Chapter

4 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Andre – Marie Ampere was a

 Electric Charge French scientist and
 Coulomb’s Law mathematician who is generally
regarded as one of the main
 Potential Difference
discoverers of electromagnetism.
 Electric Current The unit of electric current, the
 Ohm’s Law ampere is named after him.
 Kirchoff’s Laws
 Wheatsone bridge
 Electrical Power

Electric Charge:

Electric charge, like mass, is one of the fundamental attributes of the particle of which the
matter is made. Charge is the physical property of certain fundamental particles (like
electron, proton) by virtue of which they interact with the other similar fundamental
particles. To distinguish the nature of interaction, charges are divided into two parts (i)
positive (ii) negative. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. SI unit of charge is
coulomb and CGS unit is esu.
1C = 3  109 esu.
Magnitude of the smallest known charge is e = 1.6  10–19 C (charge of one electron or
proton).

Charging of a body:
Basically charging can be done by three methods.
1. Conduction
2. Induction
3. Friction

Ordinarily, matter contains equal number of protons

and electrons. A body can be charged by the
transfer of electrons or redistribution of electrons.

The process of charging from an already charged body can happen either by conduction
or induction. Conduction from a charged body, involves transfer of like charges.

A positively charged body can create more bodies, which are positively charged, but the
sum of the total charge on all positively charged bodies will be the same as the earlier
sum.
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Induction is a process by which a charged body accomplishes the creation of other

charged bodies, without touching them or losing its own charge.

Properties of Electric Charge:

(a) Quantization of charge:
Charge exists in discrete packets rather than in continuous amount i.e., charge on any
body is the integral multiple of the charge of an electron
 Q =  ne, where n = 0, 1, 2…
(b) Conservation of charge:
Charge is conserved, i.e. total charge on an isolated system is constant. By isolated
system, we mean here a system through the boundary of which no charge is allowed to
escape or enter. This does not require that the amount of positive and negative charges is
separately conserved only their algebraic sum is conserved.

(c) Charges on a conductor:

Static charges reside on the surface of the conductor.

(d) Distribution of charges:

The concentration of the charges is more on a surface with greater curvature.

Charge is
Transferable : It can be transferred from one body to another.
Associated with mass : Charge cannot exist without mass but reverse is not true.
Conserved : It can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Invariant : Independent of velocity of charged particle.

Coulomb’s Law:
Two point electric charges q1 and q2 at rest, separated by a distance r exert a force on
each other whose magnitude is given by
qq
F = k 12 2 Where k is a proportionality constant.
r
1
k= = 9  109 Nm2 C–2, Where 0 is the absolute electric permittivity of the free
40
space.

Vector form of coulomb’s law:

 qq  qq
Vector form of Coulomb’s law is F12  K 1 3 2 r 12  K 1 2 2 rˆ12 where rˆ12 is the unit vector
r r
from first charge to second charge along the line joining the two charges.

Electric field:
An electrostatic force exists between two charged bodies, and this force is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. Hence, when the distance
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between two charged bodies increases, the force between them decreases, and when the
distance approaches infinity, the force is zero. This implies that a charged body
experiences an electrostatic force when placed within a certain region surrounding another
charged body.
This region surrounding a charged body where its effect is felt by another charged body is
known as an ‘electric field’. If the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength is
same at all points in the electric field, then it is a uniform electric field.
The electric field of a charge is the space property by virtue of which the charge modifies
the space around itself.

Electric field intensity:

The electric field intensity at a point due to a source charge may be defined as the force
experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that point without disturbing the source
charge. The electric field intensity is also called strength of electric field.

Consider that a positive test charge q0 experiences a force F when placed at the
observation point in the electric field due to a source charge Q. Then electric field intensity
at the observation point is given by

 F
E
q0
Since the electrostatic force between the charges Q and q0 separated by a distance ‘r’ is
 1 Q q0
given by F 
4 2
0 r
1
Qq
 40 0
1 Q
Therefore E  =
q 4 r 2
0 0

Lines of Force:
It has been found quite convenient to visualize the electric field pattern in terms of lines of
force. The electric field pattern vector at a point is related to imaginary lines of force in two
ways. The line of force in an electric field is a curve such that the tangent at any point on it
gives the direction of the resultant electric field strength at that point.

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
(i) Tangent to the line of force at a point gives the direction of E .
(ii) These lines of force are so drawn that their number per unit cross-sectional area in a
region is proportional to intensity of electric field.
(iii) Electric line of force can never be closed loops.
(iv) Lines of force are imaginary.
(v) They emerge from a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
(vi) Lines of force do not intersect.

Note: When a conductor has a net charge that is at rest, the charge reside entirely on the
conductor’s surface and the electric field is zero everywhere within the material of
the conductor.

Electrostatic Potential:
To charge a body with positive charge, some positive charge is to be deposited on body.
Initially, the body is neutral so, no force wills encounter while depositing the positive
charge. How ever, once the body acquires positive charge and we wish to deposit some
more charge on it, this additional charge will encounter repulsion force; some work has to
be done to over come the repulsion. This work done in the process of charging a body
gets stored in the body as potential energy of charges. This is called “Electrostatic
Potential” or simply “Potential of the charged body”.

Therefore, electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of

work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the direction
of electric field.
If work ‘W’ is done to bring a positive charge ‘q’ from infinity to a point in electric field, then
W
potential at that point is given by V =
q
Units: volt (V).
When two charged bodies are kept in contact, positive charge will flow higher potential to
lower potential region.
So, electrostatic potential can also be defined as the physical state which determines the
direction of flow of charge, when it is placed in electrical contact with other charged bodies.

Potential Difference:
The difference between two potential levels is called “potential Difference”
Potential Difference is measured in volt.

Electric potential due to a point charge:

Let us consider an isolated positive point charge ‘q’, the charge produces an electric field
around it. We want to find out the electric potential at a point P at a distance ‘r’ from the
charge.
1 q
V
4 0 r

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Relation between electric potential difference and electric field:

Electric field due to a point charge at distance d is given by
1 q
E=
40 d2
1 q1
E= ....(1)
40 d d
But potential at point charge is
1 q
V= ....(2)
40 d
From (1) & (2)
V
E Or V = E d
d

Electrostatic Potential Energy:

(1) Work done in bringing the given charge from infinity to a point in the electric field is
known as potential energy of the charge. Potential can also be written as potential
W U
energy per unit charge. i.e., V   .
Q Q

(2) Potential energy of a system of two charges:

QQ
Potential energy of Q1 = Potential energy of Q2 = potential energy of system U  k 1 2
r
Q1 Q2
A B
r

(3) Potential energy of a system of n charge:

k n Qi Q j  1 
It is given by U    k  
2 i, j r 4 0 
ij  
ij
1
The factor of is applied only with the summation sign because on expanding the
2
summation each pair is counted twice.
Q Q Q Q QQ 
For a system of 3 charges U  k  1 2  2 3  1 3 
 r r r 
 12 23 13 
(4) Work - energy relation: If a charge moves from one position to another position in
an electric field so its potential energy change and work done by external force for
this change is W = U - U
f i
(5) Electron volt (eV): It is the smallest practical unit of energy used in atomic and
nuclear physics. As electron volt is defined as “the energy acquired by a particle

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having onequantum of charge (1e), when accelerated by 1volt” i.e.

19 1J 19
1eV  1.6  10 C  1.6  10 J = 1.6  10–12 erg
C
Electric Current:
Flow of electric charge constitutes electric current. For a given
conductor, if ' Q ' charge flows through a cross-section of area A A B

in time ‘ t ’, then the electric current through the conductor is

Q 
given as I =
t
The current so defined above, is the average current over the period t .
dQ
The instantaneous current will be given as I=
dt
Conventionally, direction of electric current as defined is taken along the direction of flow
of positive charge. (Although in majority of conductors the charge carrier is electron which
is negatively charged and hence electric current would be in a direction opposite to that of
flow of electrons). Despite the direction that we associate with electric current, electric
current is not a vector quantity. Instead, we choose current density (J) that is current
flowing through unit area of the cross-section as a vector quantity.

Catapult: If 0.6 mol of electrons flow through a wire in 45 min, what is (a) the total
charge that passes through the wire, and (b) the magnitude of the
current?
Solution: (a) the number of electrons in 0.6 mole is
n = (0.6 mole) (6.02 x 1023 electrons/mole) = 3.6 x 1023 electrons
q = ne = (3.6 x 1023)(1.6 x 10–19 C) = 5.78 x 104 C.

(b) t = 2.7 x 103 s

q 5.78  10 4 C
I=  = 21.4 A
t 2.7  103 C

Catapult: The current in a wire varies with time according to the equation I = 4+2t,
where I is in ampere and t is in sec. Calculate the quantity of charge
which has passed through a cross-section of the wire during the time
t = 2 sec to t = 6 sec.
Solution : Let dq be the charge which has passed in a small interval of time dt, then
dq = idt = (4+2t) dt
Hence total charge passed during the interval t = 2 sec and t = 6 sec.
q = 26  4  2t  dt  48 coulomb

Mechanism of Current Flow in Metallic Conductor:

When an external potential difference is applied across a metallic conductor then an
electric field is set up within the conductor.
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Applied electric field  Force on electrons  Drift of electrons

Relation between electric current and drift speed of free electrons:

Consider a conductor with cross sectional area A. Assume that the ends of the conductor
are connected to a battery to make the current flow through it. Let vd be the drift speed of
the charges as shown in figure and n be the number of charges present in the conductor in
an unit volume (charge density). The distance covered by each charge in one second is vd.
Then the volume of the conductor for this distance is equal to Avd (see figure). The number
of charges contained in that volume is equal to nAvd. Let q be the charge of each carrier.
Then the total charge crossing the cross sectional area at position D in one second is
nqAvd. This is equal to electric current. Hence,

Electric current I = nqAvd ……………..(1)

Therefore, vd = I/nqA …………..….(2)
We know that the charge carriers in a conductor are electrons. The magnitude of electric
charge ‘e’ is 1.602  10–19 C.

Let us calculate the drift speed of electron in a copper wire carrying a current of 1A and
cross sectional area A = 10–6 m2. The electron density of copper that was found
experimentally is n = 8.5  1028m–3. Substituting these vales in equation (2) with q = e, we
get,
vd = 0.07mm/s.

This shows that the electrons are moving very slowly.

Mobility:
v
Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron i.e.   d . Its unit
E
2
m
is .
volt  sec

Current Density (J):

Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as a vector having magnitude
equal to current per unit area surrounding that point. Remember area is normal to the
direction of charge flow (or current passes) through that point.
dA
 ˆ
dA
i P  i
 
J
n J
dA cos

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 di 
(1) Current density at point P is given by J = n
dA
(2) If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, but makes an angle  with
the direction of current then
di    
J  di  JdA cos   J .dA  i   J dA
dA cos 
 i
(3) If current density J is uniform for a normal cross-section A then J=
 A
(4) Current density J is a vector quantity. Its direction is same as that of E . Its SI unit is
amp/m2 and dimension [L–2A].
(5) In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-section normal to it as i  nqvA
i
 J  nqv .
A

Different Measuring Instruments:

(1) Galvanometer: It is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it by

showing deflection. Galvanometers are of different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer,
moving magnet galvanometer, hot wire galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil
galvanometer are used.
It’s symbol G ; where G is the total internal resistance of the galvanometer.

(2) Ammeter: It is a device used to measure current and is R

always connected in series with the ‘element’ through which

i
current is to be measured. A

(i) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual current + –

V
in the circuit.

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(ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate will be its reading. An ammeter is
said to be ideal if its resistance r is zero.

(3) Voltmeter: It is a device used to measure potential difference V

and is always put in parallel with the ‘circuit element’ across
which potential difference is to be measured. R
i

(i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value. + –

V
(ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will be its
reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its resistance is infinite,
i.e., it draws no current from the circuit element for its operation.

Ohm’s Law:
It states that current flowing between two points in a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference between the two points provided temperature is constant.
V
I  V, provided temperature is constant   constant(R)  V = IR
I
The constant 'R' is called resistance of the conductor.
V
It is found that the ratio is always constant which gives the
I
resistance of the conductor. If a graph is plotted for V against I
by taking V on Y-axis and I on X-axis which is found to be a
straight line as shown in Fig. This verifies Ohm’s law.

Ohmic conductors:

The conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called the ohmic conductors or linear
resistances. Examples are: all metallic conductors (such as silver, aluminium, copper, iron
etc.) at constant temperature and copper sulphate solution with copper electrodes etc.

For such conductors, a graph plotted for the potential difference V against current I is a
straight line as shown in Fig and the value of resistance R is the same irrespective of the
value of V or I (i.e., the ratio V/I is constant for all values of V ).

Non-ohmic conductors:
The conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are called the non-
ohmic conductors or non-linear resistances. Examples are: diode
valve, triode valve, junction diode, etc.

For these devices, the graph plotted for the potential difference V
against the current I is not a straight line, but it is a curve. Fig
shows a V – I graph in case of a junction diode.

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Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

Ohm’s law is valid for metal conductors provided the temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant. The resistance of the material changes with temperature.
Hence for changing temperature the V-I graph for a conductor will be non-linear.
Ohm’s law is not applicable to gaseous conductor. It is also not applicable to
semiconductors such as germanium and silicon.

Verification of Ohm’s law:

Take four or five dry cells, a thin wire (AB), a voltmeter, an ammeter, a plug key and some
thick connecting wires. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (a), using one cell. The plug
key allows you to switch off the current when not required. The wire becomes quite hot
when current passes through it for some time. This drains the cell as well. Therefore, insert
the key into the plug to switch on the current only when taking measurements.

The ammeter measures the current i through the circuit, and the voltmeter measures the
potential difference V between the ends A and B of the wire. Note these values. Now
connect two cells in series in the circuit, as shown in figure (b). You will find that the
reading of the voltmeter increases, indicating the fact that a larger potential difference has
been applied across the wire AB. You will also find that the reading of the ammeter
increases as well. Note down the new values of V and i. Repeat the experiment by
connecting in series three cells, four cells, and so on. In each case measure the potential
difference and the current. If you calculate V/i for each, you will find that it is almost the
same. So, V/i = R is a constant, which is another way of stating Ohm’s law. Here, R is the
resistance of the wire AB. If you plot a graph of the current I against the potential
difference V, it will be a straight line shown in figure (c). This shows that the current is
proportional to the potential difference.


Laws of resistance: (Derive R =  )
A
The resistance of a conductor is defined as the obstruction to the motion of the free
electrons in a conductor. The material which offers resistance to the motion of electrons
is called resistor.
The resistance 'R' of a conductor depends on its length and area of cross section.
At constant temperature, the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its
length ‘  ’and inversely proportional to its area of cross section 'A'.
l
That is, R   and R 
A

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
or R
A

or R=
A
Here ‘’ the constant of proportionality is called the resistivity or specific resistance of
the material of the conductor.
RA
 =

Now, we define a specific property of the material of the conductor which is
independent of the physical parameters (length and area) of the conductor that is the
resistivity of the material.
Now, in above Equation, if  = 1 m and A = 1 m2,
=R
Thus, the resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor of
that material having one metre length and one square metre area of cross section.

Unit of specific resistance:

The units of ‘’ is Ohm – metre (m)

Conductance (G):
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor. The
conductance of a conductor is the ratio of current I to the voltage V.
I
Conductance G =
V
l
G=
R

Unit of conductance:
1
As R is in Ohms, the unit of G will be or mho.
Ohm
The S.I. unit of conductance is 'siemen' (S)  1 siemen = 1 mho

Conductivity ():
Conductivity is the measure of the ability of a material to conduct electric current through
it. The conductivity of a material is defined as the reciprocal of its resistivity ()
l
=

Unit of conductivity:
The units of conductivity are siemen/metre (Sm-1)

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity:

The resistivity of all metallic conductors is found to increase with temperature. Over a
limited (small) range of temperature, the resistivity of metallic conductors is found to
increase linearly (approximated) with temperature.
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If  0 is the resistivity of a material at temperature To and T is the resistivity of the same

material at temperature T, then
 T  0 [l    T  To ]
The constant factor  (alpha) is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the
material. The reference temperature T o will be usually either 0oC or 20oC.
Units of  are (0C)-1 or K-1

The linear variation of resistivity () of an ohmic conductor with

Resistivity  
temperature T (in Kelvin) is as shown in the figure.

Temperature T(K) 

E.M.F and Potential Difference:

The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as electric cell.
Cell is a source of constant e.m.f but not constant current.

(1) E.m.f of cell (E): The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is not
supplying any current is called its e.m.f.
(2) Potential difference (V): The voltage across the terminals of a cell when it is supplying
current to external resistance is called potential difference or terminal voltage. Potential
difference is equal to the product of current and resistance of that given part i.e., V = iR.

(3) Internal resistance (r): In case of a cell the opposition of electrolyte to the flow of
current through it is called internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell
depends on the distance between electrodes (r  d), area of electrodes [r  (1/A)] and
nature, concentration (r  C) and temperature of electrolyte [r  (1/ temp.)].
Note: A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.

Relation between e.m.f, Potential Difference, Internal Resistance and External

Resistance

Consider a cell of e.m.f E and internal resistance r connected in series to a resistor of

resistance R, such that I is the current flowing through it, when V is the potential difference
at its ends.

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Applying, Ohm’s law to the external circuit, including E

E = e.m.f.
+ -
the cell s

V r = internal resistance
I= …….(i) +
R
Applying, Ohm’s law to the complete circuit, - R = External resistance
including the cell l +
-
E
I= …….(ii)
Rr
+ -
Comparing (i) and (ii) V

V E
=  VR + Vr = ER
R Rr
R(E  V)
or Vr = ER  VR or r =
V
E
r = R(  1) …. (iii)
V
From equations (i) and (ii)
r = 1(E  V)  1  R 
I  I V

EMF Potential Difference (P.D)

a) E.m.f refers to the source of e.m.f P.D refers to a part of the circuit
or an electrical generator
b) E.m.f is the cause P.D is the effect
c) E.m.f is independent of P.D depends on
(a) resistance in the circuit (a) resistance
(b) internal resistance of the cell and (b) internal resistance of the cell and
(c) the current in the circuit (c) current in the circuit
d) Measured in volts Measured in volts
e) The e.m.f will be equal to the P.D To measure the potential difference across
across the terminals of the cell when the any cell, current must pass through it. The
circuit is open. circuit is to be a closed circuit. In a closed
circuit, PD is always less than e.m.f due to
internal resistance.

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Grouping of resistors:
Equivalent resistance of a series connection:
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the current flowing through
one also flows through the others.

In series connection of resistors there is only one path for the flow of current in the circuit.
Hence, the current in the circuit is equal to I.
According to Ohm’s law,
Potential difference across R1 is, V1 = IR1
Potential difference across R2 is, V2 = IR2
Potential difference across R3 is, V3 = IR3
Let Req is the equivalent resistance of the combination of resistors in series.

What do you mean by equivalent resistance?

If the current drawn by a resistor is equal to the current drawn by the combination of
resistors then the resistor is called as equivalent resistor
So, we have V = IReq
Substituting the values of V1, V2, V3 and V in the equation V = V1 + V2 + V3, we get
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Req = R1 + R2 + R3

From the above equation you can conclude that the sum of individual resistances is equal
to their equivalent resistance when the resistors are connected in series.

Note: If one resistance in a set of resistors, connected in series, breaks down, the
circuit becomes open and the flow of current ceases. Normally household electrical
appliances are not connected in series to avoid this problem.

Equivalent resistance of a parallel connection:

If resistors are connected in such a way that the same potential difference gets applied
across each of them, they are said to be connected in parallel.

The schematic circuit of figure is shown in figure.

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According to the Ohm’s law,

V
Current through R1 is, I1 =
R1

V
Current through R2 is, I2 =
R2

V
Current through R3, is, I3 =
R3

Let Req be the equivalent resistance of the resistors is parallel. It is shown in figure.

V
Then we get; I =
R eq

Substituting the values I, I1, I2 and I3 in equation I = I1 + I2 + I3

V V V V
we get   
Req R1 R2 R3

1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 R3

Let two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel,

1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2

R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2

The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less than the resistance of each of
the resistors.

Note: If a resistor connected in series with others is removed or fails, the current through
each resistor becomes zero. On the contrary, if a resistor connected in parallel with others
fails or is removed, the current continues to flow through the other resistors.

Kirchoff’s Laws:
Ohm’s law is unable to give currents in complicated circuits. Kirchoff, in 1842, gave two
general laws which are extremely useful in analysing electric circuits. These are
1. The Junction law 2. The Loop law

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Kirchoff’s current law:

According to this law, the sum of all the currents entering a junction
point in a circuit must be equal to the sum of all the currents leaving I5
it. In other words, the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a
junction is zero. I1 I4
Applying Kirchoff’s current law in the figure, we get
I1  I3  I4  I2  I5 I3
I2

Kirchoff’s voltage law:

According to this law, the algebraic sum of the potential differences in any closed loop,
including those associated with e.m.f’s must be equal to zero.
i.e,  V  0
In order to get the correct value of potential drop for different types of elements, the
following facts must be considered.

Sign convention:
In applying the loop rule, we need sign conventions. First assume a direction for the
current in each branch of the circuit. Then starting at any point in the circuit, when we
travel through a source in the direction from – to +, the e.m.f is considered to be positive,
when we travel from + to -, the e.m.f is considered to be negative.
E A E
A B B
   
path
VB-VA = +E VB-VA = E
When we travel through a resistor in the same direction as the assumed current, the IR
term is negative because the current goes in the direction of decreasing potential. When
we travel through a resistor in the direction opposite to the assumed current, the IR term is
positive because this represents a rise potential.
R A R
A i B i B
   
path path
VB-VA = IR VB-VA = IR

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Wheatstone bridge:
Figure shows the fundamental diagram of a Wheatstone bridge. a
The bridge has four resistances, together with a source of e.m.f I1 I2
(a battery) and a galvanometer, which is a null detector. The R1 R2
galvanometer current depends upon the potential difference G d
c
between the points ‘c’ and ‘d’. The bridge is said to be balanced I4
R3 R4
when the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero so I3
that there is no current through the galvanometer.
b
S
Hence, the bridge is balanced when
I R =Ι R
1 1 2 2 (i)
If the galvanometer current is zero, then
E
I1  I3  (ii)
R1  R3
E
and I2  I4  (iii)
R 2  R4
So I3 R3=I4 R4 (iv)

From (i), (ii) and (iii),

R1 R3

R2 R4
This is known as the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge.

Electrical Energy and Power:

Electrical energy:
We know that energy exists in various forms such as mechanical energy, heat energy,
chemical energy, electrical energy, light energy, nuclear energy, etc. According to the law
of conservation of energy, energy can be transformed from one form to the other, but it
cannot be created or destroyed.
In our daily life we use many devices where electrical energy is converted into heat
energy, light energy, chemical energy, sound energy or mechanical energy.

Examples:

(1) When an electric current is passed through a metallic wire (e.g. the filament of an
electric heater, oven or geyser), the filament gets heated up and the electrical
energy is converted into heat energy which we use for the heating purposes.

(2) When an electric current is passed through an electric lamp, the filament of the bulb
gets heated to an extent that it glows. The electrical energy thus changes into the
heat energy and light energy.

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Measurement of Electrical Energy (Expression W = QV = VIt):

Let a current of I ampere flows through a conductor of resistance R ohm for a time t
second, when a source of potential difference V volt is connected across its ends. We are
to find the amount of electrical energy supplied by the source.
When Q coulomb of electric charge flows through a potential difference of V volt, the
energy released W is given by
W = QV joule ... (1)
But Q = I x t coulomb
 W = VIt joule ... (2)

Actually the work W measures the electrical energy which is supplied by the external
source (battery or mains) in providing the current I ampere for t second in the conductor
under a potential difference of V volt.
By Ohm’s law, V = I R...
From eq (2),
W = I2 Rt joule ... (3)

The relation (3) is also known as Joule’s law of heating which states that the heat
produced in a conductor is directly proportional to (i) the square of current, (ii) the
resistance of conductor, and (iii) the time for which current is passed through the
conductor.
V
Also by Ohm’s law, I =
R
2
V
 From eq (3), W =    R t
R
V2 t
or W joule …. (10.4)
R
Thus, electrical energy supplied by the source
W = Q V joule = V I t joule = I2Rt joule
V2t
 joule
R

SI unit: The S.I. unit of electrical energy is joule (J).

Electrical Power:

Power is the rate of doing work i.e., it is the work done in 1 second. Since work and energy
are equivalent, so in an electrical circuit, we define power as the rate at which electrical
energy is supplied by the source. Thus,

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Units of electrical power:

The SI Unit of electrical power is volt x ampere (VA) or watt (W) or J s–1.
That is, if a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow through a
conductor the electrical power consumed is 1 watt.
Bigger units of power are kilowatt, mega-watt and horse-power (HP). They are related as
1 kilowatt (1 kW) = 1000 W
1 Megawatt (1 MW) = 106 W
1 Horse-power (1 HP) = 746 W

Electric fuse:

The fuse is a safety device in an electric circuit. The characteristics of a fuse are:
(i) It has a low melting point. Generally, fuse wire made from an alloy of 50% lead and
50% tin which melts around 200°C.
(ii) It has a high resistance, such that its temperature rises rapidly as compared to
connecting copper wires. Thus when current exceeds certain limits, it melts.

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