jealousy and scorn,
And in his soul again awakened
The former hatred's poisonous thorn."

The guardian angel departs and the Demon is left victor of the field
to plead his cause. In answer to Tamàra's question, "'But who art
thou? Who?... Answer me,'" he replies:

"'I'm he whose voice has made thee listen

Throughout the midnight's calm and rest;
Whose thoughts have reached thee like a whisper,
Whose vision through thy dreams would glisten,
Whose sadness thou hast dimly guessed....
I am the lord of understanding
And freedom: I am Nature's foe,
The world's despair, and Heaven's woe.
Yet at thy feet I worship thee!...
I love thee: I'm thy slave to-day....
What is eternity without thee?
My boundless realm, when I am lonely?'"

Tamàra then asks him why he loves her, to which he replies:

"'Why do I, fair? I do not know.

Since first the earthly world began,
In my mind's eye imprinted ever
Thine image seemed to fill the ether,
And through eternity it ran.
In Paradise the glorious years
Were lacking only thy creation.
Oh, if thou couldst but comprehend
The bitterness of my existence
Through dreary ages' dread consistence....
Oft through the rack and tempest raging,
I rushed at midnight levin-clad,
In fruitless hope of e'er assuaging
My aching heart's revolt and dread,
To kill the pain of mind's regret,
The ne'er forgotten to forget.'"
Tamàra is gradually won to listen to his passionate pleading.

"'Whoe'er thou art, my friend so mystic,

I list to thee against my will.
I know my peace is lost for ever;
But thou art suffering, and never
I could forget thee suffering still.
But if thy words are false and cunning,
But if thou plannest a deceit ...
Have mercy. What's to thee this conquest?
What counts my soul in thy conceit?
Oh, give thy oath, thy sacred vow:
Thou seest—I fail and suffer now—
Thou seest a woman's tender dreams!...
But fear grows less ... To me it seems
Thou understand'st and knowest all....
Swear on thy oath, give me a token
That sin and wrong thou wilt renounce.'"

The Demon vows fidelity:

"'I swear by dawn of the creation,

By the decay of earthly sooth,
By the disgrace of crime and evil,
And by the triumph of the truth.
I swear by flashing hopes of conquest,
I swear by bitter pains of fall,
I swear by having met with thee,
And by the threat of losing all; ...
I swear by Hell, I swear by Heaven,
I swear by sacredness, by thee,
Thy latest look my soul enslaving,
Thy first and guileless tear for me;
By breath from lips so pure and ireless,
Thy silky tresses' wave and shine,
I swear by suffering, elation,
And by my love for thee, divine....
But here's my offer; all my power
I bring to thee, my sanctuary!
I seek thy love, I need its blessing;
Thou wilt obtain eternity
For one short moment. Trust my greatness
In love, and wrath, and equity.
I, free and wilful Son of Ether,
Shall take thee high above the stars,
And thou shalt be the Queen of Nature,
My foremost love, eternal treasure,
Whom nothing equals or debars!...
Crowds of ethereal fairy-maidens
Will wait, thy every wish to meet.
The crown which Evening Star is wearing
I'll tear from her, and crown thy head;
I'll take the dew from evening flowers
To shine on it in diamonds' stead;
I'll take a sunset ray of scarlet,
And gird thee with its ribbon light;
I'll saturate the air around thee
With purest fragrance of the night.
A never-dying magic music
Will charm thine ears by fall and swell.
I'll build a palace out of turquoise
And pearls and gold for thee to dwell;
I'll search for thee the depth of ocean;
I'll get all riches from the stars;
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