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 PREFACE vii

on them in your own words. Similarly, see if you (evaluation criteria that are specific to a particular re-
can provide your own definition for each term in search design). Also, you can read about these evalu-
the list of key terms. If you come across a topic that ation criteria in the chapter where they are explained.
you have not mastered, study the chapter further If you are asked to identify a problem of prac-
or use another resource, such as Google, which tice and explain how research might shed light on
often yields informative websites. Then take the it, you will find it helpful to refer to the section
self-check test in the chapter, which includes mul- titled An Example of How [chapter topic] Can Help
tiple-choice items related to the chapter’s important in Solving Problems of Practice at the end of most
ideas. If you wish to expand your understanding chapters.
of particular topics, you can read the resources for
further study listed at the end of the chapter.
INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
Prepare for Tests The Instructor’s Manual for the seventh edition of
Applying Educational Research includes sugges-
You can prepare for the instructor’s tests by review-
tions for designing an introductory research course
ing the lists of important ideas and key terms, any
for undergraduate or graduate students in educa-
chapter material that you highlighted, and your
tion and related fields, teaching activities related to
class notes. Another useful strategy is to hold a re-
each chapter’s content, and a test-item bank with
view session with one or more of you classmates.
both multiple-choice and short-answer items cover-
You can take turns acting as the instructor, making
ing the content of each chapter.
up questions about the chapter content and having
classmates answer them.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Complete Homework Assignments We thank our many colleagues who have shared
If your instructor gives you assignments that in- with us their knowledge, insights, and experiences
volve preparing a research proposal or conducting relating to educational research. In particular, we
a study, you can refer to Chapter 2 and the guide express our appreciation to the following reviewers
in Appendix 1 to help you. If you are given as- for their helpful feedback about the sixth edition:
signments involving the preparation of a literature Vikki K. Collins, Troy University; Ronald F. Dugan,
review, you can refer to the chapters in Part Two College of Saint Rose; and Fred Jacobs, American
and Appendix 2. University. We also wish to thank our copyeditor,
If an assignment requires you to evaluate a full- Cassie Tuttle, for her careful review of the manu-
text research article, you can refer to Appendix 3 script and helpful suggestions.
(general criteria for evaluating quantitative research
M. D. (Mark) Gall
studies), Appendix 4 (general criteria for evaluat-
ing qualitative research studies), and Appendix 5 Joyce P. (Joy) Gall
Brief Contents

Part One INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 421

CHAPTER 1 USING RESEARCH EVIDENCE CHAPTER 16 HISTORICAL RESEARCH 445
TO IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE 1
Part Five COMBINING QUANTITATIVE AND
CHAPTER 2 DOING YOUR OWN RESEARCH: QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES TO STUDY
FROM PROPOSAL TO FINAL REPORT 26 PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE
Part Two APPLYING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE CHAPTER 17 MIXED-METHODS
TO PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE RESEARCH 474
CHAPTER 3 CONDUCTING AND WRITING Part Six USING OTHER RESEARCH
YOUR OWN LITERATURE REVIEW 53 METHODOLOGIES TO STUDY PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 4 USING SEARCH ENGINES AND OF PRACTICE
AVAILABLE LITERATURE REVIEWS 91
CHAPTER 18 ACTION RESEARCH 503
Part Three USING QUANTITATIVE CHAPTER 19 EVALUATION RESEARCH 530
METHODOLOGY TO STUDY PROBLEMS
OF PRACTICE SELF-CHECK TEST ANSWERS 551
CHAPTER 5 ANALYZING AND EVALUATING
APPENDIX 1 GUIDE FOR OUTLINING A
REPORTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE
STUDIES 107
RESEARCH PROPOSAL 552
CHAPTER 6 USING DESCRIPTIVE
APPENDIX 2 SEARCH OPTIONS IN THE
STATISTICS TO STUDY PROBLEMS OF
ERIC SEARCH ENGINE 554
PRACTICE 143
APPENDIX 3 QUESTIONS TO ASK
CHAPTER 7 TESTS OF STATISTICAL
YOURSELF WHEN EVALUATING A REPORT
SIGNIFICANCE 165
OF A QUANTITATIVE STUDY 560
CHAPTER 8 THE PRACTICAL
APPENDIX 4 QUESTIONS TO ASK
SIGNIFICANCE OF STATISTICAL RESULTS 185
YOURSELF WHEN EVALUATING A
CHAPTER 9 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 203 REPORT OF A QUALITATIVE STUDY 564
CHAPTER 10 GROUP COMPARISON APPENDIX 5 DESIGN-SPECIFIC
RESEARCH 233 QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF WHEN
CHAPTER 11 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 261 EVALUATING A RESEARCH REPORT 568
CHAPTER 12 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293
GLOSSARY 570
Part Four USING QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY
TO STUDY PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE NAME INDEX 585
CHAPTER 13 CASE STUDIES IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 341 SUBJECT INDEX 593

CHAPTER 14 ETHNOGRAPHY AND

CRITICAL RESEARCH 385

viii
Contents

PREFACE iv ■ Sample Educational Research Study: How

REPRINTED ARTICLES xvii Students’ Sleepy Brains Fail Them 21
Reprint of Journal Article 21

PART ONE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2 DOING YOUR OWN RESEARCH:
FROM PROPOSAL TO FINAL REPORT 26
CHAPTER 1 USING RESEARCH EVIDENCE Identifying a Research Problem 28
TO IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE 1 Outlining a Research Proposal 31
Evidence-Based Professional Practice 3 Purpose of Study 33
Evidence-Based Practice in Medicine 3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 34
Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology 4 Quantitative Variables and Case Delineation 35
Evidence-Based Practice in Education 4 Literature Search 36
Traditional Educational Practice 5 Research Design 36
The Movement Toward Evidence-Based Sampling 37
Education 6 Methods of Data Collection 37
Problems of Practice in Education 6 Data-Analysis Procedures 37
The Ethics of Educational Research Ethics and Human Relations 37
and Practice 7 Timeline 41
The Purpose of Educational Research 9 Other Steps in the Research Process 41
Descriptive Research 10 Pilot Study 41
Prediction Research 10 Data Collection 41
Experimental Research 10 Writing a Research Report 41
Explanatory Research 11 A Final Note about Using a Proposal Guide 42
Basic and Applied Research 11 Self-Check Test 42
Characteristics of Research as an Approach Chapter References 43
to Inquiry 12
Resources for Further Study 44
Use of Concepts and Procedures That Are
Shared, Precise, and Accessible 12 ■ Sample Outline of a Quantitative
Replicability of Findings 12 Research Proposal 45
Refutability of Knowledge Claims 13 ■ Sample Outline of a Qualitative
Control for Researcher Errors and Biases 13 Research Proposal 49
Quantitative and Qualitative Research 13
Collaborating with Researchers 14
PART TWO APPLYING THE RESEARCH
Being a Research Participant 15
LITERATURE TO PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE
Participating in Program Evaluations 16
Influencing Policy Agendas for Education 16
A Personal Note: The Research “Spark” 16 CHAPTER 3 CONDUCTING AND WRITING
Mark Gall 16 YOUR OWN LITERATURE REVIEW 53
Joy Gall 17 Informal Literature Reviews 54
You 17 Formal Literature Reviews 55
■ An Example of How Research Can Help in Solving Professional Literature Reviews 56
Problems of Practice 17 A Systematic Procedure for Doing Formal
Self-Check Test 18 Literature Reviews 56
Chapter References 19 Step 1: Framing Questions to Guide the
Resources for Further Study 20 Literature Search 56
ix
x CONTENTS

Step 2: Consulting with Experts 57 Handbooks 101

Step 3: Using Bibliographic Indexes and Yearbooks, Journals, and Periodic Reports 101
Search Engines 58 Criteria for Evaluating Published Literature Reviews 102
Step 4: Reading Secondary Sources 58 ■ An Example of How Literature Reviews
Step 5: Reading Primary Sources 58 Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 104
Step 6: Classifying and Taking Notes on Self-Check Test 104
Publications 59 Chapter Reference 105
Step 7A: Analyzing Trends in Research Results Resources for Further Study 105
across Quantitative Studies 60
Step 7B: Analyzing Trends in Research Results
across Qualitative Studies 62 PART THREE USING QUANTITATIVE
Step 8: Preparing a Report of a Literature Review 64 METHODOLOGY TO STUDY PROBLEMS OF
Parts and Presentation of a Stand-Alone PRACTICE
Literature Review 64
Introductory Section 65
Section on Findings 65
CHAPTER 5 ANALYZING AND EVALUATING
Discussion Section 65
REPORTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
References 66
STUDIES 107
Preparing a Visual Presentation of Organization of a Quantitative Research Report 109
a Literature Review 67 Abstract and Introduction 110
Self-Check Test 68 Constructs and Variables 110
Chapter References 69 Variables and Constants 111
Resources for Further Study 69 Research Hypotheses, Questions, and Objectives 112
■ Sample Professional Review: The Case Literature Review 112
For and Against Homework 71 The Researchers’ Qualifications 113
Method Section: Sampling Procedures 113
Reprint of Journal Article 71
Types of Sampling 114
■ Sample Meta-Analysis: The Process Volunteer Samples 115
Writing Approach: A Meta-Analysis 76 Population Validity 115
Reprint of Journal Article 77 Method Section: Measures 116
Types of Measures 116
Validity of Measures 120
CHAPTER 4 USING SEARCH ENGINES Reliability of Measures 122
AND AVAILABLE LITERATURE REVIEWS 91 Item Response Theory 124
The Purpose of Search Engines 92 Limitations to Tests of Validity and Reliability 125
Bibliographic Indexes and Search Engines 92 Sources of Information about Established Measures 125
Selecting a Useful Search Engine 93 Developing a Measure 125
Comprehensive Search Engines for Websites 94 Method Section: Research Design
and Procedures 127
Search Engine for Bibliographies 94
Results Section 127
Search Engines for Book Reviews 94
Discussion Section 128
Search Engines for Books 94
■ An Example of How Quantitative
Search Engine for Dissertations and Theses 95 Research Can Help in Solving Problems
Search Engines for Journal Articles, Papers, of Practice 128
and Reports 95 Self-Check Test 129
Search Engines for Magazine and Chapter References 130
Newspaper Articles 96
Resources for Further Study 130
Using Search Engines 97
Citation Managers 97 ■ Sample Quantitative Research Study:
Obtaining a Publication After a Literature Search 97 Developing a Measure of Behavior Change in a
Locating Published Literature Reviews 98 Program to Help Low-Income Parents Prevent
Search Engines 98 Unhealthful Weight Gain in Children 132
Encyclopedias 100 Reprint of Journal Article 132
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 6 USING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ■ An Example of How Tests of Statistical

TO STUDY PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE 143 Significance Can Help in Solving Problems
of Practice 182
Constructs, Variables, and Measurement Scales 146 Self-Check Test 183
Constructs 146 Chapter References 184
Variables 146 Resources for Further Study 184
Types of Measurement Scales 147
Statistical Analysis of Data 148
Statistics and Parameters 148 CHAPTER 8 THE PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Descriptive Statistics 149 OF STATISTICAL RESULTS 185
Measures of Central Tendency 149
The Practical Significance of Statistical Results 186
Measures of Variability 153
Comparisons with Personal and Organizational
Multivariate Descriptive Statistics 158 Standards 186
Correlational Analysis 158 Comparisons with Ideal Standards 187
Group Comparisons 159 Comparisons with Curriculum Standards 187
Calculating Descriptive Statistics 161 Comparisons Based on Rankings 189
■ An Example of How Descriptive Statistics
Comparisons Involving Tables of Norms 189
Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 161
Grade Equivalents 190
Self-Check Test 162
Age Equivalents 190
Chapter References 163
Percentile Ranks 190
Resources for Further Study 163
Comparisons Involving Standard Scores 192
The Most Common Standard Score:
CHAPTER 7 TESTS OF STATISTICAL The z-Score 192
SIGNIFICANCE 165 The Presentation of z-Scores in Table Form 193
The Practical Significance of z-Scores 193
The Logic of Statistical Significance and
Types of Standard Scores 194
Confidence Intervals 166
Effect Sizes 194
Population Data and Sample Data 166
Gain Scores 196
Drawing Random Samples from a Population 167
Percentage Gains and Losses 196
Confidence Intervals 170
Status Models and Growth Models for School
Inferential Statistics 172
Accountability 197
The Null Hypothesis 173
Practical Significance as an Interpretive Process 198
The Meaning of p Values and Statistical ■ An Example of How Determining the
Significance 173
Practical Significance of Statistical Results
Type I and Type II Errors 174 Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 198
Directional Hypotheses 174 Self-Check Test 199
Statistical Power 174 Chapter References 200
Tests of Statistical Significance 175 Resources for Further Study 200
Comparison of Two Sample Means 175
■ Sample Educational Research Study:
Comparison of More Than Two Sample Means 176
Can Growth Ever Be beside the Point? 201
Comparisons of Sample Means in Complex
Data Sets 177 Reprint of Journal Article 201
Interaction Effects 177
Analysis of Covariance 178
Comparisons Between Sample Frequencies 179 CHAPTER 9 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 203
Comparisons Between Correlation Coefficients 180 The Relevance of Descriptive Research
Parametric Versus Nonparametric Tests of to Educational Practice 204
Statistical Significance 180 Examples of Descriptive Research 205
Cautions in Interpreting Tests of Statistical Descriptive Research in Popular Media 205
Significance 180 Descriptive Research Conducted by Public
Calculating Statistics 181 and Private Institutes 206
Using Statistics to Improve Professional Descriptive Research in Academic
Practice 181 and Professional Journals 209
xii CONTENTS

Features of a Descriptive Research Report 210 ■ Sample Group Comparison Research Study:
Introduction 211 Jordanian Prospective and Experienced
Research Design 212 Chemistry Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching
Sampling Procedure 212 and Learning and their Potential Role for
Measures 213 Educational Reform 248
Results 216 Reprint of Journal Article 248
Discussion 217
Evaluating a Descriptive Research Study 218
■ An Example of How Descriptive Research CHAPTER 11 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 261
Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 218 Comparison of Correlational and Group Comparison
Self-Check Test 219 Research Designs 262
Chapter References 220 Examples of Correlational Research 263
Resources for Further Study 220 Factors Associated with Teachers’ Job Satisfaction 263
■
Factors Associated with High School Students’
Sample Descriptive Research Study: Grades, Feelings about School, and Satisfaction
Examining the Extent and Nature of Online with Their Life 264
Learning in American K–12 Education: The Factors Associated with Parental Competence and
Research Initiatives of the Alfred P. Sloan Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems 264
Foundation 222 Correlation between Two Variables 265
Reprint of Journal Article 222 The Advantages of Continuous Variables 265
Using Scattergrams to Represent Correlation 267
The Meaning of Correlation Coefficients for
CHAPTER 10 GROUP COMPARISON Two Variables 269
RESEARCH 233 Types of Bivariate Correlational Statistics 270
Statistical Significance and Effect Size for Bivariate
Classification of Quantitative Research Designs 234 Correlational Statistics 272
Nonexperimental Research Involving Causal Correlation Involving More Than Two Variables 272
Relationships 235
Multiple Regression 272
The Relevance of Group Comparison Research to
Discriminant Analysis and Logistic Regression 273
Educational Practice 235
Canonical Correlation 274
Examples of Group Comparison Research 236
Hierarchical Linear Modeling 274
Comparison of Rural, Suburban, and
Urban Students 236 Path Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling 275
Comparison of Girls and Boys Who Have Autism Differential Analysis 275
Spectrum Disorder 236 Factor Analysis 275
Comparison of Students with Good School Features of a Correlational Research Report 276
Attendance and a Stable Residence and Students Introduction 276
with Poor School Attendance and a Nonstable Research Design 277
Residence 237
Sampling Procedure 277
Features of a Group Comparison
Measures 277
Research Report 237
Results 278
Introduction 237
Discussion: Implications for Practice 280
Research Design 238
Evaluating a Correlational Research Study 280
Sampling Procedure 239
■ An Example of How Correlational
Measures 240
Research Can Help in Solving Problems
Results 240 of Practice 281
Discussion: Implications for Practice 244 Self-Check Test 282
Evaluating a Group Comparison Research Study 244 Chapter References 283
■ An Example of How Group Comparison Resources for Further Study 283
Research Can Help in Solving Problems
of Practice 245 ■ Sample Correlational Research Study: The
Self-Check Test 246 Measurement and Predictive Ability of
Chapter References 247 Metacognition in Middle School Learners 284
Resources for Further Study 247 Reprint of Journal Article 284
 CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER 12 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 293 ■ Sample Group Experiment: After-School

The Relevance of Experimental Research Multifamily Groups: A Randomized
to Educational Practice 295 Controlled Trial Involving Low-Income,
Characteristics of Experiments 296 Urban, Latino Children 322
Phases of an Experiment 297 Reprint of Journal Article 322
Examples of Experimental Research 298 ■ Sample Single-Case Experiment: Increasing
Effects of Different Class Sizes 298
On-Task Behavior in the Classroom:
Effects of Cash Incentives to Poor Families 299
Extension of Self-Monitoring Strategies 332
Effects of a Teaching Technique Using Questions
and Graphic Organizers 300 Reprint of Journal Article 332
Features of a Report of a Pretest-Posttest
Control-Group Experiment with Randomization 300
Introduction 301 PART FOUR USING QUALITATIVE
Research Design 301
METHODOLOGY TO STUDY PROBLEMS OF
Sampling Procedure 303
PRACTICE
Measures 303
Results 303 CHAPTER 13 CASE STUDIES IN
Discussion: Implications for Practice 304 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 341
Other Group Experiment Designs 305 How Qualitative Case Study Research Can Help
Quasi-Experiments 305 Educators Solve Problems of Practice 343
Factorial Experimental Designs 307 Example of a Case Story 343
Threats to the Internal Validity of Experiments 307 Key Characteristics of Case Studies 343
History Effect 308 Study of Particular Instances of a Phenomenon 344
Maturation Effect 308 In-Depth Study of the Case 344
Testing Effect 308 Study of a Phenomenon in Its Natural Context 344
Instrumentation Effect 308 Representation of Both the Emic and Etic
Statistical Regression 309 Perspectives 345
Differential Selection 309 Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 345
Selection-Maturation Interaction 309 Examples of Case Studies 347
Experimental Mortality 310 A Case Study of Teacher Development 347
Threats Directly Involving the Experimental A Case Study of Instructional Technologists’ Work 348
Intervention 310 A Case Study of Educational Privatization 348
Threats to the External Validity of Experiments 311 The Nature of Qualitative Research 349
Population Validity 311 Qualitative Research Traditions 350
Personological Variables 311 Features of a Case Study Report 352
Ecological Validity 311 Introduction 352
Single-Case Experiments 311 Research Design 353
Features of a Report of a Single-Case Experiment 312 Sampling Procedure 353
Introduction 312 Data-Collection Procedures 354
Research Design 313 Data Analysis 355
Sampling Procedure 314 Findings 358
Measures 315 Discussion 360
Results 315 Checking the Applicability of Case Study Findings 360
Discussion: Implications for Practice 316 Evaluating the Quality and Rigor of a Case Study 361
Evaluating an Experimental Research Study 317 Assessment of Usefulness 362
■ An Example of How Experimental Participant Involvement 362
Research Can Help in Solving Problems Inclusion of Quantitative Data 362
of Practice 317 Long-Term Observation 362
Self-Check Test 319 Coding Checks 362
Chapter References 320 Member Checks 362
Resources for Further Study 321 Triangulation 363
xiv CONTENTS

Contextual Completeness 363 Self-Check Test 406

Chain of Evidence 363 Chapter References 407
Researcher Reflection 363 Resources for Further Study 408
■ An Example of How Case Study Research ■ Sample Critical Ethnography: Destination
Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 364
Raval Sud: A Visual Ethnography on
Self-Check Test 365
Pedagogy, Aesthetics, and the Spatial
Chapter References 366
Experience of Growing Up Urban 410
Resources for Further Study 367
Reprint of Journal Article 410
■ Sample Case Story: Teaching Secrets:
Ask the Kids! 368
Reprint of Journal Article 368 CHAPTER 15 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 421
■ Sample Case Study: Exemplary Social Narratives as a Focus for Research 422
Studies Teachers’ Use of Computer- The Difference between Narrative Research and
Supported Instruction in the Classroom 369 Case Study Research 423
Types of Narratives and Narrative Identities 423
Reprint of Journal Article 369
Examples of Narrative Research in Education 424
State-Sanctioned Narratives and Student
CHAPTER 14 ETHNOGRAPHY AND Narratives 424
CRITICAL RESEARCH 385 A Teacher’s Career Progression 425
The Use of Ethnography and Critical Research Theatrical Performance Based on Narratives from
to Study Problems of Practice in Education 387 Mothers of Children with Disabilities 426
The Characteristics of Ethnographic Research 387 Features of a Narrative Research Report 428
Focus on Culture or Aspects of Culture 387 Introduction 428
Naturalistic Study of Individuals in the Field 388 Research Design 429
Making the Familiar Strange 388 Sampling Procedure 429
Thick Description 389 Data-Collection Procedures 429
Differences Between Ethnographies and Basic Data Analysis 430
Case Studies 389 Discussion 432
Examples of Ethnographic Research 390 Evaluating a Narrative Research Study 433
An Ethnography of Government-Mandated ■ An Example of How Narrative Research
After-School Tutoring 390 Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 433
An Ethnography of Video Blogging 391 Self-Check Test 434
Critical Research as a Field of Inquiry and Practice 391 Chapter References 435
Examples of Issues Studied by Criticalists 392 Resources for Further Study 436
The Value Orientation of Critical Research 392 ■ Sample Narrative Research Study:
The Epistemological Orientation of Critical Teacher Identity and Early Career
Research 394
Resilience: Exploring the Links 437
The Contribution of Criticalist Thinking
to Research 396 Reprint of Journal Article 437
Foundations of Critical Research in Education 396
Cultural Studies 397
CHAPTER 16 HISTORICAL RESEARCH 445
Critical Pedagogy 398
The Role of Theory in Critical Research 398 The Nature of Historical Research 446
Features of a Critical Ethnographic Research Report 399 The Role of Historical Research in Education 446
Introduction 399 Revisionist History 447
Research Design, Sampling, Measures, Futurology 448
and Results 400 Methods of Historical Research 448
Conclusion 404 Identifying Historical Sources 449
Evaluating Ethnographies and Critical Ethnographies 404 Search Engines and Bibliographic
■ An Example of How Ethnography and Indexes 449
Critical Research Can Help in Solving Secondary Sources 449
Problems of Practice 405 Primary Sources 449
 CONTENTS xv

Validating Historical Evidence 451 Results 486

Procedures for Determining the Authenticity Discussion 487
of Historical Sources 452 Evaluating Reports of Mixed-Methods Studies 488
Procedures for Determining the Accuracy ■ An Example of How Mixed-Methods
of Historical Sources 452 Research Can Help in Solving Problems
Interpreting Historical Data 453 of Practice 488
Causal Inference in Historical Research 453 Self-Check Test 491
Generalizing from Historical Evidence 454 Chapter References 492
Using Quantitative Materials in Historical Research 454 Resources for Further Study 493
Features of a Historical Research Report 455 ■ Sample Mixed-Methods Research Study:
Statement of Purpose 455 A Portrait of Administrator, Teacher,
Historical Chronology 455 and Parent Perceptions of Title I School
Lessons to Be Learned from a Historical Study 456 Improvement Plans 494
Historical Concepts 457
Reprint of Journal Article 494
Evaluating Historical Research 457
■ An Example of How Historical Research
Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 458
Self-Check Test 460 PART SIX USING OTHER RESEARCH
Chapter References 460 METHODOLOGIES TO STUDY PROBLEMS
Resources for Further Study 461 OF PRACTICE
■ Sample Historical Research Study: Go To
the Principal’s Office: Toward a Social CHAPTER 18 ACTION RESEARCH 503
History of the School Principal in North The History of Action Research 504
America 462 Using Action Research to Address Problems
Reprint of Journal Article 462 of Practice 505
Examples of Action Research Studies 506
Bullying in Middle School 506
PART FIVE COMBINING QUANTITATIVE AND
Developing Gateways for All High School
QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES TO STUDY Students to Excel 506
PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE The Effectiveness of Reciprocal Teaching 507
Design Features of Action Research 507
CHAPTER 17 MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH 474 Step One: Selection of a Focus for the Study 507
Step Two: Data Collection 508
The Need for Multiple Research Methods 475
Step Three: Analysis and Interpretation of the Data 508
A Research Question That Requires a Quantitative
Research Method 477 Step Four: Taking Action 508
A Research Question That Requires a Qualitative Step Five: Reflection 509
Research Method 477 Step Six: Continuation or Modification
A Research Question Answerable of Practices 510
by Either Quantitative or Qualitative Step Seven: Preparing a Report of the Findings 510
Research Methods 477 How Action Research Differs from Educators’ Other
Types of Mixed-Methods Research 479 Approaches to Problem Solving 510
Using Qualitative Methods to Explain Purposes and Benefits of Action Research 511
Quantitative Findings 479 Applying Action Science to Action Research 512
Using a Theoretical Perspective to Guide a The Insider/Outsider Perspective in Collaborative
Mixed-Methods Study 481 Action Research 512
Using Qualitative and Quantitative Methods to Evaluating the Credibility and Trustworthiness of
Triangulate Findings 483 Action Research Projects 513
Reading a Mixed-Methods Research Report 484 Outcome Validity 513
Introduction 484 Process Validity 514
Research Design 485 Democratic Validity 514
Sampling Procedure 485 Catalytic Validity 514
Measures 485 Dialogic Validity 515
xvi CONTENTS

■ An Example of How Action Research Can Chapter References 544

Help in Solving Problems of Practice 515 Resources for Further Study 545
Self-Check Test 516
■ Sample Evaluation Research Study: What
Chapter References 517
Did the Teachers Think? Teachers’
Resources for Further Study 518
Responses to the Use of Value-Added
■ Sample Action Research Study: Modeling as a Tool for Evaluating Teacher
Recognizing a “Different Drum” Effectiveness 546
Through Close-Reading Strategies 519 Reprint of Journal Article 546
Reprint of Journal Article 519
Self-Check Test Answers 551
CHAPTER 19 EVALUATION RESEARCH 530 Appendix 1 Guide for Outlining a Quantitative or
The Use of Evaluation Research in Educational Qualitative Research Proposal 552
Decision Making 531 Appendix 2 Search Options in the ERIC Search
Examples of Evaluation Research 532 Engine 554
Programs as a Focus of Evaluation Research 533 Appendix 3 Questions to Ask Yourself When
Evaluation Research as a Political Activity 533 Evaluating a Report of a Quantitative
Models of Evaluation Research 534 Study 560
Objectives-Based Evaluation 534 Appendix 4 Questions to Ask Yourself When
Needs Assessment 534 Evaluating a Report of a Qualitative
The Context-Input-Process-Product (CIPP) Model 535 Study 564
Responsive Evaluation 535 Appendix 5 Design-Specific Questions to
Educational Research and Development 538 Ask Yourself When Evaluating a
How to Read an Evaluation Research Report 539 Research Report 568
Evaluating Evaluation Research and Uses of Glossary 570
Evaluation in Educational Practice 540
■ An Example of How Program Evaluations Name Index 585
Can Help in Solving Problems of Practice 542
Self-Check Test 543 Subject Index 593
Reprinted Articles

The following articles are reprinted exactly as they appeared in the original source, except that
the format of the original articles (e.g., column layout) has been standardized for presentation
in this text. Two exceptions are the reprinted case study in Chapter 13 and the reprinted article
in Chapter 14, where several typographical errors in the original articles were corrected with the
permission of the authors of these articles.

CHAPTER 1
Use of Research Evidence, p. 21
Willis, J. (2009). How students’ sleepy brains fail them. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(4), 158–162.

CHAPTER 3
Professional Review, p. 71
Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2007). The case for and against homework. Educational
Leadership, 64(6), 74–79.
Meta-Analysis, p. 76
Graham, S., & Sandmel, K. (2011). The process writing approach: A meta-analysis. The Journal of
Educational Research, 104(6), 396–407.

CHAPTER 5
Quantitative Research Study, p. 132
Dickin, K. L., Lent, M., Lu, A. H., Sequeira, J., & Dollahite, J. S. (2012). Developing a measure of
behavior change in a program to help low-income parents prevent unhealthful weight gain in
children. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 44(1), 12–21.

CHAPTER 8
Practical Significance of Research Findings, p. 201
Popham, W. J. (2005). Can growth ever be beside the point? Educational Leadership, 63(3),
83–84.

CHAPTER 9
Descriptive Research Study, p. 222
Picciano, A. G., Seaman, J., Shea, P., & Swan, K. (2012). Examining the extent and nature of
online learning in American K–12 education: The research initiatives of the Alfred P. Sloan
Foundation. Internet and Higher Education, 15, 127–135.

CHAPTER 10
Group Comparison Research Study, p. 248
Al-Amoush, S. A., Abu-Hola, I., & Eilks, I. (2011). Jordanian prospective and experienced
chemistry teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning and their potential for educational
reform. Science Education International, 22(3), 185–201.
xvii
xviii REPRINTED ARTICLES

CHAPTER 11
Correlational Research Study, p. 284
Sperling, R. A., Richmond, A. S., Ramsay C. M., & Klapp, M. (2012). The measurement and
predictive ability of metacognition in middle school learners. Journal of Educational Research,
105(1), 1–7.

CHAPTER 12
Group Experiment, p. 322
McDonald, L., Moberg, D. P., Brown, R., Rodriguez-Espiricueta, I., Flores, N. I., Burke, M. P., &
Coover, G. (2006). After-school multifamily groups: A randomized controlled trial involving low-
income, urban, Latino children. Children & Schools, 28(1), 25–34.
Single-Case Experiment, p. 332
Amato-Zech, N. A., Hoff, K. E., & Doepke, K. J. (2006). Increasing on-task behavior in
the classroom: Extension of self-monitoring strategies. Psychology in the Schools, 43(2),
211–221.

CHAPTER 13
Case Story, p. 368
Sacks, A. (2007, September 11). Teaching secrets: Ask the kids! Teacher Magazine. Retrieved
January 17, 2009 from www.teachermagazine.org/tm/articles/2007/09/11/03tln_sacks_web.h19.html
Case Study, p. 369
Açikalin, M. (2010). Exemplary social studies teachers’ use of computer-supported instruction in
the classroom. TOJET: The Turkish Journal of Educational Technology, 9(4), 66–82.

CHAPTER 14
Critical Ethnography, p. 410
Trafi-Prats, L (2009). Destination Raval Sud: A visual ethnography on pedagogy, aesthetics, and
the spatial experience of growing up urban. Studies in Art Education, 51(1), 6–20.

CHAPTER 15
Narrative Research Study, p. 437
Pearce, J., & Morrison, C. (2011). Teacher identity and early career resilience: Exploring the links.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), Article 4, 48–59.

CHAPTER 16
Historical Research Study, p. 462
Rousmaniere, K. (2007). Go to the principal’s office: Toward a social history of the school
principal in North America. History of Education Quarterly, 47(1), 1–22.

CHAPTER 17
Mixed-Methods Research Study, p. 494
Isernhagen, J. C. (2012). A portrait of administrator, teacher, and parent perceptions of Title I
school improvement plans. The Journal of At-Risk Issues, 17(1), 1–7.
 REPRINTED ARTICLES xix

CHAPTER 18
Action Research Study, p. 519
Lassonde, C. A. (2009). Recognizing a “different drum” through close-reading strategies.
Networks: An On-line Journal for Teacher Research, 11(1). Retrieved from http://journals.library.
wisc.edu/index.php/networks/article/view/188

CHAPTER 19
Evaluation Research Study, p. 546
Lee, L. (2011). What did the teachers think? Teachers’ responses to the use of value-added
modeling as a tool for evaluating teacher effectiveness. Journal of Urban Learning, Teaching, and
Research, 7, 97–103.
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R ON E

Using Research
Evidence to Improve
Educational Practice
PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE in this chapter
■ How much emphasis should a language arts curriculum place on nonfiction
works versus fiction?
■ Is students’ physical fitness important for their learning?
■ Does the Internet support or hurt student learning?
■ What criteria should be used to evaluate teacher performance?
■ What can be done to improve high school graduation rates?
■ How can educators help the many students who switch from one school
district to another each year?
■ What can be done to help elementary teachers place more emphasis on
developing children’s thinking skills?
■ How much federal funding for education should be allocated for research?

IMPORTANT Ideas
1. Educational research is having an increasing impact on educational policy and
practice.
2. Evidence-based practice is becoming more prevalent in medicine, psychology,
education, and other professions.
3. Teachers’ traditional motivations and workplace conditions have not been
conducive to evidence-based practice.
4. Evidence-based practice in education has four key elements: (1) focus on
problems of practice, (2) reliance on research evidence, (3) clinical expertise,
and (4) respect for stakeholders’ values.
5. An important impetus for improving education is heightened awareness of
pressing problems of practice and a commitment to solve them.
6. Educators need to understand research methodology so they can evaluate the
quality of others’ research or conduct their own research.
7. Educators need to view research evidence from multiple ethical perspectives.
8. Educators can collaborate productively with researchers by participating in
their research studies or by joining with them in shaping policy agendas to
improve education.

1
2 PART I • INTRODUCTION

9. Research differs from other forms of inquiry in its emphasis on (1) making
direct observations of phenomena; (2) taking steps to eliminate, or make
explicit, personal bias in data collection, analysis, and interpretation; and
(3) carefully determining the generalizability of findings to individuals and
situations other than those that were studied.
10. Research produces four types of knowledge: (1) descriptions, (2) predictions,
(3) evidence about the effects of experimental interventions, and (4) explanations.
11. The purpose of basic research is to understand fundamental processes and
structures that underlie observed behavior, whereas the purpose of applied
research is to develop and validate interventions that can be used directly to
improve practice.
12. Postmodernists believe that no one method of inquiry is inherently better than
any other, whereas social scientists believe that their methods of inquiry have a
special legitimacy and claim to authority, based on use of (1) explicitly defined
concepts or procedures available for inspection by anyone; (2) replication studies
to test the soundness of findings from a single study; (3) knowledge claims that
can be tested, and possibly refuted, by empirical data; and (4) explicit procedures
to minimize researcher errors and biases.
13. Quantitative and qualitative research differ in various ways, but chiefly in
epistemology. Quantitative researchers assume an objective social reality
that exists independently of observers and participants, whereas qualitative
researchers assume that social reality is continuously constructed by observers
and participants.
14. Mixed-methods research studies make use of both quantitative and qualitative
research methods.

KEY TERMS
action research epistemology progressive discourse
APA Presidential Task Force on evaluation research qualitative research
Evidence-Based Practice evidence-based practice quantitative research
applied research experimental method reflexivity
basic research interpretivism refutation
clinical expertise No Child Left Behind Act replication
Cochrane Collaboration positivism theory
construct postmodernism triangulation
descriptive research prediction research What Works Clearinghouse
educational research

Each of the principal authors of this book (Mark We also are impressed by the expansion of
Gall and Joy Gall) has had a career in education educational research over the past 40 years. An
spanning more than 40 years. Our experience leads ever-growing network of researchers throughout
us to stand in awe of the many educational practi- the world has developed sophisticated methods for
tioners (called educators in this book) who do such studying the educational enterprise, producing a
a remarkable job of teaching increasingly diverse substantial body of research knowledge and efficient
students while also performing many other school electronic methods for accessing it.
functions, all in the face of ever-present budgetary Unfortunately, something is missing from this
challenges and shifting policy initiatives. picture of progress. We have not yet witnessed a
 CHAPTER 1 • USING RESEARCH EVIDENCE TO IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE 3

meaningful bridge between educational research Evidence-based practice is changing the foun-
and educational practice. Researchers and educa- dations of various professions. We will consider
tors live mostly in separate worlds. They come two of these professions—medicine and clinical
together only occasionally in university courses, psychology—before discussing evidence-based
workshops, conferences, and journals that both practice in education. Perhaps you will agree with
groups read. us that evidence-based practice is not just a passing
There are signs, though, that the two worlds— fad, but rather a fundamental advance.
the world of educational practice and the world
of educational research—are coming closer. The
signs, mostly seen at the level of national legisla-
Evidence-Based Practice in Medicine
tion and policy making, point to a sea change in Suppose you have a heart problem and seek treat-
education. The findings of educational research ment for it. How do you decide on the best treat-
are becoming increasingly influential in shaping ment? You might try to contact other patients with
national and state legislation about education, the same problem. Perhaps they will offer testi-
which in turn is compelling changes in educational monials about some medicine or individual who
practice. helped them. Another option is to seek a profes-
If you are an educator, these changes mean that sional opinion, probably by making an appoint-
you will need to study research if you wish to en- ment to see a doctor with expertise, such as a
ter into a dialogue with researchers and the policy board-certified doctor in cardiology.
makers who make decisions based on research Testimonials, case examples, and expert opin-
findings. Otherwise, you and your colleagues might ions can be worthwhile. On the other hand, they
find yourselves in the uncomfortable position of might lead you astray if they are based on untested
trying to implement programs and policies that you beliefs, inaccurate observations, or reliance on out-
did not have a voice in shaping. moded research. Evidence-based practice in medi-
In short, we claim that educational research is cine represents an effort to avoid such pitfalls. It
becoming too important for anyone interested in does so by basing treatment decisions on the best
schooling to ignore. In the next sections, we make possible research evidence about a patient’s condi-
our case for the validity of this claim. We invite you tion (Straus et al., 2010).
to reflect on the soundness of the claim and, if you Evidence-based medical practice has two sig-
think it has merit, how you plan to respond in your nificant features. The first involves the need to
role as an educator. identify good research evidence. The fact that
a research study has been published does not
necessarily guarantee that its findings are sound.
EVIDENCE-BASED Professionals need to sift through research find-
ings to determine which ones hold up well under
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE critical scrutiny. Although researchers might be
The movement called evidence-based practice has in the best position to do this screening, medical
created a remarkable change in the relationship practitioners also need to understand research
between educational research and practice. This methodology to validate for themselves what oth-
relatively new approach to professional decision ers consider good research evidence for a par-
making relies on rigorous research findings rather ticular treatment option. For example, medical
than custom, personal experience, or intuition. For practitioners need to understand that researchers
example, suppose a teacher recommends that a use systematic procedures to synthesize evidence
student needs one-on-one tutoring to come up to collected across research studies on a particular
grade level in writing skills. Suppose the parents medical intervention, such as meta-analysis, which
ask whether tutoring is likely to help their child. we describe in Chapter 4.
A teacher who is well versed in evidence-based Several organizations coordinate and publish
practice would be able to refer to research findings these research syntheses. Among the most promi-
demonstrating the effectiveness of tutoring and nent is the Cochrane Collaboration, whose web-
then justify the applicability of this research to their site (cochrane.org) publishes reviews of research
child’s needs. on interventions for various medical problems. For
4 PART I • INTRODUCTION

example, when we visited the site, we found fea- importance of the client’s individual characteristics
tured reviews on the use of sound therapies for au- in determining an effective intervention.
tism spectrum disorders, behavioral interventions The Task Force concluded that a variety of
to reduce the transmission of HIV infection, and research methods can generate evidence to guide
the comparative effectiveness of computer-assisted psychological practice, among which are methods
and oral-and-written methods for recording the diet that are also commonly used in educational research.
history of patients with diabetes. These methods are covered in different chapters of
The second feature of evidence-based medi- this book:
cal practice is the use of clinical expertise in
■ Clinical observation, including individual case
applying research evidence. A treatment option
studies (Chapter 13)
that is generally effective might be harmful for a
■ Single-case experimental designs (Chapter 12)
particular patient. For this reason, the Cochrane
■ Ethnographic research (Chapter 14)
Collaboration states: “Evidence-based medicine
■ Experiments on treatment efficacy (Chapter 12)
is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of
■ Meta-analysis to synthesize research results
current best evidence in making decisions about
from multiple studies (Chapter 4)
the care of individual patients” (Cochrane Collab-
oration, n.d.). Clinical expertise is the ability to Keep in mind, then, that learning about the meth-
make informed ethical judgments about whether ods of educational research described in this book
a particular professional intervention is both evi- has multiple benefits. Your learning will apply
dence-based and appropriate for the needs of an to education but also will generalize to research
individual client. as it is conducted in other professions, including
We see then that evidence-based medicine does psychology, medicine, business, and technology
not seek to improve medical practice by research development.
evidence alone or by clinical expertise alone. Both The Task Force analyzed eight components of
are necessary in order to create a sound bridge clinical expertise in psychology. Struck by their ap-
between medical research and medical practice. plicability to clinical expertise in teaching, we list
them in Figure 1.1. As you study the list, we invite
Evidence-Based Practice you to draw parallels to the teaching process and to
reflect on how it is possible to interweave clinical
in Psychology expertise and research evidence.
Psychological practice to help clients with various
emotional, cognitive, and medical problems has
grown enormously over the past half-century. Re- EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
cently, it has evolved into evidence-based practice.
In 2005, the American Psychological Association
IN EDUCATION
(APA) commissioned the APA Presidential Task Robert Slavin (2002) provides us with a concise
Force on Evidence-Based Practice (APA Task Force, statement about the history of educational practice
2006). The work of this task force should be of and its current status:
interest to educators because educational practice
At the dawn of the 21st century, education is
has been influenced greatly by psychology, espe-
finally being dragged, kicking and screaming,
cially in the areas of achievement testing, instruc- into the 20th century. The scientific revolution
tional design, and behavior management. that utterly transformed medicine, agriculture,
The APA Task Force defined evidence-based transportation, technology, and other fields
practice in psychology as “the integration of the early in the 20th century almost completely by-
best available research with clinical expertise in passed the field of education. If Rip Van Winkle
the context of patient characteristics, culture, and had been a physician, a farmer, or an engineer,
preferences” (APA Task Force 2006, p. 273). You will he would be unemployable if he awoke today.
notice that this definition is similar to the Cochrane If he had been a good elementary school teacher
Collaboration’s definition of evidence-based medi- in the 19th century, he would probably be a
cine, but with an even greater emphasis on the good elementary school teacher today. It is not
 Another Random Document on
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British occupation of Toulon, and returned, after the failure of the
expedition, to Scotland, where he organized a regiment of infantry,
the 90th Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd Battalion Scottish
Rifles). Graham’s men were the first regiment in the army to be
equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they were not
officially recognized as such for many years. In the same year
(1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig interest,
for the county of Perth. He saw some active service in 1795 in
“conjunct expeditions” of the army and navy, and in 1796, being
then a brevet colonel, he was appointed British commissioner at the
headquarters of the Austrian army in Italy. He took part in the
operations against Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut up in Mantua with
Würmser’s army, escaped in disguise, and after many adventures
reached the relieving army of Alvinzi just before the battle of Rivoli.
On returning to his regiment he served in more “conjunct”
expeditions, in one of which, at Messina, he co-operated with
Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as brigadier-general to invest the
fortress of Valetta, Malta. He blockaded the place for two years, and
though Major-General Pigot arrived shortly before the close of the
blockade and assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands
almost wholly to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir
Alexander Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his
regiment was engaged in Abercromby’s expedition, but arrived too
late to take part in any fighting. He took the opportunity afforded by
the peace of Amiens to visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and France,
and only resumed command of his regiment in 1804. When the
latter was ordered to the West Indies he devoted himself to his
duties as a member of parliament. He sat for Perthshire until 1807,
when he was defeated, as he was again in 1812. Graham was with
Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in Spain 1808-1809, and was present
at his death at the battle of Corunna. In 1809 he became a major-
general, and after taking part in the disastrous Walcheren expedition
he was promoted lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810).

In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under

General la Peña (see Peninsular War), he took the offensive, and won
the brilliant action of Barossa (5th of March). The victory was made
barren of result by the timidity of the Spanish generals. The latter
nevertheless claimed more than their share of the credit, and
Graham answered them with spirit. One of the Spanish officers he
called out, fought and disarmed, and after refusing with contempt
the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he resigned his command in the
south and joined Wellington in Portugal. His seniority as lieutenant-
general made him second in command of Wellington’s army. He took
part in the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, and commanded a wing of the
army in the siege of Badajoz and the advance to Salamanca. In July
1812, his eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he went home, but
rejoined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in the wide-
ranging manœuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria.
Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of San
Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of
September 1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the
command of a corps to be despatched against Antwerp. His assault
on Bergen op Zoom was, however, disastrously repulsed (3rd of
February 1814).

At the peace Graham retired from active military employment. He

was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of the
United Kingdom, but refused the offered pension of £2000 a year. In
1813 he proposed the formation of a military club in London, and
though Lord St Vincent considered such an assemblage of officers to
be unconstitutional, Wellington supported it and the officers of the
army and navy at large received the idea with enthusiasm.
Lynedoch’s portrait, by Sir T. Lawrence, is in possession of this club,
the (Senior) United Service. In his latter years he resumed the habits
of his youth, travelling all over Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so
long as he was able to sit his horse, actively concerned in politics
and voting consistently for liberal measures. At the age of ninety-two
he hastened from Switzerland to Edinburgh to receive Queen Victoria
when she visited Scotland after her marriage. He died in London on
the 18th of December 1843. He had been made a full general in
1821, and at the time of his death was a G.C.B., Colonel of the 1st
(Royal Scots) regiment, and governor of Dumbarton Castle.

See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh,

1877) and Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the
latter’s History of the 90th (Perthshire Volunteers) (London,
1880), Philipparts’ Royal Military Calendar (1820), ii. 147, and
Gentleman’s Magazine, new series, xxi. 197.

LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts, 9 m.

N.E. of Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900)
68,513, of whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609 being English
Canadians, 5306 Irish, 1527 English and 1280 French Canadians),
and 784 were negroes; (1910 census) 89,336. It is served by the
Boston & Maine and the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and
by an interurban electric railway, and has an area of 10.85 sq. m.
The business part is built near the shore on low, level ground, and
the residential sections are on the higher levels. Lynn Woods, a
beautiful park, covers more than 2000 acres. On the shore, which
has a fine boulevard, is a state bath house. The city has a handsome
city hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a soldiers’ monument
and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing city. The first
smelting works in New England were established here in 1643. More
important and earlier was the manufacture of boots and shoes, an
industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kertland, a Buckingham man; a
corporation of shoemakers existed here in 1651, whose papers were
lost in 1765. There were many court orders in the seventeenth
century to butchers, tanners, bootmakers and cordwainers; and the
business was made more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808),
a Welshman who came here in 1750 and whose work was equal to
the best in England. In 1767 the output was 80,000 pairs; in 1795
about 300,000 pairs of women’s shoes were made by 600
journeymen and 200 master workmen. The product of women’s
shoes had become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of
morocco had been introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905
Lynn was second only to Brockton among the cities of the United
States in the value of boots and shoes manufactured, and outranked
Brockton in the three allied industries, the manufacture of boots and
shoes, of cut stock and of findings. In the value of its total
manufactured product Lynn ranked second to Boston in the state in
1905, having been fifth in 1900; the total number of factories in
1905 was 431; their capital was $23,139,185; their employees
numbered 21,540; and their product was valued at $55,003,023 (as
compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent medicines and
compounds and the manufacture of electrical machinery are
prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the General Electric
Company had in 1906 an annual product worth between
$15,000,000 and $20,000,000. The foreign export of manufactured
products is estimated at $5,000,000 a year.

Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637,
when the present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk, the
home of the Rev. Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at Lynn from
1636 until his death. From Lynn Reading was separated in 1644,
Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in 1815, and, after the incorporation of
the city of Lynn in 1850, Swampscott in 1852, and in 1853 Nahant,
S. of Lynn, on a picturesque peninsula and now a fashionable
summer resort.

See James R, Newhall, History of Lynn (Lynn, 1883), and H. K.

Sanderson, Lynn in the Revolution (1910).

LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the

Barnstaple parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the
Bristol Channel; 17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton light
railway, which joins the South Western and Great Western lines at
Barnstaple. Both are favoured as summer resorts. Lynmouth stands
where two small streams, the East Lyn and West Lyn, flow down
deep and well-wooded valleys to the sea. Lynton is on the cliff-edge,
430 ft. above. A lift connects the villages. The industries are fishing
and a small coasting trade. Not far off are the Doone Valley, part of
the vale of the East Lyn, here called Badgeworthy water, once the
stronghold of a notorious band of robbers and famous through R. D.
Blackmore’s novel Lorna Doone; Watersmeet, where two streams,
the Tavy and Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful scenery; and
the Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense boulders.
Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641.

LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. λύγξ, probably connected with λεύοσειν,

to see), a genus of mammals of the family Felidae, by some
naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical
genus Felis (see Carnivora). As an English word (lynx) the name is
used of any animal of this group. It is not certain to which of these,
if to any of them, the Greek name λύγξ was especially applied,
though it was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any of the
northern species. The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were generally
represented as resembling leopards rather than any of the species
now known by the name. Various fabulous properties were
attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by the ancients, that of
extraordinary powers of vision, including ability to see through
opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet “lynx-eyed,”
which has survived to the present day.
 Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of both
the Old and New World; they are smaller than leopards, and larger
than true wild cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted at
the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is
generally long and soft, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their
colour is light brown or grey, and generally spotted with a darker
shade. The naked pads of the feet are more or less covered by the
hair that grows between them. The skull and skeleton do not differ
markedly from those of the other cats. Their habits are exactly those
of the other wild cats. Their food consists of any mammals or birds
which they can overpower. They commit extensive ravages upon
sheep and poultry. They generally frequent rocky places and forests,
being active climbers, and passing much of their time among the
branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable value in the fur
trade. The northern lynx (L. lynx or L. borealis) of Scandinavia,
Russia, northern Asia, and till lately the forest regions of central
Europe, has not inhabited Britain during the historic period, but its
remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene age. Dr W.
T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth relied in
separating the Tibetan lynx (L. isabellinus) from the European
species are probably due to the nature of its habitat among rocks,
and that he himself could find no constant character justifying
separation. The pardine lynx (L. pardinus) from southern Europe is a
very handsome species; its fur is rufous above and white beneath.
 From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot’s Monograph of the Felidae.
European Lynx.

Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly has
been described as the Canadian lynx (L. canadensis); the bay lynx
(L. rufus), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south to Mexico,
with spotted and streaked varieties—L. maculatus in Texas and
southern California, and L. fasciatus in Washington and Oregon. The
first three were regarded by St George Mivart as local races of the
northern lynx. A fifth form, the plateau lynx (L. baileyi), was
described by Dr C. H. Merriam in 1890, but the differences between
it and the bay lynx are slight and unimportant.
 LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American
educationalist, was born on the 28th of February 1797 on a farm
near Buckland, Franklin county, Massachusetts. She began to teach
when she was seventeen, and in 1817, with the earnings from her
spinning and weaving, she went to Sanderson Academy, Ashfield.
She supported herself there, at Amherst Academy, where she spent
one term, and at the girls’ school in Byfield, established in 1819 by
Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in 1821, by teaching
in district schools and by conducting informal normal schools. In
1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson Academy, and
then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant’s Adams Female Academy, in
Londonderry (now Derry), N.H. This school had only summer
sessions, and Miss Lyon spent her winters in teaching, especially at
Buckland and at Ashfield, and in studying chemistry and natural
science with Edward Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 she
taught in Miss Grant’s school, which in 1828 had been removed to
Ipswich, and for two years managed the school in Miss Grant’s
absence. In 1828-1830 she had kept up her winter “normal” school
at Buckland, and this was the beginning of her greater plan, “a
permanent institution consecrated to the training of young women
for usefulness ... designed to furnish every advantage which the
state of education in this country will allow ... to put within reach of
students of moderate means such opportunities that none can find
better.” She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock, and her own mystical
enthusiasm and practical common sense secured for her plan ready
financial support. In 1835 a site was selected near the village of
South Hadley and Mount Holyoke; in 1836 the school was
incorporated as Mount Holyoke Female Seminary; and on the 8th of
November 1837 it opened with Mary Lyon as principal, and, as
assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell, afterwards well known as Mrs J. P.
Cowles of Ipswich Academy. Miss Lyon died at Mount Holyoke on the
5th of March 1849, having served nearly twelve years as principal of
the seminary, on a salary of $200 a year. From her work at Holyoke
sprang modern higher education for women in America.

See Edward Hitchcock, Life and Labors of Mary Lyon (1851);

B. B. Gilchrist, Life of Mary Lyon (Boston, 1910).

LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was

born in Ashford, Connecticut, on the 14th of July 1818, and
graduated at West Point in 1841. He was engaged in the Seminole
War and the war with Mexico, won the brevet of captain for his
gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and was wounded in the
assault on the city of Mexico. In 1850, while serving in California, he
conducted a successful expedition against the Indians. He was
promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the
East, when he became an ardent opponent of “States’ Rights” and
slavery. He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the eve of the
Civil War. In Missouri not only was sentiment divided, but the two
factions were eager to resort to force long before they were in the
other border states. Lyon took an active part in organizing the Union
party in Missouri, though greatly hampered, at first by the Federal
government which feared to provoke hostilities, and afterwards by
the military commander of the department, General W. S. Harney.
On Harney’s removal in April 1861, Lyon promptly assumed the
command, called upon Illinois to send him troops, and mustered the
Missouri contingent into the United States’ service. He broke up the
militia camp at St Louis established by the secessionist governor of
Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, and but for the express prohibition of
Harney, who had resumed the command, would have proceeded at
once to active hostilities. In all this Lyon had co-operated closely
with Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from President Lincoln the
definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of Lyon to
command the Department of the West, with the rank of brigadier-
general. On Lyon’s refusal to accede to the Secessionists’ proposal
that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in earnest, and
Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the central
part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where a
Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border. The two
forces came to action at Wilson’s Creek on the 10th of August 1861.
The Union forces, heavily outnumbered, were defeated, and Lyon
himself was killed while striving to rally his troops. He bequeathed
almost all he possessed, some $30,000, to the war funds of the
national government.

See A. Woodward, Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon

(Hartford, 1862); James Peckham, Life of Lyon (New York,
1866); and T. L. Snead, The Fight for Missouri (New York, 1886).
 Also Last Political Writings of General Nathaniel Lyon (New York,
1862).

LYONNESSE, Lyonesse, Leonnoys or Leonais, a legendary country

off the south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is the scene of
many incidents in the Arthurian romances, and especially in the
romances of Tristram and Iseult. It also plays an important part in
purely Cornish tradition and folk-lore. Early English chronicles, such
as the Chronicon e chronicis of Florence of Worcester, who died in
1118, described minutely and without a suggestion of disbelief the
flourishing state of Lyonnesse, and its sudden disappearance
beneath the sea. The legend may be a greatly exaggerated version
of some actual subsidence of inhabited land. There is also a very
ancient local tradition, apparently independent of the story of
Lyonnesse, that the Scilly Islands formed part of the Cornish
mainland within historical times.

See Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis,

&c., ed. B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849).
 LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, Baron (1790-1858), British
admiral, was born at Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire, on the
21st of November 1790. He entered the navy, and served in the
Mediterranean, and afterwards in the East Indies, where in 1810 he
won promotion by distinguished bravery. He became post-captain in
1814, and in 1826 commanded the “Blonde” frigate at the blockade
of Navarino, and took part with the French in the capture of Kasteo
Morea. Shortly before his ship was paid off in 1835 he was knighted.
From 1840 till 1853 Lyons was employed on the diplomatic service,
being successively minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden. On
the outbreak of the war with Russia he was appointed second in
command of the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas,
whom he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of
the inshore squadron he had the direction of the landing of the
troops in the Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy
and despatch. According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the “intimate
counsels” of Lord Raglan in regard to the most momentous
questions of the war, and toiled, with a “painful consuming passion,”
to achieve the object of the campaign. His principal actual
achievements in battle were two—the support he rendered with his
guns to the French at the Alma in attacking the left flank of the
Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took with his ship the
“Agamemnon” in the first bombardment of the forts of Sebastopol;
but his constant vigilance, his multifarious activity, and his
suggestions and counsels were much more advantageous to the
allied cause than his specific exploits. In 1855 he was created vice-
admiral; in June 1856 he was raised to the peerage with the title of
Baron Lyons of Christchurch. He died on the 23rd of November
1858.

See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R. N., Life of Lord Lyons (1898).

LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS,

1st Earl (1817-1887), British diplomatist, son of the preceding, was
born at Lymington on the 26th of April 1817. He entered the
diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was British minister at
Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil War, the
extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of the
Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer “Trent”
devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople, he
succeeded Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the war of
1870 he used his best efforts as a mediator, and accompanied the
provisional government to Tours. He continued to hold his post with
universal acceptance until November 1887. He died on the 5th of
December 1887, when the title became extinct.
 LYONS (Fr. Lyon), a city of eastern France, capital of the
department of Rhône, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of
Marseilles on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186;
commune, 472,114. Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in
commercial and military importance, is situated at the confluence of
the Rhone and the Saône at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above
sea-level. The rivers, both flowing south, are separated on the north
by the hill on which lies the populous working quarter of Croix-
Rousse, then by the narrow tongue of land ending in the Perrache
Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is over 3 m. long and from 650
to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed lengthwise by the finest streets of
the city, the rue de la République, the rue de l’Hôtel de Ville, and the
rue Victor Hugo. Where it enters Lyons the Saône has on its right
the faubourg of Vaise and on its left that of Serin, whence the ascent
is made to the top of the hill of Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right
bank is bordered by the scarped heights of Fourvière, St Irénée, Ste
Foy, and St Just, leaving room only for the quays and one or two
narrow streets; this is the oldest part of the city. The river sweeps in
a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. above it), which is
occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and has at its
summit the famous church of Notre-Dame de Fourvière, the resort of
many thousands of pilgrims annually.
 On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of
Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the Terreaux,
containing the hôtel de ville, and the chief commercial
establishments; the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the
Place Bellecour, one of the finest squares in France; and the
Perrache. The Rhone and Saône formerly met on the site of this
quarter, till, in the 18th century, the sculptor Perrache reclaimed it;
on the peninsula thus formed stands the principal railway station,
the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, the most extensive
promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here, too, are the
docks of the Saône, factories, the arsenal, gas-works and prisons.
The Rhone, less confined than the Saône, flows swiftly in a wide
channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets. On
the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to Croix-Rousse,
and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and Perrache; on the
left it has a low-lying plain, occupied by the Parc de la Tête d’Or and
the quarters of Brotteaux and Guillotière. The park, together with its
lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a zoological collection,
botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the finest greenhouses in
France, with unique collections of orchids, palm-trees and
Cycadaceae. It is defended from the Rhone by the Quai de la Tête
d’Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates it from
the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential quarter. Guillotière
to the south consists largely of workmen’s dwellings, bordering wide,
airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing suburbs of
Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the
demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on
the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhone, the extension
of the city into the plain of Dauphiné being unhindered.
 The Rhone and the Saône are bordered by fine quays and crossed
by 24 bridges—11 over the Rhone, 12 over the Saône, and 1 at the
confluence. Of these the Pont du Change over the Saône and the
Pont de la Guillotière over the Rhone have replaced medieval
bridges, the latter of the two preserving a portion of the old
structure.

Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourvière is the most

celebrated. The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the
9th century on the site of the old forum (forum vetus) from which it
takes its name. It has been often rebuilt, the chief
Public feature being a modern Romanesque tower
Buildings. surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin.
In 1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token
of the gratitude of the city for having escaped occupation by the
German troops. The building, finished in 1894, consists of a nave
without aisles flanked at each exterior corner by a turret and
terminating in an apse. The façade, the lower half of which is a lofty
portico supported on four granite columns, is richly decorated on its
upper half with statuary and sculpture. Marble and mosaic have
been lavishly used in the ornamentation of the interior and of the
crypt. Round the apse runs a gallery from which, according to an old
custom, a benediction is pronounced upon the town annually on the
8th of September. From this gallery a magnificent view of the city
and the surrounding country can be obtained. At the foot of the hill
of Fourvière rises the cathedral of St Jean, one of the finest
examples of early Gothic architecture in France. Begun in the 12th
century, to the end of which the transept and choir belong, it was
not finished till the 15th century, the gable and flanking towers of
the west front being completed in 1480. A triple portal surmounted
by a line of arcades and a rose window gives entrance to the church.
Two additional towers, that to the north containing one of the
largest bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept. The
nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the 13th and 14th
centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis or of
Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant
Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved
since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon
between the Greek and Latin churches. Adjoining St Jean is the
ancient Manécanterie or singers’ house, much mutilated and
frequently restored, but still preserving graceful Romanesque
arcades along its front. St Martin d’Ainay, on the peninsula, is the
oldest church in Lyons, dating from the beginning of the 6th century
and subsequently attached to a Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in
the 10th and 11th centuries and restored in modern times, and is
composed of a nave with four aisles, a transept and choir
terminating in three semicircular apses ornamented with paintings
by Hippolyte Flandrin, a native of Lyons. The church is surmounted
by two towers, one in the middle of the west front, the other at the
crossing; the four columns supporting the latter are said to have
come from an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the 12th century, a
high altar decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved
confessional are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in
the heart of the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the crypt
in which St Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a
Gothic edifice of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch,
constructed by Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th
century. The Church of St Paul (12th and 15th centuries), situated
on the right bank of the Saône, preserves an octagonal central tower
and other portions of Romanesque architecture; that of St
Bonaventure, originally a chapel of the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the
15th and 19th centuries. With the exception of the imposing
prefecture, the vast buildings of the faculties, which are in the
Guillotière quarter, and the law court, the colonnade of which
overlooks the Saône from its right bank, the chief civil buildings are
in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east side of this square
(so called from the terreaux or earth with which the canal formerly
connecting the Rhone and the Saône hereabouts was filled) is
formed by the hôtel de ville (17th century), the east façade of
which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south
side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the
17th century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the
school of fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture,
archaeology and natural history, and the library of science, arts and
industry. The museums are second in importance only to those of
Paris. The collection of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions,
contains the bronze tablets discovered in 1528, on which is engraved
a portion of a speech delivered in a.d. 48, by the emperor Claudius,
advocating the admission of citizens of Gallia Comata to the Roman
senate. The “Ascension,” a masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief
treasure of the art collection, in which are works by nearly all the
great masters. A special gallery contains the works of artists of
Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine Berjon, Meissonier, Paul
Chenavard, Puvis de Chavannes. In the Rue de la République,
between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, each
of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the
Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern
buildings of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the
ground floor round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys
accommodate the commercial tribunal, the council of trade
arbitration, the chamber of commerce and the Musée historique des
Tissus, in which the history of the weaving industry is illustrated by
nearly 400,000 examples. In the buildings of the lycée on the right
bank of the Rhone are the municipal library and a collection of
globes, among them the great terrestrial globe made at Lyons in
1701, indicating the great African lakes.

The Hôtel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning

of the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief
charitable establishments in the city. The present building dates from
the 18th century; its façade, fronting the west quay of the Rhone for
over 1000 ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot,
architect of the Pantheon at Paris. The Hospice de la Charité and the
military hospital are on the same bank slightly farther down stream.
The Hospice de l’Antiquaille, at Fourvière, occupies the site of the
palace of the praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and
Caracalla were born. Each of these hospitals contains more than
1000 beds. Lyons has many other benevolent institutions, and is also
the centre of the operations of the Société de la Propagation de la
Foi. The chief monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in
the Place Bellecour, the monuments of President Carnot, Marshal
Suchet, the physicist André-Marie Ampère, and those in honour of
the Republic and in memory of the citizens of the department who
fell in the war of 1870-71. The most noteworthy fountain is that in
the Place des Terreaux with the leaden group by Bartholdi
representing the rivers on their way to the ocean.

There are Roman remains—baths, tombs and the relics of a

theatre—in the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saône. Three
ancient aqueducts on the Fourvière level, from Montromant, Mont
d’Or and Mont Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent remains of the
latter work may be seen at St Irénée and Chaponost. Traces also
exist along the Rhone of a subterranean canal conveying the water
of the river to a naumachia (lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa
made Lyons the starting-point of the principal Roman roads
throughout Gaul; and it remains an important centre in the general
system of communication owing to its position on the natural
highway from north to south-eastern France. The Saône above the
town and the Rhone below have large barge and steamboat traffic.
The main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway runs first
through the station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saône, and
thence to that of Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next
in importance, that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux
quarter, and the line of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d’Aoste has
a terminus at Guillotière; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon
main line. The railway to Montbrison starts from the terminus of St
Paul in Fourvière and that to Bourg, Trévoux and the Dombes region
from the station of Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray
and Mornant has a terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system
of street tramways, cable tramways (ficelles) run to the summits of
the eminences cf Croix-Rousse, Fourvière and St Just.

Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of

France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The
immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side
by a modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to
this is a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an
advanced position at the village of Bron), and on the west by a
line of detached forts, not of recent design, along the high
ground on the right bank of the Saône. Some older forts and a
portion of the old enceinte are still kept up in the city itself, and
two of these forts, Montessuy and Caluire, situated on the
peninsula, serve with their annexes to connect the northern
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